J Fail. Anal. and Preven.
(2018) 18:1607–1615
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11668-018-0559-5
TECHNICAL ARTICLE—PEER-REVIEWED
Study of Creep–Fatigue Crack Growth Behavior in a Gas Turbine
Casing
Esmaeil Poursaeidi . Amin Kavandi . Kaveh Torkashvand
Submitted: 20 April 2018 / in revised form: 12 September 2018 / Published online: 5 November 2018
 ASM International 2018
Abstract A creep–fatigue crack growth on the outer
surfaces of a turbine casing was assessed, and the turbine
casing’s overall lifetime was predicted. The crack location,
size, and direction were determined using nondestructive
tests. Temperature distribution, measured using thermog-
raphy method, was applied as boundary conditions in FEM
simulation. ABAQUS software was utilized for calculating
the stress distribution of the casing in accordance with the
real cycles of the turbine. Both the creep and the fatigue
crack growths were predicted using the ZENCRACK code.
The Paris equation was applied in order to estimate the
fatigue life, and the time-dependent Paris equation was
used to predict the creep life. It was shown that after a
certain amount of time has passed, the crack stress intensity
factor (K) and time-dependent stress intensity factor (Ct)
decrease and stop in reaching the fatigue threshold stress
intensity factor (Kth) and creep fracture mechanics
parameter (C*t ) values, respectively.
Keywords Creep  Fatigue  Crack growth 
Turbine casing  Finite element analysis
Introduction
The GE-F9 is an axial gas turbine, which consists of three
blades and nozzle rows in the turbine part and seventeen
stator and rotor blade rows in the compressor part. The
maximum output power of the generator is 123.4 [MW],
with an output voltage of 13.8 [KV], a nominal current of
E. Poursaeidi (&)  A. Kavandi  K. Torkashvand
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran
e-mail: e.poursaeidi@znu.ac.ir
6443 [A], and a generator speed of 3000 [rpm] [1–3]. The
casing consists of two semi-casings, which are made of
ductile cast iron and connected by flanges to each other [3].
Creep and fatigue are two of the most common causes of
failure in gas turbines [4]. High stress under high-temper-
ature conditions leads to the creep phenomenon, and
extreme temperature changes contribute to thermal fatigue
[3–5]. The existence of such factors causes a limitation in
the lifetime of the turbine components, so having lifetime
estimations for each component is essential for an opti-
mized utilization. In the industrial gas turbines, the
components go under cyclic loads because of the frequent
startup and shutdown processes. Moreover, the components
working under high temperatures and being exposed to the
creep phenomenon have a time-dependent failure, so these
components are designed based on the allowed strain or the
rupture strain [1].
By studying the behavior of creep and fatigue crack
growth, the lifetime of turbine component could be pre-
dictable [6, 7]. Torshizi and Jahangiri [8] analyzed the
propagation steps of a creep–fatigue crack on the nozzle
junction. Kruch et al. [9] performed an experiment and a
numerical analysis based on FEM to study the crack
propagation, under creep and fatigue loading. Raju and
Newman [10] modeled a cylindrical conjunction using the
exponential model for creep with the analytic method and
compared the various estimation results with the results of
FEM. Kanchanomai et al. [11] examined the effect of creep
and crack growth in mode I on lead–tin eutectic alloys. In
1996, Poquillon et al. [12] studied the numerical simulation
of the creep–fatigue crack initiation and growth on the
316L stainless steel. Salari et al. [13] studied fatigue crack
growth of a reinforced cylindrical shell subjected to ran-
dom loading. Stress analysis of the shell was carried out
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using ABAQUS. Fatigue crack growth was simulated in 3D
using ZENCRACK, and the fatigue life was estimated. In
2004, Hyde et al. [14] studied the creep crack growth of CT
tension specimens using the numerical method. In this
study, the finite element analysis was done in steady state
and the creep behavior was investigated by the Norton
equation. Nikbin et al. [15] studied the creep information
for mono-axial carbon–manganese steel with 9% of
chrome in a temperature of 360 centigrade degrees. In this
study, C* parameter was used for the assessment of the (C-
Mn) steel creep crack behavior. Tan et al. [16] studied the
creep crack growth information for some materials,
including P22, 1CMV, 316LN, and P91, in order to esti-
mate the lifetime of cracked components in high-
performance temperature. They indicated that the results of
the crack’s initiation as well as its growth are fully
describable by the C* parameter. Wasmer et al. [17] studied
the failure and the creep cracks growth in under-pressure
pipes and in high-performance temperature piping systems
in 2017. Zhao et al. [18] used FEM to predict the lifetime
of a turbine rotor. They studied stress distribution of the
rotor using ABAQUS and discussed the effect of a damage
caused by the interaction of creep and fatigue.
In the present study, the location, direction, and size of a
crack on the outer surface of a GE-Frame9 gas turbine
casing were determined using nondestructive test. A finite
element model was built in order to study the behavior of
creep–fatigue growth of the detected crack. The tempera-
ture changes occurring over a normal cycle of the gas
turbine were measured using thermography method, and
measured data were used as input of FEM model. CTOD
method was implemented in order to calculate the stress
intensity factors. Moreover, the Paris and time-dependent
Fig. 1 Side section view of the gas turbine [2]
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J Fail. Anal. and Preven. (2018) 18:1607–1615
Paris equations were used to estimate the fatigue and creep
life, respectively. The interaction of creep and fatigue was
calculated, and the growth rate of the crack was discussed.
Determination of Performance Conditions
A gas turbine is commonly a two- or three-stage axial
turbine with an air-cooled system [19]. The cooling air is
provided by two centrifuge fans in two sides of the turbine
cabin [2]. The cooling process is shown schematically in
Fig. 1.
In this project, a GE-F9 gas turbine, which is located in
Shahid Rajaee combinational cycle power plant in Iran,
was studied. The casing of this turbine has been cracked in
both inner and outer sides. Each semi-casing has a semi-
cylinder shape with thick wall, an inner diameter of 3
meters and an approximate weight of 6 tons [3]. The crack
positions are almost visible with the naked eye (Fig. 2).
The results of chemical analysis related to the sample
obtained from the turbine’s outer casing are provided in
Table 1 [3].
The mentioned results resemble those of the A395 cast
iron with an appropriate approximation. This cast iron
belongs to the ductile cast iron group and can be regarded
as ferrite ductile cast iron. The properties of A395 cast iron
are shown in Table 2 [20].
The turbine goes through the three stages of a startup,
baseload, and shutdown in each cycle. So, in each cycle,
the turbine experiences the three stages of transient tem-
perature increase, steady-state temperature, and transient
temperature decrease. The temperature of the semi-casings’
outer surface was measured using two kinds of Fluke
J Fail. Anal. and Preven. (2018) 18:1607–1615 1609

Table 2 Mechanical properties of the ASTM A395 ductile cast iron

Tensile Tensile Modulus of
Hardness strength, strength, elasticity Poisson’s
(Brinell) ultimate (MPa) yield (MPa) (GPa) ratio

167 461 329 165 0.29

number of elements. The C3d8RT elements were chosen

for element types. Figure 6b shows the mesh of casing.
The sub-modeling technique is used for analyzing a
partial region of the model. In this approach, first, the
model is analyzed by employing a relatively coarse
meshing called global model; subsequently, the boundary
conditions of the sub-model are applied from the outputs of
global model (Fig. 7).
Fig. 2 Crack in casing identified after penetrant testing
Figure 8a shows the stress for the outer surface in the
stress concentration region for a typical cycle. During the
model thermo-vision cameras. One of the photographs of
startup, the outer surfaces have a lower temperature com-
the thermography is shown in Fig. 3 where the unit was
pared to the inner surfaces so the stress on the casing’s
under an 80 MW load.
outer surfaces will be positive in this step. During working
Moreover, for measuring the temperature of the casing’s
time because of the constant thermal gradient, the outer
inner surface, 10 K-type thermocouples with a thermal
surface is under a constant tensional stress. Shutting down
range of 0 to 1100 C were installed on the gas turbine
process is the reverse of starting up so during shutdown the
casing. Figure 4 shows the thermocouple installation
stress on the casing’s outer surfaces will be negative.
positions in which the sensors’ tip has been pitched into the
The whole duration of a turbine’s performance cycle
bolts.
was considered to be about 90,000 s, and it has been
The diagram in Fig. 5 shows the changes in the tem-
assumed that the turbine went under load in 10,000 s,
perature of outer surface of the casing measured by the
worked for 25,000 s and unloaded in 55,000 s.
thermocouples in terms of time during one cycle, including
The melting temperature for ductile cast iron is 1477 K
shutdown (a) and start up (b) for a specific point on the
[21] and the temperature of the crack region is about
casing’s outer surface, which is approximately located in
623 K, so the temperature of the crack region is about
the place of the shroud segments of the first row.
0.421 times of the melting temperature. Considering the
previous explanations, the chosen area has all of the
required factors for the creep phenomenon including time,
Numerical Analysis
stress, and the temperature factors.
According to the time-based stress changes in Fig. 8a,
The ductile cast iron properties—which were provided to
during the time of turbine’s start up, the value of stress
the ABAQUS software—are presented in Table 3.
increases, meets the maximum value of tensional stress,
It should be noted that due to the minor changes in the
and then decreases, which could lead to the fatigue crack
properties within the temperature range used in this mod-
propagation. During the working hours, because of the
eling, they were assumed to be the same during the
constant positive stress, the creep phenomenon could affect
simulation. The diagram of Fig. 6a shows the value of von
the growth of the crack. Since the compressive stress has
Mises stress which was obtained for an element on the
no effect on the crack propagation, at the time of the tur-
casing’s inner surface in terms of the number of elements
bine’s shutdown there is no crack growth. These
used in meshing. As it can be seen in Fig. 6, for almost
explanations are shown in a schematic way in the diagrams
350,000 elements, the results are independent of the
of Fig. 9a and b.

Table 1 Chemical analysis results of the casing

C Si Mn Ni Cr Mo V Cu Ti As Sn Co Al Nb Bi Mg Fe

3.344 2.701 0.136 0.082 0.12 0.003 0.044 0.351 0.038 0.003 0.006 0.033 0.016 0.004 0.002 0.057 93

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Fig. 3 Temperature contours are taken by a thermograph camera (a). Schematic view of temperature distribution on the outer surface of the
casing (b)

Fig. 4 (a) The thermocouple installed on the position of the eccentric pin. (b) Position of installed thermocouples on the casing

Fig. 5 Temperature variations measured by thermocouples as a function of time, (a) during an emergency shutdown and (b) during starting up

Table 3 The ductile cast iron properties

Density Young’s modulus Poisson’s ratio Expansion coeff alpha Thermal conductivity Specific heat

7100 (Kg/m3) 169 (GPa) 0.29 1.35e5 (1/C) 75 (W/m k) 515 (J/kg k)

We used the method introduced in [22] to assess the as a function of Ct integral and linear superposition damage
growth of the fatigue crack. In this paper, the time-de- model was used in order to study the interaction of creep
pendent Paris equation was used for the creep crack growth and fatigue.

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Fig. 6 (a) The amount of von Mises stress for a single point on the casing’s inner surface in terms of the number of elements (b) the meshed
model of casing

Fig. 7 (a) The results of von Mises stress distribution around the crack location, (b) stress distribution around the crack location

Fig. 8 Stress variation along a turbine working cycle, in a point on the position of the eccentric pin hole, (a) casing’s outer surface and (b)
casing’s inner surface

The stress intensity factor can be calculated at each 4 KI2

point in the direction of the crack front using the J-integral CTOD ¼ ðEq 1Þ
p Erys
method, and at the LEFM state, crack tip opening dis-
placement (CTOD) solution is applicable [23, 24].

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Fig. 9 (a) A schematic diagram of the effect of creep during the functioning time of turbine. (b) Thermal changes as a function of time for a
node in stress concentration region

3D Crack Growth Simulation

where n and C are material constants. After the transition
time, the value of Ct approaches the C*. Further details are
In this study, for crack growth stimulation, large crack
explained in [4, 27, 28].
growth method and a crack block with (105_q672x8) code
In Fig. 11b, given the fact that turbine working hours is
were used [25]. Then the fatigue and creep crack growth equal to 87,600 (within 20 years), in which creep crack
properties were introduced to the software [26]. In Fig. 10a
growth is less than 0.77 mm, the creep crack growth is
the crack growth path and in Fig. 10b the opening of the
estimated during 3000 cycles; in Fig. 11a, the crack growth
crack’s front are shown. is calculated for 3000 cycles, in which the crack grows
Figure 11a, b and c shows some views of the crack
about 2.38 mm under fatigue conditions.
front. According to Fig. 11a, the crack front lines get more
According to Fig. 12, the effect of fatigue on the crack
closed at the end of the path which is indicative of a crack growth is more significant than the creep. Equation 4 is
growth rate decreasing by time. First, the stress intensity
used in order to investigate the interaction of creep and
factor decreases due to the longitudinal growth of the
fatigue [29].
crack—which in and of itself leads to the reduction of      
stress value—and then, it decreases the growth rate of the da da da
¼ þ ðEq 3Þ
crack. In Fig. 11b and c the crack growth path is shown dN total dN fatigue dN creep
from another view. da h im
It can be seen in these pictures that the crack doesn’t Da ¼ ¼ C ðDK Þn þA ðCt Þavg th ðEq 4Þ
dN
follow a straight path which approves the crack growth
behavior shown in Fig. 2. where C, A, n, and m are material constants and th is the
In order to evaluate the effect of creep on crack growth, duration of the loading cycle.
the performance of the casing was studied during 3000 In Fig. 12 under creep condition, the time required for
cycles (20-year period) using the time-dependent Paris crack to grow to 2.38, which is equal to the value of fatigue
equation [23]. crack growth, has been calculated.
According to the diagram of Fig. 12, the crack under the
da
¼ C ðCt Þn ðEq 2Þ creep conditions will grow 2.38 mm after 370,762 working
dt hours. This means that the creep crack and fatigue crack
grow 6.42 9 106 [mm/h] and 7.93 9 104 [mm/cycle] by

Fig. 10 (a) Crack growth path

and (b) crack’s front opening

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Fig. 11 Crack front
Fig. 12 The crack growth is calculated during 3000 cycles. (a) Fatigue crack, (b) creep crack
the average value, respectively. So crack growth in each
fatigue cycle equals to 123.5 working hours under creep
conditions. Fatigue lifetime is calculated using the linear
superposition model according to Eq 5.
1 1 1 In Fig. 14, stress intensity factor changes in terms of
¼ þ ðEq 5Þ
Nf Nffatigue NfCreep
In this model, the damage which has been caused by
three failure mechanisms, including creep, fatigue and
oxidation, is superposed. In this project, it is assumed that
the effect of oxidation is negligible. In Eq 5, Nf is the
material’s fatigue lifetime, which is representative of the
number of loading cycles before the failure time. For a
crack growth of about 2.38 [mm] by having Nfatigue f from
Table 4 The time required for the propagation of crack by 2.38 [mm]
Creep–fatigue interaction Fatigue Creep
13.6 (years) 20 (years) 43 (years)
1613
the diagram in Fig. 13a and Ncreepf from Fig. 14 and by
replacing in Eq 5, the value of Nf can be calculated, which
equals to 2071 cycles. The effect of creep, fatigue, and the
creep–fatigue interaction is shown in Table 4.
crack length are shown.
As shown in Fig. 14, given the crack direction and the
fact that crack growth has occurred in mode 1, it can be
concluded that the stress components perpendicular to the
crack plane can be recognized as the effective factor on the
crack growth. Stress intensity factor has the maximum
value in point A of the diagram in Fig. 14 and after that
stress intensity factor decreases while the crack grows until
it reaches an amount less than Kth in point B, where the
crack is arrested. The diagram of crack growth in terms of
the number of cycles is shown in Fig. 15. It can be seen
that the crack arrests after about 380,000 cycles.
In Fig. 16 the diagrams of ddat in terms of Ct and ddaN in
terms of stress intensity factor are shown. Crack arresting
could be interpreted from Fig. 16a and b.
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Fig. 13 Creep crack growth as

a function of time

Conclusions

Stress analysis was conducted based on real boundary

conditions, and the growth of the creep–fatigue crack was
studied and it is concluded that
• Regarding the results of stress analysis, the growth of
the cracks located on the outer surface of the casing is
due to creep and fatigue phenomenon. Since the
casing’s outer surface is exposed to tensional stress at
the time of performance and due to the high-perfor-
mance temperature, all conditions will be suitable for
the creep phenomenon to appear.
• The effect of fatigue phenomenon on crack growth is
Fig. 14 Stress intensity factor changes as a function of crack length more significant than the creep phenomenon. By
average, the crack growth rate under the creep, fatigue
and the interaction of fatigue–creep circumstances is

Fig. 15 Crack growth diagram

as a function of cycle number

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Fig. 16 (a) Diagram da/dN as a function of stress intensity factor. (b) Diagram of da/dt as a function of Ct
1.8 9 104, 7.9 9 104 and 9.766 9 106 [mm/cy-
cle], respectively.
• The crack growth is mainly under mode I, and it will be
arrested after about 380,000 cycles.
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