Chapter 2 - 2.5 - Biofuels As Alternative Fuels For Transportation Vehicles

4/23/2021
2.5. Biofuels as alternative fuels for

transportation vehicles
2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

2.5.2. Pure plant oil and biodiesel
2.5.3. Others
✓ Introduction
Feedstocks for bioethanol production
Corn Cassava Sugarcane
(Source:http://www.tintucnongnghiep.com/2014/ (Source:https://www.infomagic.com/kerala-
07/gia-ngo-tang-tro-lai-khi-nha-au-tu-can.html) classifieds/animal-agriculture-kerala/Tapioca-for- (Source:http://www.thaibizchina.com/thaibizchina/th/china-
sale-at-Thiruvananthapuram/27172327) economic-business/result.php?SECTION_ID=469&ID=6407)
Swichtgrass Forest Products and Residues Agricultural Residues
(Source:https://www.plantsmap.com/organiza (Source:http://www.zn903.com/syleu/)
tions/24727/plants/34228/switchgrass-34228) (Source:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/F
ile:Straw_of_the_rice.08Oct9.jpg)
1
4/23/2021
Thermal and biological routes to bioethanol
Bioethanol plant
UK Bioethanol plant based on sugar beet Cellulosic ethanol facility in USA
(Source: https://global.mongabay.com/news/bioenergy/2007/11/uk- (Source: https://www.vogelbusch-biocommodities.com/assets/4-

opens-first-bioethanol-plant-based.html) References/AbengoaUS/_resampled/CroppedFocusedImageWyIzNTAi
LCIyMTgiXQ/4-hugoton.jpg)
2
4/23/2021
Global ethanol production Number of FFV in US
 93%
(Source:https://bioenergyinternational.com/biofuels-oils/ethanol-development-in-china)
(Source: EIA annual energy outlook 2012)
Biofuels supply potential

Survey result of Vietnam, by Tuyen-san
Ethanol unit 2015 2020 2025 2030 notes
Sugar cane mil.t 18.0 25.5 Mainly for sugar industry
Cassava mil.t 11.0 12.7 - 16.5 (dried cassava for

ethanol production)
(3.6) (4.8) (5.4)
Corn 5.28 7.50 Mainly for food & animal
Feedstock total mil.t 11.0 12.7 - 16.5

Nr. of plants - 2 6
Capacity bil.L 0.17 0.52
Ethanol total bil.L 0.17 0.52
Biodiesel unit 2015 2020 2025 2030 notes
Palm mil.t - - - -
Coconuts mil.t - - - -
Feedstock total mil.t - - - -
Nr. of plants - - - - -
Capacity bil.L - - - -
Biodiesel total bil.L - - - -
3
4/23/2021
✓ Bioethanol as fuel for SI engine

Gasohol ethanol Blending properties
ASTM D4806 Standard Specification for Denatured Fuel Ethanol for Blending with Gasoline
for Use as Automotive Spark Ignition Engine Fuel
ASTM D5798-11 Standard Specification for Ethanol Fuel Blends for Flexible-Fuel
Automotive Spark-Ignition Engines
4
4/23/2021
Comparison of typical properties
Comparison of typical properties

Property E0 E5 E10 E20 E30
Density (kg/l at 15.50C) 0.7575 0.7591 0.7608 0.7645 0.7682
Octan number (RON) 95.4 96.7 98.1 100.7 102.4
RVP (kPa at 37.80C) 53.7 59.3 59.6 58.3 56.8
Sulphur content (wt%) 0.0061 0.0059 0.0055 0.0049 0.0045
Lead content (g/l) < 0.0025 < 0.0025 < 0.025 < 0.0025 <0.0025
Distillation temperature (0C)
IBP 35.5 36.5 39.5 36.7 39.5
t10 54.5 49.7 54.8 52.8 54.8
t50 94.4 88.0 72.4 70.3 72.4
t90 167.3 167.7 159.3 163 159.3
EBP 197.0 202.5 198.3 198.6 198.3
Heating value (MJ/kg) 43 42.2 41.4 39.4 36.7
5
4/23/2021
The change in octane number and Vapour pressure of blends along ethanol content
Octane number (RON)
(Source: http://fuel.aytash.com/)
Fuel system configurations of SI engine

Car
Carburator fuel system
Motorcycle
(Source:https://www.slideshare.net/autonura/troubleshooti
ng-of-internal-combustion-engine)
6
4/23/2021
Fuel system configurations of SI engine
Multipoint fuel injection system

Gasoline direct injection system
(Source:https://www.thinglink.com/scene/728206934917775360)
(Source:http://fourtitude.com/news/Industry_News_3/direct-injection-
for-powerful-economic-and-clean-gasoline-engines/)
Material compatibility of SI engine components with bioethanol-gasoline blends
Immersion test based on SAE J1747, SAE J1748 recommendations.

Car model 1990s year.
After 2000h immersing
Cast iron Brass-like main jet
Tarnished a
little more
Similar
Gasoline E10
Gasoline E10
Electrical connection of electric fuel pump
Tarnished a Micro structure of surface of main jet
little more Pit and
chap
Gasoline E10
Gasoline E10
(Source: Le Anh Tuan, Final report of project on the compatibility of
conventional gasoline automotive engines with ethanol/gasoline fuel in which
concentration of E100 is higher than 5%, 2013)
7
4/23/2021
After 2000h immersing
Rubber membrane of acceleration pump Plastic fuel meter connector

Distorted and
swelled more
Similar
Gasoline E10
Gasoline E10
Paper filter
Increase in weight
Reduction in weight
Similar
Gasoline E10 Reduce in weight of float Increase in weight of filter paper,
seal and membrane of pump
(Source: Le Anh Tuan, Final report of project on the compatibility of

conventional gasoline automotive engines with ethanol/gasoline fuel in which
concentration of E100 is higher than 5%, 2013)
The effect of E10 on the components of carbureted and injected automotive fuel
system:
• Generally, the components immersed in these test fuels had the same change
in appearance.
• However, with the higher oxygen content, E10 has higher oxidation ability. This
caused a little stronger corrosion and tarnishing for brass or copper material
and swelling for rubber material, especially for the components of carbureted
fuel system.
• The change in weight of polymeric components immersed in both fuels was
normally less than 5%.
8
4/23/2021
Before and after 2000h immersing in E20 + 1% corrosive water
(Source: Orbital Engine Company, A Testing Based Assessment to Determine Impacts of a

20% Ethanol Gasoline Fuel Blend on the Australian Passenger Vehicle Fleet – 2000hrs
Material Compatibility Testing, Report to Environment Australia, 2003)
Before and after 2000h immersing in E20 + 1% corrosive water
(Source: Orbital Engine Company, A Testing Based Assessment to Determine Impacts of a

20% Ethanol Gasoline Fuel Blend on the Australian Passenger Vehicle Fleet – 2000hrs
Material Compatibility Testing, Report to Environment Australia, 2003)
9
4/23/2021
Summary of materials compatibility testing (in case of old model cars) with
E20 as follows:
• For metallic fuel system components that have exhibited corrosion when in
contact with E20 fuel.
• For all the brass fuel system and electrical components that were tarnished
indicating an oxidation process had occurred.
• For polymeric materials found to have significant changes in appearance
due to contact with E20 fuel.
Ethanol & E85 Material Compatibility
10
4/23/2021
Ethanol & E85 Material Compatibility
Effect of bioethanol on SI engine performance and emissions

rpm
Volumetric Efficiency
Air/Fuel ratio
rpm
Ethanol content (%) Ethanol content (%)

Specific fuel Consumption (g/kWh)
Torque (Nm)
rpm

Source: M. Al-Hasan, Effect of etanol–unleaded gasoline blends on engine
performance and exhaust emission, Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003))
11
4/23/2021
rpm
rpm
HC (ppm)
CO (%)

(Source: M. Al-Hasan, Effect of etanol–unleaded gasoline blends on engine
performance and exhaust emission, Energy Conversion and Management 44 (2003))
HC and NOx (ppm)
Engine speed (rpm)

Ethanol content (%) (Source: Mustafa Koç, Yakup Sekmen, The effects of etanol–unleaded
(Source: I. Schifter, Combustion and emissions behavior for gasoline blends on engine performance and exhaust emissions in a
etanol–gasoline blends in a single cylinder engine, Fuel 90 (2011)) spark-ignition engine, Renewable Energy 34 (2009))
=1
Specific fuel consumption (g/kWh)
Torque (Nm)
Spark ingintion timing (CA) Spark ingintion timing (CA)

(Source: S. Phuangwongtrakul et al. Suitable Ignition Timing and Fuel Injection Duration for Ethanol-Gasoline
Blended Fuels in a Spark Ignition Internal Combustion Engine, doi:10.3850/ 978-981-07-7021-1_49 (2013))
In general, low ethanol contents improve engine performance but high ethanol
contents reduce engine torque due to lower heating value of fuels.
Ethanol/gasoline blends improve significant HC and CO emissions; NOx increases in
most of cases but also decrease in some cases as compared to gasoline because NOx
concentration dependents not only on fuels but also engine technology and
operation modes.
12
4/23/2021
Necessary modifications to engines to cope with increasing ethanol/petrol blends
(Source: The Royal Society 2008. Sustainable biofuels: prospects and challenges, 2008)
Flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) can run on E85 (up to E100), gasoline, or any blend of
the two, without adverse effects on fuel system materials, on-board diagnostics
(OBD) systems, or driveability.
FFVs detect the concentration of ethanol in
the fuel through the use of either a flexible
fuel sensor or a computer calculation based
on oxygen sensor information.
Flexible fuel vehicles
Flexible fuel engine can be dedicated, or may (Source:https://www.conceptcarz.com/vehicle/z12427/chevrolet-avalanche.aspx)
also be coverted from conventional gasoline

engine by using a conversion kit. However in
the converted case the engine needs to be
modified to ensure the material
compatibility. (a) (b)
(Source: https://www.corvetteforum.com/articles/gas-
time-e85/)
FFV conversion kit

a) Commercial ;
b) Developed at ICE Lab, HUST, Vietnam
13
4/23/2021
✓ Bioethanol as fuel for CI engine

Ethanol diesel blending properties
The addition of ethanol to diesel fuel affects
certain key properties:
- Stability:
Ethanol is not soluble in diesel fuel, especially at
low temperature, and can be used as diesel fuel
component only with the help of additives.
- Viscosity and lubricity:
The addition of ethanol to diesel lowers fuel
viscosity and lubricity
- Energy content
The energy content of ethanol–diesel blends
decreases by approximately 2% for each 5% of
ethanol added, by volume
(Source: Alan C. Hansen, Qin Zhang, Peter W.L. Lyne. Review Paper.
Ethanol-diesel fuel blends-a review. Bioresource Technology 96 (2005))
14
4/23/2021
- Cetane number
Increasing concentrations of ethanol in diesel lower the cetane number
proportionately
- Flashpoint and flammability
- Fuel biodegradability
Ethanol diesel blends are more biodegradable
than diesel fuel
(Source: Alan C. Hansen, Qin Zhang, Peter W.L. Lyne. Review Paper.
- Materials compatibility and corrosiveness Ethanol-diesel fuel blends-a review. Bioresource Technology 96 (2005))
Similar to gasoline-ethanol blends
Effect of bioethanol-diesel blends on CI engine performance and emissions
(Source: Bang-Quan He, et al. The effect of ethanol blended diesel fuels on emissions from
a diesel engine, Atmospheric Environment 37 (2003))
15
4/23/2021
Effect of bioethanol-diesel blends on CI engine performance and emissions
- As with gasohol, the primary effect of the ethanol was to lean the air-
fuel mixture and produce more efficient combustion.
- Reductions in power that are approximately the same as the reductions in
energy content of the blends relative to diesel fuel. It was reported a 5% drop
in maximum fuel delivery when evaluating a 30% ethanol–diesel blend in a
tractor engine
- Particulate emission substantially reduces whereas the effect on CO, THC and
NOx are less clear. The comparative emissions data are influenced by a
number of factors that may have caused greater differences than those
brought about by the fuel, these factors include engine fuel metering
technology, exhaust control technology, age of the vehicle, maintenance
history, test procedure, and test conditions.
16
4/23/2021
Bioethanol port injection
(Source: Su Han Park, etal. Effect of Bioethanol on Combustion and Exhaust

Emissions in a Diesel–Bioethanol Dual-Fuel Combustion Engine, J. Energy Eng., E4015009)
✓ Bioethanol as fuel for fuel cell

Although the use of bioethanol in fuel cells is not yet
commercially viable, technical applications of ethanol
in so called direct-ethanol fuel cells (DEFC) is
possible.
Using bioethanol in DECF applications has several
advantages:
- As it is fed directly into the DEFC, complicated
catalytic reforming is not needed
- Storage of ethanol is much easier than that of
hydrogen which is usually used for fuel cells
- The energy density of ethanol far greater than
even highly compressed hydrogen.
17
4/23/2021
✓ Introduction
Feedstocks for pure plant oil and biodiesel production
Waste cooking oil
Rapeseed Palm
Soybean Animal fat
Feedstocks for pure plant oil and biodiesel production
An oil extraction process of rape seeds Biodiesel production process
Triglyceride Methanol Glycerine Biodiesel
18
4/23/2021
Biodiesel plant
Biodiesel plant in Singapore Biodiesel plant in USA
Source: https://inhabitat.com/singapore-scores-worlds-largest-biodiesel-plant/
Source: http://www.usengineering.com/portfolio-item/cargill-biodiesel-
and-glycerin-plant-kansas-city-mo/
Global biodiesel production Leading biodiesel production countries

 173%
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/AshishGupta734/presentation-on- Source: http://carlosstjames.com/renewable-energy/why-there-are-no-

bio-diesel investment-opportunities-left-in-the-latin-american-biofuels-sector/
19
4/23/2021
✓ Diesel fuel injection sytem
Mechanical fuel injection system Common rail system
Source: Source: http://www.densoautoparts.com.au/products/diesel-fuel-

injectors/commonrail.aspx
✓ Pure plant oil (PPO, or straight vegetable oil-SVO) as fuel for CI engine
Advantages
• Reduction of CO2 emissions from Transport
• Biodiesel production is economically convenient only for large amount of processed
fuel
• Widen the alternative to fossil fuels
• Oilcrops may induce development for those regions which economy is based on
agriculture
• Biodegradable
• Smaller content of sulfur
• Recovery of waste cooking oil
Disadvantages
• VO properties are different from those of Diesel fuel
• Possible increase in food costs
• EU does not have enough soil to cover it liquid fuel need
20
4/23/2021
Pure plant oil properties
- High viscosity can result in a worst combustion

- High cetane number may results in problems when used in cold engine
- High flash point results in a safer transport and handling of the fuel
The use of straight vegetable oil (SVO) or waste cooking oil (WCO) may
provoke some problems in a Diesel engine: fouling of injectors, worst
combustion, problems in fuel pump, …
Effect pure plant oil on CI engine performance and emissions
(Source: Recep Altın, et al. The potential of using vegetable oil fuels as fuel for
diesel engines. Energy Conversion and Management 42 (2001))
21
4/23/2021
It was concluded that:

- Compared to diesel fuel, a little
amount of power loss happened with
vegetable oil fuel operations. Source: Recep Altın, Selim Çetinkaya, Hüseyin Serdar Yücesu. The potential of
using vegetable oil fuels as fuel for diesel engines. Energy Conversion and
Management 42 (2001) 529-538
- Particulate emissions of vegetable oil fuels were higher than that of diesel
fuel, but on the other hand, NO2 emissions were less.
- Vegetable oil methyl esters gave performance and emission characteristics
closer to the diesel fuel. So, they seem to be more acceptable substitutes
for diesel fuel.
- Raw vegetable oils can be used as fuel in diesel engines with some
modifications.
✓ Biodiesel as fuel for CI engine

Biodiesel properties
ASTM D6751 (US) and EN 14214 (EU) Standard Specification for B100
Property ASTM D6751-06a EN 14214:2003
Flash point, min 130°C D93 120°C prEN ISO 3679
Water & sediment, max 0.05% vol D2709
Water, max 500 mg/kg EN ISO 12937
Total contamination, max 24 mg/kg EN 12662
Distillation temperature
90%: <360°C D1160
(% vol recovered)
Kinematic viscosity 1.9-6.0 mm2/s D445 3.5-5.0 mm2/s EN ISO 3104
EN ISO 3675
Density 860-900 kg/m3
EN ISO 12185
Ester content > 96.5% EN 14103
Ash, max
Sulfated Ash, max 0.020% wt D874 0.02% wt ISO 3987
Two grades:
prEN ISO 20846
Sulfur, max (by weight) S15 15 ppm D5453 10 mg/kg
prEN ISO 20884
S500 0.05%
Copper strip corrosion < No 3 D130 class 1 EN ISO 2160
Cetane number, min 47 D613 51.0 EN ISO 5165
Cetane index, min
One of:
- cetane index
- aromaticity
PAH, max
22
4/23/2021
Property ASTM D6751-06a EN 14214:2003

Operability, one of:
- cloud point
- LTFT/CFPP
Cloud point Report D2500
Location & season
CFPP EN 116
dependant
Carbon residue, max 0.050% wt D4530 0.30% wt EN ISO 10370
Acid number, max 0.50 mg KOH/g D664 0.50 mg KOH/g EN 14104
Oxidation stability > 3 hrs EN141121 > 6.0 hrs EN 14112
Iodine value < 1201 EN 14111
Linolenic acid methyl
< 12.0% wt EN 14103
ester
Polyunstatured methyl
< 1% wt No method specified
esters
Methanol < 0.20% wt EN 14110
Monoglycerides, MG <0.8% wt
diglycerides & DG <0.2% wt EN 14105
triglycerides TG <0.2% wt
EN 14108
Group I metals (Na + K) < 5 mg/kg UOP 389 < 5.0 mg/kg
EN 14109
Group II metals (Ca +
< 5 mg/kg UOP 391 < 5.0 mg/kg EN 14538
Mg)
EN 14105
Free glycerin, max 0.020% wt D6584 0.02% wt
EN 14106
Total glycerin, max 0.240% wt D6584 0.25% wt EN 14105
Phosphorous, max 0.001% wt D4951 10 mg/kg EN 14107
Lubricity
Ranges of the specifications of biodiesel compared to diesel
(Source: Magıń Lapuerta, Octavio Armas, Jose´ Rodrı´guez-Fernańdez. Effect of biodiesel fuels on diesel
engine emissions. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 34 (2008))
23
4/23/2021
Testing the waste cooking oil based biodiesel on diesel engine
Analytical B5 B20 B30

Fuel property method Diesel
Heating value
ASTM D240 10.99 10.95 10.6 10.38
(kcal/g)
Cetane number ASTM D613 50 51 53 54
Density at ASTM
838 842 855 859
15°C (kg/m3) D1298
Viscosity at
ASTM D445 3.31 3.37 3.54 3.62
40°C(mm2/s)
Flash point
ASTM D93 76 76 88 101
(0C)
Sulfur content ASTM
174 166 141 122
(ppm) D2622
Water content ASTM

110 106 98 98
(mg/kg) D6304
Comparison of engine performance and emissions
-0.29% 4%
-1%
2%
Average
Average
-2.4% 0.5%
- Minor decrease in engine torque and increase a bit in fuel consumption

- Higher density of B20 and B30 was possible to compensate a bit for their losses in
heating value
- The B20 and B30 had higher viscosity which may make the injection duration
longer and increase the amount of injected fuel
- The higher cetane number of the biodiesel blends could shorten the ignition delay
resulting in more proper combustion
24
4/23/2021
R49cycle as compared to diesel

17.046%
Change in emissions over ECE

20%
B5 B20 12.1%
10%
0%
-2.8%
-10% -3.670%
-20% -16.101%
-20.382%
-30% -26.0% -26.0%
HC CO NOx PM
- In biodiesel, the higher oxygen content and cetane number possibly

enhances the complete and clean combustion that reduce HC, CO and
PM but increase NOx emissions
- The higher viscosity of the blends may also advances the injection
timing.
Average emission impacts of biodiesel for heavy duty engines

Percent change in emissions
Percent biodiesel
(Source: Rutz, D.-I.D., Janssen, R., 2008. Biofuel Technology Handbook. WIP
Renewable Energies, München, Germany)
25
4/23/2021
Estimated share of literature (in percentage of number of publications) reporting

decreases, similarities or increases in engine performance and emissions using
biodiesel and diesel fuels
aMany references included in this category have reported both increases and
decreases depending on engine load conditions, engine type, engine operation
temperature,etc
(Source: Magıń Lapuerta, Octavio Armas, Jose´ Rodrı´guez-Fernańdez. Effect of biodiesel
fuels on diesel engine emissions. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 34 (2008))
Based on the available literatures, the following general conclusions could

be proposed in case of biodiesel fueling as compared to diesel fuel
- At partial load operation, no differences in power output should be

expected, since an increase in fuel consumption in the case of biodiesel
would compensate its reduced heating value. At full-load conditions, a
certain decrease in power has been found with biodiesel, but such a
decrease is lower than that corresponding to the decrease in heating
value, which means that a small power recovery is often observed.
- Brake specific fuel consumption increases that is generally in proportion
to the reduction in heating value (9% in volume basis, 14% in mass basis).
Consequently, the thermal efficiency of diesel engines is not appreciably
affected when substituting diesel by biodiesel fuel either pure or blended.
26
4/23/2021
- NOx emissions slightly increase when using biodiesel fuels. The reason
most frequently pointed out is that the injection process is slightly
advanced with biodiesel. The physical properties of biodiesel or the
response of the electronic unit could cause such an advance. Some
authors propose delaying injection as a mean to eliminate the increase
in NOx emissions, with a minor penalty in particulate emissions.
- Particulate emissions reduce sharply with biodiesel as compared to
diesel fuel. This reduction is mainly caused by reduced soot formation
and enhanced soot oxidation. The oxygen content and the absence of
aromatic content in biodiesel have been pointed out as the main
reasons. Under cold-start conditions the mentioned reduction could be
eliminated or even reversed to result in a certain increase.
- The majority of authors have reported decreases in the mean diameter

of the PSDs obtained when biodiesel fuels are used. Although such a
shift is mainly caused by a sharp decrease in the number of large
particles, some studies have also found a certain increase in the
number of the smallest ones.
- Other regulated emissions such as those of THCs and CO are usually
found to significantly decrease with biodiesel. A more complete
combustion caused by the increased oxygen content in the flame
coming from the biodiesel molecules has been pointed out as the main
reason in both cases.
- The emission of aromatic and polyaromatic compounds, as well as their
toxic and mutagenic effect, has been generally considered to be
reduced with biodiesel. However, no conclusive trend has been found
regarding the emissions of oxygenated compounds such as aldehydes
and ketones.
27
4/23/2021
Materials compatibility
- Biodiesel have a tendency to dissolve the accumulated particulates and
sediments found in diesel storage and engine fuel systems. These
dissolved sediments may plug fuel filters or injectors.
- Methyl esters may also degrade and break down certain elastomers
(Gaskets, hoses, seals and o-rings) with prolonged exposure. Plastics,
glues and rubber begin to leak and seep as they begin to fail. Older
vehicles (manufactured prior to the mid-1990s) are more likely to contain
many of the types of materials that would be affected.
- Teflon, Viton, and Nylon have very little reaction to biodiesel and are
among the materials that can be used to update incompatible equipment.
B100 suppliers and equipment vendors should be consulted to ensure the
most recent findings on compatibility. For the bulk fuel handlers of
biodiesel it is highly recommended to speak with your hose suppliers to
source hoses that are compatible with neat biodiesel.
Materials compatibility
- Tanks and storage containers may also contain items that could affect
the quality and performance of biodiesel. Most tanks designed to
store diesel fuel will be adequate for storing B100. Acceptable storage
tank materials include aluminum, steel, fluorinated polyethylene,
fluorinated polypropylene, Teflon, and most fiberglasses.
- Brass, bronze, copper, lead, tin, and zinc may accelerate the oxidation
process of biodiesel creating fuel insolubles or gels and salts. Lead
solders and zinc linings should be avoided, as should copper pipes,
brass regulators, and copper fittings. Affected equipment should be
replaced with stainless steel, carbon steel, or aluminum.
- Biodiesel blends of 20% or less have shown a much smaller effect on
these materials. The effects are virtually non-existent in low-level
blends such as B2.
28
4/23/2021
Biodiesel compatibility with elastomer materials
2.5.3. Others
2.5.3.1. Biogas and Biomethane

2.5.3.2. BioDME (Bio Dimethyl ether)
29
4/23/2021
Biomethane is simply biogas which has been cleaned up, upgraded or purified.
Raw biogas has much lower strength than natural gas because its methane
content is lower than that of natural gas.
To make biogas compete with natural gas, the impurities (gases such as
CO2, H2S etc.) should be removed. CO2 removal is termed biogas upgrade
while the removal of H2S and other gases is often termed biogas cleaning.
After undergoing some purification, biogas can be used just the same way
we use natural gas to produce heating and cooking at homes and offices.
Common methods for CO2-separation for biogas upgrading
Typical gas compositions of biogas, landfill gas, and Danish natural gas
(Source: Technical Brochure. Biomethane Regions. Introduction to the Production of Biomethane from Biogas)
30
4/23/2021
Biomethane production and biomethane use as vehicle fuel in countries

with most biomethane production worldwide in 2013
(Source: IRENA. Biogas for road vehicles. Technology brief. March 2017)
31
4/23/2021
Similar to CNG, biomethane can be use as fuel for internal combustion engine
Biomethane as fuel for SI engine
Fuel system for SI engine
Air filter
Injector
Vòi Bướm
Throttle
Họng
phun ga
Bướm ga
Throttle khuếch tán
Hỗn
hợp
Mixture
Đường
Exhaust Intake Mixer
Không
Intake
thải Pressure airkhí
reducer
Multi point injection configuration
Pressure
gauge
Biomethane
Warm Cold supply Engine
water water Compressed
CNG Distributor
Compressed Biomethane in
Biomethane Tank
Carburetor configuration
Pressure reducer
Compressed
Biomethane Tank
Direct injection configuration
Controlled 2 gauge
Pressure
Pressure 3
valve
5
reducer
6
Injector
1 Compressed
Engine Biomethane Tank
7
4
ECU
32
4/23/2021
- Biomethane has higher Octane number (up to 130), it is possible to

increase compresstion ratio and optimize the spark ignition timing
at max brake torque (MBT), so that thermal efficiency can be
improved.
- When using biomethane, the volumetric efficiency reduces due to
the occupation of biomethane in gaseous phase, that leads to
decrease in engine power
Brake mean effective pressure (bar)
NG, 1000 rpm

Throttle position : 100%
NG, 2000 rpm
NG, 3000 rpm
Throttle position: 65% Gasoline, 1000 rpm
Gasoline, 2000 rpm

Gasoline, 3000 rpm
Throttle position : 35%
- The exhaust gas of natural gas engine contains significant amount of methane
(CH4). Methane is a very stabile molecule and its oxidation in exhaust catalyst
is very difficult. Except that, methane is a very effective greenhouse gas, it
contributes to the greenhouse effect 20 times as much as CO2.
- HC and CO are generally lower, the main reason is a more complete
combustion of methane fuel due to its gaseous state.
- The tendency of NOx is uncertain.
CO2 CO HC (ecept methane)
Increase
Reduction
HC (methane included)
33
4/23/2021
Biomethane as fuel for CI engine
Direct injection
Injector
CNG jet
Diesel pilot
jet
Connecting
Rod
Diagram of Bosch Dual Fuel system: 1 – gas pressure regulator, 2 – air pressure and temperature sensor, 3 – throttle, 4 –
turbocharger’s release valve, 5 – oxygen sensor, 6 – CNG controller, 7 – diesel oil controller, 8 – CNG tanks, 9 – engine Source:
speed sensor, 10 – gas pedal, 11 – CNG injector, 12 – knock sensor, 13 – engine temperature sensor, 14 – diesel oil
injector, 15 – engine phase sensor, 16 – high-pressure pump, 17 – diesel common rail, 18 – fuel filter, 19 – oxidation
catalyst, 20 – diesel oil tank, 21 – gas pressure and temperature sensor, 22 – CNG fuel rail
Source: http://gazeo.com/automotive/technology/Bosch-
Dual-Fuel-future-of-diesel-engines,article,7831.html
NOx production under dual fuel operation is lower but amounts of HC and CO are higher.
That may be caused by the lower operation temperature due to the presence of a high
amount of gaseous fuel and, further, the low concentration of oxygen in the charge due
to the presence of gaseous fuel, which replaces an equal amount of air.
Soot emissions under dual fuel operation are considerably
lower. The main reason is that methane fuel being a lower
member in the paraffin family has very small tendency to
produce soot, while it contributes to the oxidation of the
soot formed from the combustion of the liquid fuel.
(Source: R.G. Papagiannakis, D.T. Hountalas . Combustion and exhaust emission characteristics of a dualfuel compression
ignition engine operated with pilot Diesel fuel and natural gas. Energy Conversion and Management 45 (2004) 2971–2987)
34
4/23/2021
Material compatibility with methane fuel

In case of compressed biomethane:
- Compressors can put significant amounts of lubricating oil into the CNG which
can foul regulators and other devices where clearances are small.
- The condensed water vapor can cause steel and cast iron to rust and aluminum
to corrode. Any corrosion of components that must withstand high pressures is
a concern, since corrosion stress cracking can occur which can result in failure of
the component with disastrous results.
- The presence of water greatly accelerates the corrosion properties of the
hydrogen sulfide
In case of liquefied biomethane:
- For fuel tanks, stainless steel is the preferred. Aluminum also has been used as a
tank material without materials compatibility problems.
- Carbon steels are not used since their performance at low temperatures is
questionable
- The fittings may use some nickel alloys, brass, and copper, in addition to
stainless steel and aluminum.
- Few elastomers are relied on in liquied biomethane systems because of the
cryogenic temperatures. For the places where elastomers must be used.
2.5.3.2. BioDME (bio - dimethyl ether)
BioDME is DME produced from biomass
CH3OCH3
BioDME production process
Gasification 2CH3OH → CH3OCH3 + H2O

Biomass Synthesis Methanol DME
Bio DME
production
Isobutylene
35
4/23/2021
BioDME as fuel for CI engine

BioDME fuel property
(Source: Constantine Arcoumanis, Choongsik Bae, Roy Crookes, Eiji Kinoshita. The potential of di-methyl ether
(DME) as an alternative fuel for compression-ignition engines: A review)
Advantages of BioDME
- Be produced from renewable feedstock and waste
- DME (CH3-O-CH3) has only C–H and C–O bonds and no C–C bond with
high oxygen content (34.8%), result in low smoke and PM emissions.
- Cetane number of DME (55-60) is higher than diesel fuel which leads
to fast ignition and short ignition delay, which in turn lowers the
premixed burning of the fuel, results in low NOx and noise emission.
- DME vaporizes easily in the cylinder when injected in a liquid phase
due to its low boiling point (248 K) which yields better atomization and
improved combustion. Also it leads to easier starting of engine during
cold weather conditions
- The viscosity of DME is very low (about 10% of diesel fuel) which
reduces the effort in delivering the fuel supply into the engine cylinder
during cold weather conditions.
36
4/23/2021
- The exhaust gas reactivity of DME is very low

- DME engine combustion noise is lower than that of diesel engine and
similar to that of gasoline engine if appropriate injection characteristics
are employed
- DME displays a visible blue flame similar to natural gas when burning
over a wide range of air– fuel ratios, which is an important safety
characteristic
- DME is non-toxic and environmentally benign. It causes no negative
health effects at low mole fractions (a few percent by volume) and it
has hardly any odour. Even at high mole fractions (>10% by volume) it
may be recognized by the odour and there is no effect on human
health except narcotic effects after long exposure
- DME is possible to use as fuel in a direct-injection CI engine with a low
compression ratio for a small passenger car engine, that may identify a
combustion regime with the highest possible thermal efficiency.
Disadvantages of BioDME
- The lower calorific value and lower density of DME than the diesel fuel
requires higher volumetric flow rate of DME than the diesel fuel in order
to produce the same amount of input energy
- The vapor pressure of DME (530 kPa at 298 K) is low but comparable to
LPG hence it liquefies easily at relatively low pressurization (0.5 MPa).
So, it can be easily handled and stored like LPG as liquefied gas,
however, due to its low vapor pressure and low boiling point a
pressurized fuel system is required to maintain liquid state of fuel.
Corresponding high pressure on the back of the needle would decrease
the injection rate and consequently hamper the engine performance.
Also it increases the overall cost of the DME engine
37
4/23/2021
- Low viscosity of DME causes the leakage from the fuel supply system
which relies on small clearances for sealing
- Low lubricity of DME can cause intensified surface wear of moving parts
within the fuel-injection system and hence conventional fuel delivery
and fuel injection systems are not compatible with dimethyl ether
- DME is not compatible with most elastomers including those used in
conventional diesel fuel system due to its corrosiveness
- Due to the wide flammability limits the operation of DME combustion
system needs the adoption of rigorous procedures for safe operation.
BioDME fuel system for CI engine
Mechanical controlled system Common rail system
Injector
Exhast
valve
High pressure
pump
Cooler
Compres
sor
DME Tank Delivery pump
Filter
(Source: https://www.dieselnet.com/tech/images/fuel/dme/fie2.png) Source:
38
4/23/2021
Effect of bioDME on engine performance and emissions
- The torque and the power of DME are greater than

those of diesel at all engine speeds, especially at
lower engine speed. Maximum output is usually
determined by smoke limitation in diesel engines.
However, there is no smoke limitation in DME engine
due to its smoke-free combustion.
- The equivalent BSFC of the DME engine is nearly
the same as that of the diesel engine. Due to the
lower heating value of DME, to keep the engine
output the same as that of the diesel engine, about
1.9 times as much as the diesel fuel volume should
be injected into the combustion chamber per cycle,
which leads to prolonged injection duration and
combustion duration at high engine speed.
(Source: Zhen Huang, et al. Dimethyl ether as alternative

fuel for CI engine and vehicle)
- The DME engine exhibits substantial reduction in NOx emission that is mainly
attributed to the physicochemical properties of DME. For the DME engine,
retardation of ignition timing due to longer fuel injection delay, shorter ignition
delay due to high cetane number and larger latent heat of DME lead to a
decrease in cylinder pressure and local temperature which result in a reduction
of NOx emission.
- HC emission of DME is significantly lower than that of diesel fuel, it is supposed
that the low boiling temperature and high vapor pressure of DME will promote
fuel atomization, mixture formation and combustion which result in low HC
emission.
39
4/23/2021
- CO emission of the DME engine is higher, but some other results show it is
lower, than that of the diesel engine at high and medium engine loads.
Actually, the tendency of CO is unclear and it depends on not only fuel
property but also testing set up.
- Smoke of DME engine is almost zero, that is due to high oxygen content and
absence of C–C bonds in the molecular structure of DME promises a smoke-
free combustion.
Material compatibility
- BioDME is not compatible with most elastomers due to its
corrosiveness, so that careful selection of materials is necessary to
prevent deterioration of seals after prolonged exposure to DME.
- For mounting cups, polyethylene sleeve gaskets and laminated
polypropylene gaskets generally perform very well. Stem gaskets of
neoprene or butyl rubber are recommended. Anyway, it is
recommended to perform compatibility tests for the materials that will
be in contact with DME
- On storage systems, for static gaskets, Teflon, graphite and lead are
recommended. For dynamic gaskets, Teflon and metal are suitable.
There are also some materials that were successfully employed for
DME engines, for example HNBR (Hydrogenated Nitrile Butadiene
Rubber) or Buna-N .
40

Chapter 2 - 2.5 - Biofuels As Alternative Fuels For Transportation Vehicles

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 2 - 2.5 - Biofuels As Alternative Fuels For Transportation Vehicles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

4/23/2021

2.5. Biofuels as alternative fuels for

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Swichtgrass Forest Products and Residues Agricultural Residues

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Thermal and biological routes to bioethanol

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

UK Bioethanol plant based on sugar beet Cellulosic ethanol facility in USA

(Source: https://global.mongabay.com/news/bioenergy/2007/11/uk- (Source: https://www.vogelbusch-biocommodities.com/assets/4-

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Global ethanol production Number of FFV in US

(Source: EIA annual energy outlook 2012)

Biofuels supply potential

Cassava mil.t 11.0 12.7 - 16.5 (dried cassava for

Feedstock total mil.t 11.0 12.7 - 16.5

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

✓ Bioethanol as fuel for SI engine

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Comparison of typical properties

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Comparison of typical properties

Density (kg/l at 15.50C) 0.7575 0.7591 0.7608 0.7645 0.7682

Octan number (RON) 95.4 96.7 98.1 100.7 102.4

RVP (kPa at 37.80C) 53.7 59.3 59.6 58.3 56.8

Sulphur content (wt%) 0.0061 0.0059 0.0055 0.0049 0.0045

Distillation temperature (0C)

IBP 35.5 36.5 39.5 36.7 39.5

t10 54.5 49.7 54.8 52.8 54.8

t50 94.4 88.0 72.4 70.3 72.4

t90 167.3 167.7 159.3 163 159.3

EBP 197.0 202.5 198.3 198.6 198.3

Heating value (MJ/kg) 43 42.2 41.4 39.4 36.7

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Fuel system configurations of SI engine

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Fuel system configurations of SI engine

Multipoint fuel injection system

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Material compatibility of SI engine components with bioethanol-gasoline blends

Immersion test based on SAE J1747, SAE J1748 recommendations.

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

After 2000h immersing

Rubber membrane of acceleration pump Plastic fuel meter connector

(Source: Le Anh Tuan, Final report of project on the compatibility of

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Before and after 2000h immersing in E20 + 1% corrosive water

(Source: Orbital Engine Company, A Testing Based Assessment to Determine Impacts of a

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Before and after 2000h immersing in E20 + 1% corrosive water

(Source: Orbital Engine Company, A Testing Based Assessment to Determine Impacts of a

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Ethanol & E85 Material Compatibility

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Ethanol & E85 Material Compatibility

2.5.1. Bioethanol fuel

Effect of bioethanol on SI engine performance and emissions

Ethanol content (%) Ethanol content (%)