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Proceedings of an International
Symposium
18 May 2012
2012, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Editors
S. Pathmarajah
K.B.S.N.Jinadasa
M.I.M. Mowjood
URBAN LAKE MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT
Editors
S. Pathmarajah
K. S. B. N. Jinadasa
M.I.M. Mowjood
Assistant Editor
K.P.D.C.H. Kaushalya
Sponsors
Cap-Net Lanka
Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture (PGIA), Peradeniya
University of Peradeniya
&
AA Science Platform Program on
‘Development of bio-engineering by vegetation and for wetlands
as a solution of environmental and natural disaster problems for
expanding urban fringe zone in Asia’, Japan Society for the
Promotion ofScience (JSPS)
Publisher
Cap-Net Lanka
Department of Agricultural Engineering
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya
Sri Lanka, 2012
Urban lake monitoring and management: Proceedings of
aninternational symposium, 18 May 2008, Peradeniya, Sri
Lanka.
Editors:
S. Pathmarajah, B. Sc. Agric. (Sri Lanka), M.Phil. Agric. (Sri Lanka), D. Tech. Sc. (AIT)
spathma@pdn.ac.lk
M.I.M. Mowjood, B. Sc. Agric. (Sri Lanka), M. Sc. Agric., Ph.D. (Iwata)
mmowjood@pdn.ac.lk
Assistant Editor:
K.P.D.C.H. Kaushalya, B.Sc. Agric., M.Sc. NRM (Sri Lanka)
chkaushalya@pdn.ac.lk
University of Peradeniya
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Panel of reviewers:
ISBN 978-955-0597-01-7
ii
Preface
Despite the small and shallow nature of urban lakes, they play a vital role in
urban landscape, ecosystem and the environment. They often play a role in
recreation, water supply, flood control and other direct and indirect human uses.
The quality and quantity of water reaching the urban lakes are strongly
influenced by watershed utilization associated with rapid urbanisation. Since
urban watersheds could produce higher nutrient and heavy metal loads from
runoff due to contributions from municipal wastewater discharges and sewage
overflows compared to other watersheds, urban lakes become more polluted
than non-urban lakes. In addition, internal sources like bird and fish droppings,
sediment release, etc. also could contribute to nutrient load. Because of the
shallow nature and nutrient richness, urban lakes tend to be dominated by
aquatic weeds. The studies tracking the changes in urban lake water quality as a
function of watershed development are found in isolation and needs to be
compiled to understand the dynamics.
Cap-Net Lanka– the local arm of the Global Capacity building Network in
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is mandated to impart new
knowledge and disseminate the knowledge generated by the local institutions
and individuals in the field of IWRM in Sri Lanka. As such, this symposium is
organised to provide a common forum to the students, researchers, managers,
administrators, and policy makers in Sri Lanka to share the current knowledge
on urban lakes related issues and learn from the experience of the scientists
from the other countries.
On behalf of the Cap-Net Lanka, I extend my gratitude to the Postgraduate
Institute of Agriculture (PGIA), Peradeniya, University of Peradeniyaand the
Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) for co-sponsoring the
symposium. We are thankful to the visiting scientists from Japan, Singapore
and India for accepting our invitation to attend this symposium and making
their invaluable contributions.
I also extend my sincere gratitude to all the invited guests, presenters and
the audience without whom this event wouldn't have been a success.
I appreciate the service rendered by the reviewers who helped to improve
the quality of thisproceedingsimmensely. The support extended by the academic
and academic-support staff members and the students of the University and the
PGIA are greatly appreciated. My special thanks go to Ms. Lakmali Chathurika,
Ms. S.H. Madushani Dahanayake, Mr. Nuwan Wijewardana and Mr.
K.P.D.C.H. Kaushalya for the Administrative and Technical support rendered.
S. Pathmarajah
Symposium Coordinator / Editor
iii
Message from the Coordinator of JSPS Science Platform
Program
The JSPS AA Science Platform Program is designed to create high
potential research hubs in selected fields within the Asian and African regions,
while fostering the next generation of leading researchers. The three-year
program proposed by SaitamaUniversitycollaborating with three Sri Lankan
universities (Univ. of Moratuwa, Univ. of Peradeniya andUniv. of Ruhuna) has
been selected as one of the promising distinguished programs by the Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). Exchanges will be conducted
under the leadership of the core institution (SaitamaUniversity) and joint
research, seminars and other scientific meetings, and researcher exchanges will
be organized and carried out effectively under the program. It is also anticipated
that the hubs formed by the core institutions will continue to carry out important
research activities after funding for the project has ended.
I am happy to deliver this message at the occasion of this International
Symposium on Urban Lake Monitoring and Management in which JSPS AA
Science Platform Program is also a partner.
I hope the symposiumwill provide an excellent opportunity to establish
fruitful international collaboration between the above-mentioned universities.
I would like to thank Dr. S. Pathmarajah, Dr. S. Jinadasa and Dr. M.I.M.
Mowjood from University of Peradeniya for their efforts in organizing this
symposium.
Norio Tanaka
Coordinator of JSPS AA Science Platform Program on
‘Development of bio-engineering by vegetation and for wetlands as a
solution ofenvironmental and natural disaster problems for expanding urban
fringe zone inAsia’
Institute for Environmental Science and Technology,
Graduate School of Science and Engineering,
Professor at Saitama University,
Japan
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume I
Algal bloom and lake water quality: a case study of toxin producing
cyanobacteria, (Cylindrospermopsis racibroskii) in Nuwarawewa,
Anuradhapura.J. K. Ariyawansa, M.I.M. Mowjood, and E.I.L. Silva 15
Volume II
Why proactive water management is important for urban lakes? The case
of Kandy lake.Silva, E.I.L and Herath Manthritilake 87
v
Urban lakes in stormwater management of an urban centre. Xiaohua WEI,
Dongqing ZHANG and Soon Keat TAN 119
vi
Volume I
ABSTRACT
This study investigated how the groyne constructed at the lagoon mouth of Koggala
has been affected the green chromide, Etroplus suratensis, population. The groyne is
resposible for increased salinity of the lagoon and enhanced entrance of predators as it
has prevented the formation of natural sand bar that makes sea and lagoon seperated
from time to time. The effects of salinity on growth and survival of E. suratensis was
determined from juvenile state at salinities from 4 to 24 ppt in three separate trials of
12 months duration, respectively. It was found that survival is significantly different
(p<0.05) from 255 days of varying salinity. The optimum was found in 16 ppt and
lowest found in 24ppt. In Koggala lagoon, E. suratensis took 290 days to mature and
spawn. From the tank experiment it was found that more than 80% of the population in
24 ppt salinity was terminated before attending to maturity. Growth rates of E.
suratensis in different salinity treatments were significantly different throughout the
period of 255 days (p<0.05). Growth rates in 24ppt are lower than those of lower
salinities. The marine origin Epinephelus spp act as natural predators of E. suratensis
and their migration became high throughout the year due to opening of the lagoon
mouth. High salinity and predator density were the main growth controlling factors of
E. suratensis.
Key words: Etroplus suratensis, hydrological modifications, lagoon
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Coastal wetlands including lagoons are increasingly subjected to
anthropogenic activities that are driven by economic and developmental needs.
Such activities may shift natural hydrological regime that lagoon has adapted
for many years, consequently making a huge impact on wellbeing of all life
forms (Gunawickrama & Chandana, 2006). Several natural and anthropogenic
factors may have a direct influence on the environment and on food resources,
distribution, growth, and survival of lagoon fish (Perez-Ruzafa et al, 1991).
Salinity is the most prominent single factor that affects biota of lagoon.
Therefore, the salinity regime change was studied with respect to the growth
and distribution of Etroplus suratensis.
1
Koggala lagoon is located (5º 59' - 6º 02' N and 80º 18' - 80º 21' E) on the
southern coast of Sri Lanka (Figure 1). The total extent of the lagoon is around
640 ha. Its depth ranges from 1 to 4.2 m.
2
and the natural faunal collection have to face disappearance in large extent or
severe affection.
Salinity is found to be the most important abiotic factor affecting fish
biomass (Marshall and Elliott, 1998) and only second to temperature that has an
important impact on fish biomass distribution. Etroplus suratensis (bloch) is an
indigenous cichlid fish restricted in distribution to Sri Lanka and India (Ward &
Wyman, 1977). The fish is adjusted to euryhaline, commonly occurring in
riverine estuaries and coastal lagoons.
Fishermen engaged in Koggala lagoon have noted markedly decreasing
catches of E. suratensis after construction of the groyne system. Although it is
well known that E. suratensis are capable of tolerating a wide range of
salinities, the optimal salinity for maximizing growth and survival has not yet
been determined.Salinity only is a known determinant of distribution and
habitat for several fish species (Augley et al., 2007). In most species, egg
fertilization and incubation, yolk sac resorption, early embryogenesis, swim
bladder inflation and larval growth are dependent on salinity. In larger fish,
salinity is also a key factor in controlling their growth (Bouef and Payan, 2001).
Fish population density and assemblages are also potentially affected by
predator species.
2.0 METHOD
2.1 Analysis of effects of salinity on growth of E. suratensis
The adult fishes Etroplus suratensis were collected as wild from the
Koggala lagoon, Sri Lanka by cast net operation during the early mornings. The
collected breeders were disinfected by dipping in 1% commercial formalin and
acclimatized before introducing into fibre glass tanks containing filtered well-
aerated estuarine water. As sex determination was difficult the sex ratio had to
be assumed as 50:50. Materials like coconut leaf petioles, coconut husks, and
bricks were provided as spawning surfaces for egg attachment. The fishes were
maintained at constant salinity, (15.0±0.2ppt) and temperature (29.0±2.4 °C)
according to Abraham, 1995.
Feeding of the breeders was initiated in three days after stocking with
artificial feed prepared as described by CIBA, 1995. The feed consisted of
groundnut oil cake 40%, rice bran 45% and fish meal 15%, fortified with
vitamin and mineral mix at 25 grams per 1kilogram of feed in pelleted form was
provided.
After spawning, a suitable group of juvenile individuals of same parents
and same aged were selected and they were maintained at the same salinity for
one month. Fish were selected randomly from the selected group. Then they
were acclimated to the four salinity regimes (4‰, 8‰, 16‰ and 24‰±0.2‰)
in twelve tanks. (3 tanks per salinity×4 salinities=12tanks).
3
The desired salinities were obtained by diluting seawater which was taken
near the lagoon mouth with freshwater. A number of randomly selected two fish
were kept in each tank. The fish initial total length was 1.80±0.50 cm. To
identify both fish in each tank, a tiny partial cut was done in the caudal fin. In a
pilot study, it is found that there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in
growth between fish having tiny partial caudal fin cut and those without such a
cut.
All tanks were arranged in a random block in parallel rows indoors. In order
to prevent the fish swoop, each tank was covered with a mesh on top of the
tank. Aeration was provided continuously and one-third of the water volume
was exchanged by pre-adjusted seawater once in three days to ensure high water
quality. Tanks were aerated by means of compressed air passing through air
stones and that maintained the oxygen tension at a constant level. During
acclimation and the experiment, the dissolved oxygen level was maintained
above 5.0 mg/L, pH at 7.8±0.2, and temperature at 30.0±2.5 °C. Salinity,
temperature and dissolved oxygen in each tank were measured at 0800 daily
with a YSI-85 digital water quality meter and pH was measured with a pH
meter.
Natural photoperiod was applied and fish were fed two times daily (8:00,
and 18:00) with the same feed that was given to the breeders, until the fish
rejected food. As a dietary supplement, leaves of aquatic plants (Ipomoea
aquatica) were given three times per week. It was done to ensure that growth
was not compromised by the possibility of a nutritionally incomplete diet.
The uneaten feed and feces were collected by siphon within 2 hours after
each meal. Fish total lengths were recorded to the nearest 0.1 cm at the start of
the experiment, and these were measured approximately once in every 15 days
from 07th of December, 2010 to 10th of December, 2011. Increase in total
lengths of fish within 15 day increments in the salinity treatments were used to
analyse their growth performances. Life time of each fish in days was also
recorded.
2.2 Analysis gut content of Epinephelus spp.
Ten fish of Epinephelus sppwere selected randomly from the fish collecting
center in Koggala. The body cavity of each fish was carefully opened and the
anterior gut was removed. The content from each anterior gut section was
carefully washed into a petri dish. Hand lens was used to identify gut contents.
Percentage of occurrence of E.suretensis was calculated.
2.3 Statistical analysis
For analysis of effects of salinity on growth of E. suratensis
The normality test and Levene’s test for equality of variances were carried
out on data sets prior to the statistical analysis, in order to verify the assumption
of normal distribution and homogeneity of the variances. Increases in total
lengths in 15 day intervals with the initial lengths of fish amongst the four
4
treatments were analysed separately using analysis of variance (ANOVA)
followed by pair wise multiple comparisons with Tukey–Kramer’s HSD test
procedure. Data columns with missing values were not considered for the
calculations.
Differences in life time of fish amongst the four treatments were analysed
separately using analysis of variance and pair wise comparisons with Tukey–
Kramer’s HSD test procedure.
A cross tabulation was done by 15day increments considering whether the
fish in each salinity treatment was alive or dead. The resultant contingency table
was analysed with the Chi-Square test to determine whether salinity affects on
survival of the fish. All these procedures were done according to George and
Mallery (2007). All statistical analyses were performed at α = 0.05 with SPSS
19.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois) [19].
3.0 RESULTS
3.1 For analysis of effects of salinity on growth of E. suratensis
Although the research was carried out more than one year, growth
performances were compared only up to 255 days, because more than 80% of
fish in 24 ppt salinity treatments has been died after 255 days (Figure 2).
5
Figure 3 shows distribution of life times in each salinity treatment during
345 days. Mean life time of 16 ppt tank is the highest and those in 24 ppt is the
lowest, while those in 4 and 8 ppt are nearly same.
6
3.2Analysis gut content of Epinephelus spp.
Body parts of fish including E. suratensis could be identified in the gut
contents of Epinephelus spp. proving their carnivorous habit. The frequency of
occurrence of E. suratensis in the gut contents was 40%.
Epinephelus spp can invade the lagoon throughout the year due to the
mouth opening of the Koggala lagoon. The combined effect of high salinity and
predators causes a drastic decrease in the E. suratensis population day by day.
Therefore, the presence of E. suratensisin the daily fish catch of the lagoon
becomes a very rare incident as the groyne has effected badly to the
sustainability of the population.
4.0 DISCUSSION
Growth rate and survival of E. suratensis were optimum at 16 ppt and
decreased at higher salinities. Salinity has been shown to affect growth of fish
and higher growth at lower salinities is almost universally accepted as applying
to most brackish water fish species (Boeuf and Payan, 2001). The main
hypothesis relating salinity to growth suggests that fish living in hypo and
hyper-osmotic habitats have additional energy costs associated with osmotic
and ionic regulation, and that energy for these costs is met, at least in part, by
energy diverted from growth processes to osmoregulation (Lyndon, 1994).
Such physiological, rather than behavioural, causes are likely to be the
explanation of the results reported here, since feeding behaviour, as indicated
by food consumption rates, was not significantly different between salinity
treatments. However, activity levels were not controlled for in the current study,
so the effect of salinity on activity cannot be assessed.
Several physiological factors that help determine growth rates in fish could
be affected by salinity. Food intake may be affected by salinity, mediated via
different drinking rates in different salinities (Tytler and Blaxter, 1988; Laiz-
Carrion et al., 2005). Salinity and temperature can affect feeding efficiency of
larvae by influencing processes such as metabolism, oxygen consumption,
behaviour and swimming speed, andgut evacuation time (Blaxter, 1988).
However, such parameters and habits were not analised within this research.
Misra (2003) showed the effect of salinity on fertilization, hatching, and
survival of juvenile E. suratensis. In that study, it was proved that when salinity
increases from 15 ppt to 25 ppt, percentage of fertilization and hatching eggs
decreased and finally survival also decreased. Maximum fertilization, hatching
and survival were recorded at 15 ppt. Those results coincide with the results of
this study.
Another effect of modifications of the Koggala lagoon outlet with the open
sea is the colonization by new marine species. The opening of the lagoon mouth
throughout the year causesmarine origin Epinephelusspp. to invade lagoon
7
ecosystem more easily from the sea. Several researches also reported that the
carnivorous habit of Epinephelus spp. (Barreiros and Santos, 1998).
E. suratensis is prone to many diseases mainly caused by wide fluctuations
in environmental parameters. High saline condition created stress among fish
lived. Stress is a state or condition, caused by intrinsic or extrinsic factors which
upsets the adaptive responses of the animals and reduces the chances of their
survival. Stress causes severe damage as a result of long-term exposure (Pillai,
1984). In addition to salinity and predators, several other factors such as the
influence of tides, velocity, and light intensity in the lagoon can influence fish
growth and assemblages.
But they could not be fully explained here, as it is difficult to analyse each
factor individually as they interact with each other.
Gunawickrama (2007) showed that E. suratensis from Koggala lagoon have
one of the largest maximum body depth in Sri Lanka. So it is very important to
restore the lagoon as early as possible to protect its biodiversity.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Survival and growth of E. suratensis population in the main water body has
decreased due to combined effect of high salinity and high predation throughout
the year. The eco-hydrological stability of the Koggala lagoon has been affected
due to the construction of groyne.
6.0 REFERENCES
Abraham, M. and M. Sultana, 1995. Biology, Fishery, culture and Seed Production of
the Pearl spot, Etroplus suratensis (Bloch). Part II. . Methodology of Seed
Production. In:CIBA Bulletin No.7, pp.40-45.
Augley, J, Huxham, M, Fernandes, T.F, and A.R. Lyndon, 2007. The effect of salinity
on growth and weight loss of juvenile plaice (Pleuronectes platessa, L): An
experimental test, Journal of Sea Research 60 (2008), pp.292-296.
Barreiros, J.P and R.S. Santos, 1998 - Notes on the food habits and predatory behaviour
of the dusky grouper, Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe, 1834) (Pisces: Serranidae) in
the Azores. Arquipelago, 16A : 29-35.
Blaxter, J.H.S, 1988. Pattern and variety in development. In: Hoar, W.S., Randall, D.J.
(Eds.), Fish Physiology, vol. XI. Academic Press,Inc., London, pp.1– 58
Boeuf , G, and P. Payan, 2001. How should salinity influence fish growth?,
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C 130: 411-423.
Central Environmental Authority (CEA), Sri Lanka,1999. Wetland Atlas of Sri
Lanka.Wetland Conservation Project- Central Environmental Authority of Sri
Lanka/ ARCADIS/ EUROCUNSULT, pp.1-75.
8
CIBA, 1995. Biology, fishery, culture and seed production of the pearlspot Etroplus
suretensis (Bloch). Central Institute of Brackish water Aquaculture of India.
Bulletin No 7, pp.10-42.
George, D.andP. Mallery, 2007. SPSS for Windows step by step. Tenth edition:
Pearson.
Gunawickrama, K.B.S, 2007. Morphological heterogeneity and population
differentiation in the green chromid Etroplus suratensis (Pisces: Cichlidae) in Sri
Lanka. Ruhuna Journal of Science,2. pp.70-81.
Gunawickrama, K.B.S. and E.P.S.Chandana, 2006. Some hydrographic aspects of
Koggala lagoon with preliminary results on distribution of the marine bivalve
Saccostrea forskalli: pre tsunami status. Ruhuna Journal of Science, Vol1, pp.16-
23.
Lyndon, A.R, 1994. A method for measuring oxygen-consumption in isolated-perfused
gills. Journal of Fish Biology 44, pp. 707–715.
Marshall, S, and M. Elliott, 1998. Environmental influences on the fish assemblage of
the Humber estuary, UK. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 46, pp. 175–184.
Misra, S.K, 2003.Seed production of pearl spot, Etroplus suratensis.Aquaculture
Conference in 8th Aquaculture Expo 2003, Orissa, India.
Perez –Ruzafa, A., Diego, C.M, and J.D. Ros, 1991. Environmental and biological
changes related to recent human activities in the Mar Menor (SE of Spain). Mar.
Pollut. Bull., 23: pp. 747 -751.
Pillai. C Thankappan ,1984. Handbook on diagnosis and control of bacterial diseases in
finfish and shellfish culture.CMFRI Special Publication , 17. pp. 1-36.
Tytler, P. and J. H. S. Blaxter, 1988. The effects of external salinity on the drinking
rates of the larvae of herring, plaice and cod. Journal of Experimental Biology 138,
pp. 1-15.
Ward, J. A. and R.L. Wyman, 1977. Ethology and ecology of cichlid fishes of the genus
Etroplus in Sri Lanka: Preliminary findings. Environmental Biology of Fishes 2(2),
pp.137-145.
9
10
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS MITIGATING POLLUTION AT KANDY
LAKE, SRI LANKA
ABSTRACT
Kandy, because of its historical and cultural significance, is recognized as a
UNESCO world heritage city. The sacred Buddhist Temple of the Tooth is located in the
city’s centre facing Kandy Lake. The lake which covers an area of about 0.25 km2 was
constructed between 1810 and 1812 by the last Kandayan King, Sri Wickrama
Rajasinghe, as an ornamental and water storage lake. Presently many tourist service
establishments are located around the lake and utilizing its aesthetic appeal to attract
visitors—making it a focal point for large numbers of local as well as overseas visitors
and pilgrims.
Despite its key location and function in Kandy’s cultural life and tourism industry,
inadequately regulated urbanization and waste disposal and management facilities
have resulted in serious pollution of the lake from discharges into the waterways
feeding the lake. The population of Kandy is around 120,000 but it experiences a two-
to three-fold increase during the internationally renowned Esela festival season in
August. A systematic approach and integrated remedial measures should be taken to
develop a sustainable water quality improvement plan to mitigate pollution in Kandy
Lake for the benefit of the Kandy community and their cultural heritage.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Kandy is the second largest city in Sri Lanka. It is also home to the Temple
of Tooth Relic and thus a pilgrimage destination to the Buddhists. In 1988,
Kandy was declared as a world heritage city by UNESCO. At the heart of the
city lies Kandy Lake, the most scenic tourist attraction in Kandy. Unfortunately,
as many water bodies in developing countries are, Kandy Lake is not spared by
the negative effect of urbanization pollution.
Some wastewater and storm runoff of Kandy City goes directly to the Lake
or to the downstream Mid-Canal which runs through the City and eventually is
discharged to Mahaweli River, which is the longest river in Sri Lanka. In
addition, illegal wastewater discharge is also prevalent along the Mid-Canal.
As a result, the Lake and the Canal face serious pollution problem. As the Lake
is a world heritage site, common mechanized systems to clean the lake are
avoided, and lack of space in the rapidly urbanizing city compounded the
challenge. Systematic approach and integrated remedial measures are needed to
11
develop a sustainable water quality improvement plan to mitigate the pollution
in Kandy Lake.
2.0 METHOD
Over the past two years, this research team had conducted field and
laboratory works to develop solutions to mitigate the pollution in Kandy Lake.
Investigations were carried out in four domains:
1. Understanding the problem: Socio-economic survey and lake
bathymetry survey, Identification of Wastewater sources, and water
quality studies
2. Capability developments: Laboratory scale studies, modelling of
Kandy Lake, and Pilot scale floating wetland units
3. Education: Research, Publications, and dissemination of information
4. Outreach to the Community: School Program, and Collaboration with
Government Agencies
12
3.2 Floating Wetlands
The experimental results have demonstrated the effectiveness of floating
wetland systems in removing both carbonaceous and nitrogenous compounds
from polluted water. Floating wetlands may be a viable option for lake
restoration in tropical conditions. Compared to C. iridiflora and on the basis of
water quality improvement, T. angustifolia was observed to yield better
performance.. However, floating wetlands with C. iridiflora may also be
anattractive option as it improves the aesthetic appearance of the treatment site.
Harvesting could be a sustainable plant management option for floating
wetlands and further studies are required to determine optimum harvesting
cycles.
(a) (b)
Figure 2: Comparison of a) BOD5 and b) NH4+-N removal efficiency
variations in between two different macrophytes systems
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The key findings of this research work are:
1. Requirement for a proper Water Quality Management Plan
2. Requirement for Community awareness programmes and appropriate
small scale wastewater treatment units for the community
3. Floating Wetlands as an Appropriate Technology for lake water quality
remediation
4. School Education for a sustainable water resource (long term
objective)
5. Wastewater Management options – further investigation is required
6. Requirement for Coordination among agencies
13
5.0 REFERENCES
Dissanayake, C. B., Rohana Bandara, A. M., Weerasooriya, S. V. R. (1987). Heavy
metal abundances in the Kandy Lake- An environmental case study from Sri
Lanka. Environmental Geology, 10, 81-88.
Greenway, M. (2003). Suitability of macrophytes for nutrient removal from surface
flow constructed wetlands receiving secondary treated effluent in Queensland,
Australia. Water Science and Technology, 48(2), 121–128.
Jinadasa, K.B.S.N., Tanaka, N., Sasikala, S., Werellagama, D.R.I.B., Mowjood, M.I.M.
and Ng, W.J. (2008). Impact of harvesting on constructed wetlands performance –
a comparison between Scirpus grossus and Typha angustifolia.Journal of
Environmental Science and Health. Part A, 43(6), 664-671.
Juwarkar.A., Oke, B., Juwarkar, A., and Patnaik, S.M. (1995).Domestic wastewater
treatment through constructed wetland in India, Water Science and Technology,
32(3), 291-294.
Silva, E. I. L. (2003).Emergence of a Microcystis bloom in an urban water body, Kandy
Lake, Sri Lanka. Current Science India, 85 (6), 723-725.
14
ALGAL BLOOM AND LAKE WATER QUALITY: A CASE STUDY OF
TOXIN PRODUCING CYANOBACTERIA,(Cylindrospermopsis
racibroskii) IN NUWARAWEWA, ANURADHAPURA
ABSTRACT
Nuwarawewa is used for many purposes including domestic water supply.
Occasionally the water in the reservoir is turbid, greenish brown in colour and
odorous. A study was conducted to access the status of phytoplankton and other
physiochemical parameters of water in the reservoir. Water was sampled at three sites
inlet, middle of the reservoir and outlet during 2006/2007. Profile water samples were
collected at the middle of the reservoir. Laboratory analysis was conducted to
determine algae community and water quality parameters. Toxin producing
cyanobacteria, Cylindrospermopsis racibroskii, was dominant in the lake reservoir and
contributed 99.6% to the total population. Reservoir and outflow had higher density of
cyanobacateria compared to the inflow water. Many species of were found in noticeable
density in dry season. Algal responses for NO3-N and PO4-P are distinguished and thus
limiting factors can be identified to control the algal growth. Phytoplankton in Nuwara
wewa has unique characteristics and need a continuous monitoring and control plan
particularly for dry period.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Excessive growth of blue green algae in ponds, lakes and reservoirs has
become a serious water quality problem and threatens human and animal health.
Nutrient rich eutrophic water bodies promote growth of blue-green algae that
produce toxic chemicals. The algae hamper the treatment of water for drinking,
prevent recreational use and clog pipes. Therefore, monitoring of water bodies
for phytoplankton and planning preventive measures accordingly are needed for
controlling the algal bloom in water bodies which are in a good and moderate
status. If the water body found to be already colonized or invaded by algae, then
an assessment followed by urgent actions are needed to bring them into
improved status.
Algal blooms have been reported in many water bodies in Sri Lanka
(Abewickrama, 1979, Jayatissa, et al. 2006,). Microcystis bloomwas found in
Beira Lake, Kandy Lake and Kotmale reservoir (Piyasiri, 1995, Silva and
Wijerathne, 1999, Silva and Samaradiwakara 2005, Silva, 2007). A
dinoflagellate species was identified in Rosmith and Dunumadalawa tanks in
Kandy (Yatigammana et al, 2011) which caused a dysenteric epidemic
condition in 2008. Favorable tropical climatic condition and anthropogenic
nutrient loading into water bodies promote this algal blooming.
15
Nuwara wewa, a manmade ancient irrigation reservoir, located in the
historical city of Anuradhapura in North-Central province of Sri Lanka is used
for domestic water supply, irrigation, and fishing and recreational purposes. The
water spread area is 1012 ha. The maximum capacity is 29.2 MCM. It was
noticed that the water in the reservoir turbid, greenish brown in colour and
occasionally smell (odorous). A study was conducted to determine the status of
phytoplankton and other physiochemical parameters of water in the reservoir
with a view to propose potential mitigation measures.
Outle
t
Centre of the
tank
Inlet
16
A known volume of each water sample was filtered through Whatman
GF/C circles (0.45µm pore size and 47mm in diameter) using a Millipore
filtering manifold. The filtrate was used to determine NO3--N and dissolved
phosphorous. Nitrate-N was determined following the diozotization method
(APHA 1989). Unfiltered samples were also used to determine pH, alkalinity,
conductivity, Total Suspended Solid (TSS), turbidity and BOD5. Laboratorial
analysis were conducted at the Institute of Fundamental Science (IFS), Kandy,
Agri-Biotechnology Centre, University of Peradeniya.
17
Table 1: Species composition of phytoplankton in Nuwarawewa during the
period under study (d-dominant, m-moderate, r-rare)
Phytoplankton Species Inlet Lake Outlet
Cyanophyceae
Anabaena sp (curved) - - -
Anabinopsis circularis - r r
Chroococcus sp m m m
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii d d d
Merismopaedia punctata - r r
Microcystis aeruginosa m - -
Microcystis incerta - r -
Microcystis wesenbergii - r -
Oscillatoria raciborskii m - -
Planktolyngbia circumereta - - -
Pseudoanabaena galeata - - -
Spirulina Sp m r r
Glieocaosa sp r r -
Diatomophyceae
Aulacoseira granulata r r -
Navicula sp r r -
Urozelania detriculata - r r
Pinnularia sp r r -
Dinophyceae
Peridinopsis pygmaeum - r -
Chlorophyceae
Ankistrodesmus bernadii - - -
Ceolastrum astroideum - - -
Crucigenia tetrapedia - - -
Oocystiss - - -
Pediastrum simplex r r -
Scenedesmus sp - m -
Mougeotia sp r - -
18
Zygnemaphyceae
Closterium aciculare - r -
Cosmarium depressum - r -
Staurastrum nodulosum - - -
Staurastrum tetracerumnodulosum - - -
Euglenophyceae
Euglene sp - r r
Pacus sp - - -
Density (Colonies or
Filaments/ml)
4000
5000
3000 4000
3000
2000
2000
1000
1000
0 0
Cyanophyceae Diatomophyceae Chlorophyceae Cyanophyceae Diatomophyceae Chlorophyceae
Figure 2a Figure 2b
7000
Inlet 60000
6000
Lake Inlet
Density (Colonies or
50000
5000
Density (Colonies or
Outlet Lake
Filaments/ml)
Filaments/ml)
2000 20000
1000 10000
0
Cyanophyceae Diatomophyceae Chlorophyceae 0
Cyanophyceae Diatomophyceae Chlorophyceae
Figure 2c Figure 2d
Figure 2: Comparison of planktons in inlet, lake and outflow water
(a - 6th Dec 2006, b - 24th Jan 2007, c - 7th Feb 2007, d - 14th Jun 2007)
19
Phytoplankton density was reduced from the surface to bottom. High
density of cynabacteria was found at sub surface layers at 50 cm depth from the
surface compare to surface and deeper water layers. Weather condition of the
day will affect the vertical distribution of phytoplankton in the lakes.
Phytoplankton move to the bottom of the lake when the density increases
(Silva, 2006).
70000
0 0.5m 1m 2m
60000
Density (Colonies/ml)
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
Dates of sampling
20
120
Phytoplankton density/colonies*1000/ml
100
80
60
40
20
Date of sampling
Microcystis sp3
Anacystis sp
50
Glieocaosa sp
83
125
Spirulina Sp
75
Pseudoanabaena galeata
173
3
Planktolyngbia circumereta
125
Oscillatoria raciborskii
17
125
Microcystis aeruginosa
783
475
Merismopaedia punctata
300
4060
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
4770 100
125 0
Chroococcus sp
200
Anabinopsis circularis
Anabaena sp (curved)
Outlet Lake Inlet 0 2000 4000 6000 0 2000 4000 6000
21
3.4 Phytoplankton density and physicochemical parameters
Although many physiochemical parameters were measured, only few of
them are presented in Table 2. As in Figure 6 the relationship between the
cumulative concentrations of NO3-N, PO4-P and cumulative phytoplankton
density shows that the rate of change of algal growth with respect to the rate of
change of nutrients. Accordingly, Nitrate nitrogen and algal growth had a good
correlation. C. racibroskii is a nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria which grows
lavishly in low nitrogen conditions when P is sufficient. On the other hand, the
PO4-P shows two clear responses at lower concentration and high concentration.
Lower response of algal growth at lower concentration indicates that P is a
limiting factor.
Table 2 Physiochemical parameters of lake water
NO3 - N PO4 - P EC TSS Phytoplankton
(mg/L) (mg/L) (µS/cm) (mg/L) density
(colonies/ml)
06.12.2006 0.238 0.186 370 0.50 5535
20.12.2006 0.258 0.210 364 0.23 4865
10.01.2007 0.536 0.118 302 0.10 6715
24.01.2007 0.432 0.206 288 0.30 7055
06.02.2007 0.425 0.003 327 0.45 5860
21.03.2007 0.420 0.020 302 0.51 6255
40000
Cumulative Phytoplankton
35000
density (colonies/ml)
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Cumulative NO3 - N (mg/L)
22
40000
Cumulative Phytoplankton
35000
density (colonies/ml)
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Cumultive PO4-P (mg/L)
4.0 CONCLUSION
Twenty one species of phytoplankton belonging to six families were
identified in Nuwarawewa. Family cyanophyceae which has toxin producing
capacity was the most diverse group and contributed 99.6% to the total
population. Higher density of cyanobacateria was found in the lake and outflow
water compared to the inflow water. The composition and abundance clearly
varied between wet and dry season. Higher concentrations of many species
were found in dry season. Algal responses on NO3-N and PO4-P vary and thus
limiting factors can be identified to control the algal growth. Phytoplankton in
Nuwara wewa has unique characteristics compare to other reservoirs in Sri
Lanka and need to be kept under monitoring continuously.
5.0 REFERENCES
Abewickrama, B.A., 1979. The genera of the fresh water algae of Sri Lanka.Pare1-
UNESCO man & Biosphere National Commiittee for Sri Lanka.Special publication
06. National Science Council Sri Lanka, Colombo, pp 103.
APHA, 1989.Standard Methods for Estimation of Water & Waste Water, 17th Edition,
American public Health Association, Washinton Dc.
Jayatissa, L.P, E.I.L. Silva, J. McElhiney and L.A. Lawton 2006. Occurrence of
toxigenic cynobacterial blooms in freshwaters of Sri Lanka. Systematic and
Applied Microbiology 29: 156-164.
Piyasiri, S. 1995. Eutrophication and algae problem in Kotmale reservoir, Sri Lanka ,
K.H. timotius and Goltenboth (eds), Tropical Limnology vol. 2, Satyas, Waccana
University press, Salatiga, Indonesia.
Silva, E.I.L. and M.J.S. Wijerathne. 1999. The occuerence of Cyanobacteria in the
reservoirs of the Mahaweli river basin in Sri Lanka. SL.J. Aquat.Sci.4: 51-60.
23
Silva, E.I.L & S.R.M.S. Samaradiwakara 2005.Limnology of Kandy Lake before the
outbreak of a cyanobacteria bloom in May 1999. III. Phytoplankton composition
and succession. Sri Lanka Journal of Aquatic Sciences 10: 55-71.
Silva, E.I.L 2007.Hypertrophic-eutrophic alteration in Kandy Lake, following an
outbreak of a Mycrocystis bloom. Sri Lanka. J. Aquat. Sci. 12:115-120.
Yatigammana, S.K., Ileperuma, O.A. and Perera, M.B.U, 2011. Water pollution due to
harmfl algal bloom : a preliminary study from two drinking water reservoirs in
Kandy, Sri Lanka. J. of Natn. Sci. Foundation Sri Lanka 39 (1): 91-94.
24
MIXING STATES OF KOGGALA LAGOON IN DRY SEASON
ABSTRACT
A field observation was conducted on 16 March 2012 to estimate the salinity level
and density stratification of Koggala lagoon in dry season. Vertical variation of
salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen of water in the lagoon were measured with
the conditions of neap and flood. The same measurements also were alsotaken from
inflow streams. The observations indicate that not only water in the mouth of the lagoon
but also water inside the main lagoon was strongly mixed. Compared to the previous
results of field observation conducted in monsoon season, water in both the lagoon
mouth and inside the lagoon exhibit the state of strong mixing and high salinity. The
effects of seasonal changes of rainfall on the salinity level and mixing condition of
Koggala lagoon is discussed.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Koggala lagoon is one of the forty-three coastal lagoons encircling the
coastal belt of Sri Lanka. The salinity level of this lagoon has increased due to
the large amount of seawater intrusion by some human interventions such as
sand bar removal and groyne construction. These physico-chemical changes
lead to various problems such as socio-economical problems as well as natural
ecosystem degradation in and around the lagoon(Priyadarshana et al. 2007).
Thus, countermeasures for this issue are required. Previous studies have pointed
out that the importance of lagoon mouth morphology for the restoration of
lagoon environment (Priyadarshana et al. 2007, Gunaratne et al. 2010). By
using hydrological parameters, an improved salinity level of the lagoon will be
obtained with a new rubble mound structure proposed by the authors. With the
modifications it is expected that the ecosystem and the water quality of the
lagoon would reverse to a more freshwater-oriented system. However, generally
human impact will cause various unexpected effects on water bodies
particularly complex systems like lagoons.
Furusato et al. (2012) reported that Koggala lagoon was strongly salinity
stratified in the monsoon season. Generally, the inflow discharge from a river or
streams affects the mixing states of an estuary(Fisher 1972, Hansen and Rattay
1966). For understanding current states of stratification of Koggala lagoon,
surveys are to be conducted in different seasons. The objective of this study is
to estimate the mixing state of Koggala lagoon in the dry season.
25
2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Study sites
Koggala lagoon is located in the southern coast of Sri Lanka (Fig. 1).
Hydro-catchment area of the lagoon outlet is about 55 km2, of which about 15%
is the lagoon area. It is estimated to have further 15% of paddy fields or low
lying areas (Priyadarshana et al., 2007). The water depth ranges from 1.0 to 3.7
m (IWMI, 2006). The coastal lagoon is essentially fed by rain and a number of
streams connected to it. Warabokka stream (Koggala-oya) enters the lagoon
from the north-west. Kerena anicut was built combining both the streams named
as Mudiyansege stream and Thithagalla stream. Heen stream contributes
slightly to the water inflow. Apart from these three streams, Kahanda stream,
Gurukanda stream, and Thelambu stream were contributors for inflow but
presently these are abandoned and have become marsh lands with almost zero
water flow due to overgrown vegetations. The only outlet of the lagoon is Pol-
oya located at the southeast corner; a narrow 300 m long canal connects the
lagoon with the sea.
H-1
K-1
W-1
M-4
L-4
L-3
L-2 M-1 M-3
L-1
M-2
O-2
O-1
0.5km
0.5km
26
temporal changes in the surface velocity were measured by a flow velocity
meter - KENEK VP 1000 at the left bank of M-2.
Salinity WT Velocity
35 0.9
] ]s
] ‰ [30 /
0.6 m
[
[℃ tyi yti
T nti co
W la25 0.3 le
S V
20 0
10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
27
Salinity [ppt] WT [℃]
29.5 30 30.5 30 30.5 31 31.5 32
0 0
1
] ] 1
[m [m
h
tp ht
10:30 pe
e
d 2 d 2
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
3 3
15:00
] 1 ] 1 ] 1
m
[m [m [
h
t ht thp
p M-2 pe 2 ed 2
e 2 d
d
M-3
3 M-4 3 3
Koggala Lagoon
Figure 5 shows the vertical profiles of some parameters measured in
Koggala lagoon. For comparison, the measured values at the upstream end of
the mouth area (M-4) and the representative inflow stream (W-1) are also
shown. The vertical profile of salinity shows a similar trend for each point.
Salinity level of the surface was about 30 ppt. At the deep layer of the centre
area (L-1), a slightly high salinity bottom layer exists. The water temperature
and DO exhibit a similar trend at L-1. Below 1m depth the high water
temperature and relatively low DO concentration were confirmed. This means
that deep layer water parcels remain without a strong mixing with the surface
layer for a certain period.
Salinity [ppt] DO [%] WT [℃]
0 10 20 30 0 50 100 28 30 32 34 36
0 0 0
M-4
DO [ % ]
] 1 ] 1 ] 1 0
0 50
[m [m [m L-1
ht h
tp h
tp L-2
pe
1
d 2 e2 e 2 L-3
]
d d
m
[
th
p
de
L-4
3 3 3 3
W-1
28
Salinity [ppt] DO [%] WT [℃]
0 10 20 30 0 50 100 28 30 32 34 36
0 0 0
] 1 ]1 ] 1
[m [m [m
ht h
tp th
p 2 p W-1
ed e 2 e 2
d d H-1-U
3 3 3 H-1-D
K-1
Inflow streams
As shown in Figure 4, the inflow streams exhibit a stratification of salinity
and water temperature. The range of surface salinity was 0.8 4.4 ppt ~
depending on each stream. On the other hand, below the surface depth, the same
salinity level was measured for each station in the streams. The brackish water
supply from the inflow streams corresponds to the effects of permanently open-
mouth to Koggala lagoon as reported by Priyadarshana et al. (2007). The
important point is the salinity stratification of inflow streams. Raining before
this survey is to be the possible reason to have a fresh water layer in the stream.
However, the low level of salinity in the surface water body which is less than
10 ppt was not found in the lagoon. This means that the low salinity of surface
water of inflow stream would be probably mixed in surface plumes due to the
shear stress by wind. However, there are no detailed evidences for such an
explanation. This is also one of the problems unresolved.
3.3 Comparison of spatial distribution of salinity in dry season with
monsoon season
Vertical distribution
Figure 7 shows the comparison between each measured parameters during
the monsoon season (22/Nov-2011) and dry season. The parameters exhibit
differences depending on the weather conditions. As reported by previous study
(Furusato et al. 2012), in the monsoon season, partially mixing of the mouth
area and strong density stratification of both the lagoon and inflow stream were
measured. On the other hand, the results of survey in the dry season indicated
that such mixing states of Koggala lagoon differ depending on the season.
29
Figure 7: Comparison of measured parameters between dry and monsoon
seasons.The symbols in each legend mean survey stations (see Fig 1)
600
]h
tn 500
o
m
/
400
m300
m
[l
fan 200
ia
R100
0
na be ra rp ya nu lu gu pe tc vo ce na be
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F
2011 2012
30
determining the mixing state of estuaries including coastal lagoons (Fisher
1972, Hansen and Rattay 1966). The difference of inflow discharge from
streams caused by the amount of rainfall will lead these different vertical
profiles of salinity in Koggala lagoon.
40 Nov. 2011
Mar. 2012
]t
pp 30
[
yti
nil
as 20
ec
af
ru 10
S
0
-0.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5
Distance from mouth end [km]
31
Figure 10: Different mixing characteristics of Koggala lagoon depending on
season.
32
will be needed. Furthermore, the knowledge about the relationship between the
conditions of the lagoon mouth and internal processes of the lagoon likely
density stratification will be needed for the sustainable development of coastal
areas in Sri Lanka.
5.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported in part by JSPS AA Science Platform Program,
Japan.
6.0 REFERENCES
Fisher, H. B. 1972. Mass transport mechanisms in partially stratified estuaries, J. Fluid
Mechanics. 53: 671-687.
Furusato, E., Amarasekara, G. P., Priyadarshana, T. and Tanaka, N. 2012. The Current
,
Status of Density Stratification of Koggala Lagoon Symposium Proceedings of
ACEPS (International Symposium on Advances in Civil and Environmental
Engineering Practices for Sustainable Development), pp.176-189.
Gunaratne, G. L., Tanaka, N., Amarasekara, P., Priyadarshana, T. And Manatunge,
J.2010.Restoration of Koggala lagoon: Modelling approach in evaluating lagoon
water budget and flow characteristics, J. Environmental Sciences.22: 813–819.
Gunaratne, G. L., Tanaka, N., Priyadarshana, T. and Manatunge, J. 2011.Human
intervention triggered changes to inlet hydrodynamics and tidal flushing of
Koggala lagoon, Sri Lanka, in Amo, B. W., “Conditions for enterprenerurship in
Sri Lanka: A Handbook”, Shaker Verlag, Germany, pp. 347-368.
Hansen, D. V. and Rattay, M. 1966.New dimensions in estuary classification,
Limnology and Oceanography. 11: 319-326.
Hume, T., Snelder, T., Weatherhead, M. and Liefting, R. 2007.A controlling factor
approach to estuary classification, Ocean & Coastal Managements. 50: 905-929.
IWMI (International Water Management Institute) 2006.Sri Lanka Wetlands Database.
http://dw.iwmi.org/wetland/wetlandsinfooptions.aspx?wetlandname=Koggala%20L
agoon&wetland / (accessed February 10, 2011).
Priyadarshana, T., Manatunge, J. and Wijeratne, N. 2007. Report, Impacts and
Consequences of Removal of the Sand Bar at the Koggala Lagoon Mouth &
Rehabilitation of the Lagoon Mouth to Restore Natural
Suppiah, R. and Yoshino, M. M. 1984. Rainfall variation of Sri Lanka Part 1: Spatial
and temporal patterns, arc. Met.Geoph.Biosl. Ser. B 34: 329-340.
33
34
FIRST FIELD EXPERIENCE ON APPLICATION OF FLOATING
WETLAND IN URBAN LAKE WATER RESTORATION IN SRI
LANKA
ABSTRACT
Incidence of lakepollution in developing countries has increased rapidly due to
urbanization. Consequently there is need to identify feasible mitigation measures. The
latter has to address issues including eutrophication and deteriorated water quality,
space constraints for treatment facilities, and affordability. This study was conducted to
determine possible application of floating wetlands for lake water remediation. Two
types of macrophytes, Typha angustifolia and Canna iridiflora, were employed in the
pilot scale study of the floating wetland system. Water quality was monitored for the
removal of BOD5 and inorganic nitrogen. Over 80% of BOD5 and NH4+-N removal was
noted while NO3--N removal was over 40% in batch experiments. Such performance
was again noted the with continuous flow regime. Root growth and density of T.
angustifolia was higher than that of C. iridiflora, resulting in comparatively better
performance by T. angustifolia. Floating wetlands with T. angustifolia will be a
possible solution for lake restoration where the constraints of space and costs are
faced.
Keywords:Eutrophication, Floating wetlands, Lake, Water quality restoration
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Kandy (N 7° 17' 47”, E 80° 38' 6”), capital city of the last Sri Lankan
kingdom, is recognized as a world heritage city by UNESCO for its
archeological importance. Kandy Lake is one of the most important manmade
structures within the city, constructed during 1810- 1812 A.D. The lake covers
an area of 0.18 km2 and has a maximum depth of 13m. It has a capacity of
0.348x106 m3 within a perimeter of 3.25 km [1]. Recreational activity other than
paddle boats is prohibited and the lake water is used neither for irrigation nor
any other domestic activity as it has been polluted due to inadequately treated
effluent discharges and surface runoff.
It has been reported in previous studies Kandy Lake has been enriched with
P and N compounds and polluted with heavy metals [1]. Typically, the first
flush of storm water from the adjoining residential and commercial areas is a
major cause of pollution in similar settings where a lake is surrounded by urban
settlements [2]. In addition, the increasing resident bird and animal population,
such as cormorants (about 250) and bats (about 2500), makes direct
contribution to the lake’s nutrient pool [1]. Quality of lake water is also noted to
change seasonally in response to rainfall. Kandy Lake water had been studied
35
for several metal ions and the Fe2+ concentration (> 100 µg/l) had increased
from shore towards the deepest point. The latter is between the sluice gate and
the island at the lake’s centre [3]. This had suggested increasingly reducing
conditions prevailed. Because of high vehicular traffic on the peripheral roads
around the lake, pollutants associated with vehicular emissions such as Pb have
likely entered the lake while Zn and Cd have been added by discharges from the
small scale industries scattered in the lake catchment [3]. High fish mortality
had been observed from mid to end of year 2009, with a maximum of 150
kills/day reported.
Although using wastewater treatment plants to purify wastewater prior to its
entry into the lake is technically feasible, space constraint is an issue given the
very build-up nature of the land around the lake. This meant the solution should
preferably be workable away from land and floating wetlands may represent a
potentially suitable solution for improving the lake water quality. Potential
advantages of this approach include: 1) improvement of the water quality, 2)
aesthetics associated with the greening, 3) relatively simple installation, 4)
relatively low maintenance requirements, 5) above water plant growth provides
nesting space for birds, 6) while below water plant growth provides spawning
space for fish, and 7) the overall plant growth provides shadowing and cooling
for the shallow water body.
Artificially created floating wetlands have been used for a limited range of
applications to date, such as water quality improvement and habitat
enhancement [4], and enhancing aesthetics at ornamental ponds and lakes. In
terms of water quality improvement, the main application had been the
treatment of storm water, combined storm water-sewer overflow, sewage [5],
acid mine drainage, piggery effluent [6], poultry processing waste water, and
water supply reservoirs [7]. However, much of such work had not been done
under tropical conditions. Based on this background, this study had seeked to
investigate the applicability of the floating wetland system for lake restoration
under tropical conditions as in Sri Lanka. The study aimed to establish general
guidelines for such an application.
36
2.1 Design of floating mats
The study was conducted at the Bio-technical Research Center (Faculty of
Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka). Three existing and identical
tanks were allocated for the experimental floating wetland system. Each
floating wetland module (100 x 50 cm2) comprised a float for buoyancy and a
frame (constructed from PVC pipes) for supporting the target vegetation growth
on the media, media for growing the vegetation (comprising coconut coir pith
held together with a 50 mm GI mesh), anchors (comprising cement weights),
and starter plants. The coconut coir pith was obtained fresh from local coconut
producers at plantations and each module had 15.6 kg of it. Total weight of the
module (initially) was 18.3 kg and the maximum weight that could be carried
by the module before it sank was estimated at 25.4 kg. This allowed maximum
vegetation weight (following growth) of 7.1 kg.
T. angustifolia and C .iridiflora were selected for the study since these were
locally available in Kandy. Macrophytes of approximately 20 cm shoot height
were chosen as the starter plants and planted in the floating wetland units with a
density of 10 plants/ m2.
2.2 Experimental procedure
Batch condition
The floating wetland system was tested in batch mode with 12-14 days
hydraulic retention time. After conditioning in tap water for a week, the two
floating wetland units were placed in the tanks of 1 m X 3m which have been
filled with wastewater drawn from the Akbar Hall of Residence at Faculty of
Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. A control tank was
maintained near to the tanks with the floating wetland units.
Experiments were carried out in three stages as stage 1, 2 and 3 (Stage 1 &
2 were run for long term removal efficiencies at 01 week intervals and Stage 3
for short term efficiency in daily basis) and effluent samples were taken as
triplicates at each stage. These were identified as initial (prior to launch the
system), intermediate, and final (prior to removal of the plants from the
system). Samples were taken at the water surface and 10 cm from the inlet and
outlet and tested for BOD5, NH4+ -N, NO3- -N in accordance with Standard
Methods [8]. In addition, shoot heights and root depths were measured at
predetermined occasion by lifting the modules out of the tanks while
minimizing the disturbances to the modules. The average ambient temperature
was varied in a range of 26 – 28 oC and the samples were collected at 1000 -
1100 hr to avoid the affects from diurnal variations. As there was significant
rainfall was expected during the experimental period, no compensation has been
countered for the calculations.
Continuous flow condition
Two floating wetland units, each of T. angustifolia and C .iridiflora
respectively were installed in the channels under continuous flow condition.
37
The flow rate in the channel was 0.08 m3/hr. Given the channels’
configuration, plug flow condition could be expected. Water samples were
taken intermittently and tested for the parameters identified in the above section
during the 3 months experimental period.
38
2.0 – 5.0 3.0 – 10.0
a) After 4 weeks
39
On the hand, N removal has varied with the type of macrophytes (Table 2).
As well, there was no significant different at the presence and absence of
floating wetland systems (p<0.05). This could be created due to the interference
of high algae growth in the control system. However, the algal growth was
controlled in the planted systems due to the competition for nutrients. NH4+-N
and NO3--N removal efficiencies were recorded over 80% and 40% respectively
after 14 days since starting each stage of the experiment in floated wetland
systems.
Table 1: The variation of BOD5 removal efficiency of each macrophytes specie
with the time (n=3)
Days BOD5 values (mgl-1) BOD5 removal efficiency (%)
T. C Control T. C Control
angustifolia .iridiflora angustifolia .iridiflora
Stage 1
0 22.1 22.1 22.1
7 11.3 5.5 15.8 48.5 75.3 28.6
14 10.3 3.3 10.4 53.2 85.0 53.0
Stage 2
0 20.1 20.1 20.1
7 8.8 7.3 9.2 56.2 63.5 54.4
14 4.8 5.8 6.6 76.1 71.3 67.4
Stage 3
0 28.1 28.1 28.1
1 20.2 21.6 26.3 28.1 23.1 6.4
2 13.7 15.3 22.0 51.2 45.6 21.7
3 10.2 12.3 19.6 63.7 56.2 30.2
4 8.5 9.7 18.8 69.8 65.5 33.1
40
Table 2: Comparison of the averaged nitrogen removal efficiencies (%) of two
floating wetland systems with time (n=6)
The basic water quality parameter variations of the continuous systems are
shown in Table 3. Similar to the batch system, continues systems also
performed better at most of the times with T. angustifolia. The removal
efficiency of BOD5 and NH4+-N are illustrated in Figure 2. BOD5, NH4+-N and
PO4 3--P removal efficiencies were over 90% in both systems after 50 days since
the installation at the site. However, there was no significant difference in
removal efficiencies between two macrophyte systems (p< 0.05). Referring to
the results of both batch and continuous flow tests, it is suggested to harvest the
macrophyte after two months period as macrophytes reach their maximum
shoot height and production. Hence, this will expedite removal of nutrients
from the lake water to an agricultural field where uses plant biomass. However,
optimum harvesting frequency for two different macrophytes would be differed
and hence it is reacquired to have further experiments on wetland systems with
similar species.
In general, nitrification followed by denitrification, volatilization, plant
uptake and substrate adsorption are the major NH4+-Nremoval mechanisms in a
wetland system [14]. At regular ambient conditions, denitrification is probably
the most significant pathway of NO3--N removal from a wetland system [15].
The loss through volatilization of NH4+-N represented, on average, 20% of the
initial concentrations at the similar pH range (7.8 – 8.4) as observed in this
experiment [16]. This could be greater in the control system than planted
system due to its greater exposure to the atmosphere. On the other hand, the
contribution to total nitrogen removal by direct plant uptake was limited as 4-
41
11% [15]. Also, the adsorption by sediment might contribute extensively in
nitrogen removal [15].
Usually, floating wetland systems and the root and rhizome system assist in
nutrient removal by providing space for the attached growth of micro-organisms
colonies, creating the bio-film, and take nutrients out of the water. Hence, when
nitrogenous compounds pass through the metabolism or the micro-organisms
and are thus transformed into an easier digestible form, and then the plants take
them in and build with them the biomass above the water level as leaves, stems
and sometimes flowers. Finally, the biomass harvesting assists in taking the
excess nutrients effectively and permanently out of the water. Therefore, plant
roots are believed to play a major role in treatment processes within floating
wetland systems.
Table 3: The variation of effluent water quality of each macrophytes specie with
the time (n=3) at the continuous flow condition
T. angustifolia C. iridiflora
Conductivity (µS/cm)
Conductivity (µS/cm)
Time (Days)
NH4+-N (mg/l)
NH4+-N (mg/l)
NO3--N (mg/l)
NO3--N (mg/l)
PO4 3--P(mg/l)
PO4 3--P(mg/l)
BOD5 (mg/l)
BOD5 (mg/l)
pH
pH
Influ
-ent 28.72 8.5 144 1.9 32.00 2.80 28.7 8.5 144 1.9 32.0 2.80
11 13.80 8.5 145 1.8 4.90 2.28 9.25 7.8 141 2.2 3.32 1.41
15 13.10 8.4 142 1.6 3.03 0.76 8.20 7.6 141 1.0 3.01 0.80
37 6.58 8.2 141 1.5 2.16 0.63 6.20 7.6 139 1.0 2.85 0.29
41 5.53 8.1 139 1.4 1.48 0.39 3.00 7.5 141 1.1 1.48 0.29
48 1.30 7.9 144 1.0 0.95 0.39 2.55 7.5 143 0.9 1.20 0.23
51 1.20 7.6 143 0.7 0.58 0.29 1.60 7.6 141 0.7 1.03 0.09
74 0.60 7.5 141 0.3 0.05 0.29 1.40 7.5 141 0.6 0.56 0.37
83 1.20 7.4 143 0.1 0.04 0.18 2.00 7.4 144 0.7 0.34 0.08
96 1.30 7.4 144 0.2 0.02 0.29 2.10 7.5 142 0.1 0.07 0.06
The experiment done with T. angustifolia planted on soil bed at the same
environmental conditions and in the same experimental site showed the removal
efficiencies of BOD5 as 53.8%, NH4+-N as 56.5 % and NO3--N as 51.6 % [17].
However, the removal efficiencies of floating wetland systems at the same
environmental conditions for same plant species has shown greater values for
42
BOD5, and NH4+-N while lesser values for NO3--N. This must be expected as
floating wetland systems provide less of the anaerobic environment than the soil
bed planted systems and hence aerobic activities perform well while anaerobic
are retarded.
However, further fundamental experimental researches are required in order
to establish a relationship between loading rate per unit surface area of floating
wetland. This would then enable to produce guidelines on the surface area of
floating wetland systems. In addition, application of floating wetland systems at
actual conditions is essential before justifying their efficiency in lake water
reclamation.
100
100
Removal efficiency (%)
80 80
Typha sp.
T. angustifolia T. angustifolia
Typha sp.
60 C. iridiflora
Canna sp. 60 C. iridiflora
Canna sp.
40 40
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (days) Time (days)
(a) (b)
+
Figure 2: Comparison of a) BOD5 and b) NH4 -N removal efficiency variations
in between two different macrophytes systems
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The experimental results have proven the effectiveness of floating wetland
systems in removing both carbonaceous and nitrogenous compounds from
polluted water. However, comparing two macrophytes species, T. angustifolia
performs well in removal of BOD5 and inorganic nitrogen than those of C
.iridiflora. However, on the other hand C. iridiflora would still be a better
option for aesthetically significant locations.
5.0 REFERENCES
Silva, E. I. L., “Emergence of a Microcystis bloom in an urban water body, Kandy
Lake, Sri Lanka”.Curr. Sci. India, Vol. 85, No. 6, 2003, pp 723-725.
Gupta A.B., Jain R. Gupta K., “Water quality management for the Talkatora Lake,
Jaipur-A case study”, Water Science and Technology., Vol. 40, No. 2, 1999, pp 29-
33.
43
Dissanayake, C. B., Rohana Bandara, A. M., Weerasooriya, S. V. R., “Heavy metal
abundances in the Kandy Lake- An environmental case study from Sri Lanka”,
Environmental Geology, Vol. 10, 1987, pp 81-88.
Burgess, N.D., Hirons, G.J.M., “Creation and management of artificial nesting sites for
wetland birds”, Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 34, No. 4, 1992, pp
285-295.
Ash, R., Troung, P., “The use of Vetiver grass wetlands for sewerage treatment in
Australia”, Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Vetiver,Guangzhou,
China, 2003.
Hubbard, R.K., Gascho, G.J., Newton, G.L., “Use of floating vegetation toremove
nutrients from swine lagoon wastewater”, Transactions of the ASAE, Vol. 47, No.
6, 2004, pp 1963-1972.
Garbutt, P., “An investigation into the application of floating reed bed and barley straw
techniques for the remediation of eutrophic waters”, WEJ, 2004, pp 174-180.
APHA, “Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.20th
Edition”, American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, USA. 1998.
Konnerup, D., Koottatep, T., Brix, H., “Treatment of domestic wastewater in tropical,
subsurface flow constructed wetlands planted with Canna and Heliconia”,
Ecological engineering, Vol. 35, 2009, pp 248–257.
Greenway, M., “Suitability of macrophytes for nutrient removal from surface flow
constructed wetlands receiving secondary treated effluent in Queensland,
Australia”, Water Science and Technology, Vol. 48, No. 2, 2003, pp 121–128.
Koottatep, T., Polprasert, C., “Role of plant uptake on nitrogen removal in constructed
wetlands located in tropics”, Water Science and Technology, Vol. 36, No. 12, 1997,
pp 1-8.
Kantawanichkul, S., Supreeya Kladprasert, S., Brix, H., “Treatment of high-strength
wastewater in tropical vertical flow constructed wetlands planted with Typha
angustifoliaand Cyperus involucratu”, Ecological engineering, Vol. 35, 2009, pp
238–247.
Juwarkar. A., Oke, B., Juwarkar, A., and Patnaik, S.M., Domestic wastewater treatment
through constraucted wetland in India, Water Science & Technology, Vol. 32, No.
3, 1995, pp. 291-294.
Vymazal, J., “Removal of nutrients in various types of constructed wetlands”, Science
of Total Environment, Vol. 380, 2007, pp 48-65.
Lin, Y., Jing, S., Wang, T., and Lee, D., “Effects of macrophytes and external carbon
sources on nitrate removal from ground water in constructed wetlands”,
Environmental Pollution, Vol. 119, 2002, pp 413-420.
Dendene, M.A., Rolland, T., Tremolieres, M., Cariener, R., “Effect of ammonium ions
on the net photosynthesis of three species of Eldoea”, Aquatic Botany, Vol. 46,
1993, pp 301-315.
44
Jinadasa, K.B.S.N., Tanaka, N., Sasikala, S., Werellagama, D.R.I.B., Mowjood, M.I.M.
and Ng, W.J., “Impact of harvesting on constructed wetlands performance – a
comparison between Scirpus grossus and Typha angustifolia” J Environ Sci Health
A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng, Vol. 43, No. 6, 2008, pp 664-671.
45
46
Volume II
47
48
Key Note Address
VISION
This proposal envisions a management system for surface water and
delivery of potable water to the residents in an urban centre such as Singapore.
We envision a framework for water management and water supply chain to
support information, reporting and management system within 3 years, through
4 Tracks founded on a backbone of software modelling and decision support
tools. These 4 Tracks are: management of watershed and harvesting of water;
management of a multi-function and multi-reservoir system; risk management
and security of the water distribution system; and water quality monitoring and
instrumentation.
THE APPROACH
The various expertises in areas such as operation, planning, contingency
response, public education, modelling, simulation, monitoring, research,
scenario analysis, design and assessments exist in Singapore, in the various
government agencies and departments, research institutions and consultant
companies. There are also pockets of research and development work on water
quality monitoring, sensor development, contaminant and nutrient removal from
the waterways, as well as catchment managements. These various efforts and
expertises could be stitched together to provide a seamless web of information
flow and decision support for the managers.
This framework could be jointly developed with champion government
agency (EWI) in consultation with water authorities and agencies, and leverage
on the international experience through our resource people in the university
and research network, and specialist consultants, and carried out in a
programme based on 4 Tracks which share certain commonality and yet are
distinct in their own right. The common area lies in the development of the
information and management system which is founded in the strong backbone
of software tools including data management, information management,
modelling and simulation, system analysis as well as expert-system-like
49
decision support systems. Figure 2 shows the technology road map for the 4
Tracks of this programme1.
1
All 4 Tracks require strong support on instrumentation and sensor – sensing network,
control, communication and software interface. While the team is fully capable of
developing software tools and interfaces, specialist inputs in the design of sensors and
sensing network will be required. It is recognised that proprietary development of
sensor and sensing network, protocol, etc. will distract attention from the focus and
objective of the programme. While electronics and mechanical engineering know how
may be needed at times, expertises and specialists help could be sourced, when the
need arises, to develop the hardware and software to the special needs. As much as is
possible, the hardware development will be restricted to integration of off-the shelf
items.
50
Figure 1: A diagrammatic sketch of the water chains and elements in an urban water environment.
51
Track 1: Management of watershed and harvesting of water
This Track plans to establish the land use and catchment characteristics of a
number of catchment, and model the rainfall-runoff-water quality relationship,
to provide the input for design of water storage facilities, the transfer system,
and the necessary preliminary process of particle separation, and removal of
nutrients and contaminants. Several catchment types will be considered: nature
reserve, cluster dwelling, public housing estate, industrial estate2. Certain
catchment types will be selected and sensor network installed to provide the
flow and water quality data. Selection of the water quality parameter will be
guided by the catchment and land use characteristics. This part of the work will
be carried out with the intention not to repeat or duplicate reported or on-going
catchment studies.
The state of arts of the rainfall-runoff modelling is well-established. This study
aims to develop the complimentary part, i.e. water quality modelling, and in
particular, address the issue of non-point source pollutants, the distribution,
entrainment and transport characteristics in surface runoff, the drainage channel
and waterway. While genetic algorithm or artificial neural network approach
have been adopted by contemporary researchers, this research team proposes to
adopt a hybrid approach which hinges heavily on physically based conceptual
model initially and progressively driven by data supplied through on-line sensor
networks which are either installed by this research team or obtained through
communication interfaces from other sensor networks. The rainfall-runoff-water
quality modelling process yields the quantity and quality of rainwater from the
catchment.
While it is not the main objective of this framework, rainwater harvesting,
“capture-treatment-storage” will be investigated and innovative scheme
developed to achieve harvested water of reasonable water quality. Rainwater
capturing ancillary with incorporated sediment separation designs (vegetation or
certain landscaping features), be it through innovative hydraulic flow design,
hydraulic filter pack, vegetated channels/waterways, or infiltration galleries
would be considered. The hydraulic filter pack, vegetation and wet-land-like
features would be specially design taking into consideration land scarcity and
the need to treat large amount of rainwater generated over a short duration. The
team view the large area of sand-filled reclaimed land in Tuas, the west coast,
East coast and Changi areas potential storage aquifers. The benefit is two folds
– displacing saline water as well as providing fresh ground water storage in the
soil pores. Storage of water in storm drains and possibly through
hollow/floating structures below deck (of port/wharves/jetties), or floating
inflatable storage devices in the nearshore area would be investigated. New
floating structures (e.g. honeycomb concrete structures) could be used to store
water below deck while supporting other uses on the deck could be an option.
2
Petro-chemcial and shipyards are not considered at this stage.
52
The rainwater “capture-treatment-storage” study provides various plausible
alternatives to the management of watershed
The information of rainwater quantity and quality, and that of the harvested
water, will be captured and form part of the database to support the integrated
management system.
Track 2: Management of multi-function and multi-reservoir system
Characterisation of the reservoirs, both in terms of effective volume, water
quality and their function as an element of a storm drainage system is the first
goal of this Track. Then the strategy of an utilisation matrix of the reservoirs, in
terms of the regulation of the water level, buffer volume in anticipation of
heavy storms, and health and water safety standards for various recreational
activities, will be developed. Modelling of the reservoir3 will also include, in
addition to quantity and quality requirement for abstraction for water treatment,
the necessary conditions to support the eco-system quality in the reservoir. The
experience of consultants and operators are of tremendous values here. The
modelling technique will be based on a combination of budget-accounting,
routing and optimisation, with a strong emphasis on decision support in
response to external influence such as anticipated rainfall, demands and ad hoc
request to support certain recreational activity or water use.
Modelling tools as an important interfacing platform to integrate the watershed,
on the upstream end and through abstraction of water to supply the water
treatment plants at the other end. Coupled with this is an emerging requirement
to enhance the quality of life through providing bio-diversity, and such healthy
ecosystems of a reservoir also may serve as an escape from urban life. The
management system and functionalities will be extended to include multiple
reservoirs, which together would provide shared capacity and volume for an
efficient and seamless multi-reservoir operation. Expert-system-like decision
support system will also be developed to incorporate in the system database,
invaluable experience of the consultants and engineers from the various
agencies and authorities.
Information of the volume, capacity, water quality, and water safety advisory
will form the database for the integrated management system. This Track also
has the special need to provide “predictive” capability to “anticipate” future
demands and potential quantity and quality of water. Historical data (rainfall,
temperature, water use patterns, etc) and statistical techniques would be
incorporated to form the decision support tools for the management system.
3
Eutrophication and other reservoir circulation modelling will not be investigated in details.
Provision will be made to allow for information and data set that will facilitate modelling and
reporting of relevant parameters. Similarly provision will be made for including in the database,
characteristics and performance of devices for enhancing reservoir circulation and relevant water
quality parameter.
53
Track 3: Risk management and security of water distribution system
This Track aims to extend the framework to include a holistic, life-cycle-
management approach to integrate these processes with the objective of
providing an established risk assessment and management framework and
system assurance model for the water distribution system in Singapore. The
design of a real-time water quality sensor and communication network, as well
as sensor location, analysis of sensor signals, contamination source
identification, and response and containment will be developed. Damage in one
of these facilities such as pipe leakage, due to, for example ground movement,
corrosion of structure or pipe, water contamination by chemical or biological
factors (waterborne disease), and pipe breakage, can bring about a major
setback to the water supply system4. Risk assessment and management
methodology aimed at determining the level of provision of drinking water
supplies and to describe sources, causes and consequences of a risk, as well as
evaluation of risks and consequent measures to mitigate the potential risks on a
water supply distribution system will also be developed. An
emergency/contingency plan will also be designed and feed into the centralised
management system which provides an online monitoring and information
system for the integrity of the infra-structure and assurance of the water
quality/safety of the water transported in the system.
Track 4: Water quality monitoring and instrumentation
Instrumentation and development of strategies for sensing the water
environment are important so as to capture the water quality variables without
losing fidelity of distribution of the sensed parameters in the environment. A
sensor network will be necessary to provide detailed spatial information as well
as providing a communication network for the transmission of sensed data and
control between the controller and the sensors. With emerging contaminant
issues and realisation of the significance of trace chemicals, pharmaceuticals,
and hormones, new sensors which are bio-based, fluorescence, photonic-based
or gene-group detection probes will be developed. Statistical data mining
methods will be employed to infer temporal and spatial data patterns and to
facilitate effective water quality monitoring and resources management. A field
campaign on a selected water body will be carried out to characterise the water
quality of relevant parameters in the bed and bank sediment, in addition to the
water body at large. Other parameters indicating the bio-diversity and
ecological health of the water body will also be included in the campaign. This
field campaign will be carried out in close liaison with other research groups, to
widen the scope and coverage (both spatial and temporal) of the field work, and
maximise returns of the research resources and efforts. The pooled data will be
channelled to the integrated management system both as a database as well as a
bench mark reference to set the water standard, and provide advisory to the
manager and the public when and where negative deviation in water quality has
4
Pressure transient induced by mechanical system and external excitation is provided for in the
database structure but detailed investigation will not be carried out in this programme.
54
been detected. Relevant environment policy and issues will be explored and
provision made in the database to enhance the capability of the management
system.
Framework and strategy for an integrated management and on-line information
While the development of the framework begins immediately at the individual
component level, the integration process will be developed progressively to
build the framework, database and functionality of the integrated management
system. The science and knowledge generated and model/information
developed will be integrated to support dissemination of information, reporting
and management on the same common platform. The framework will be based
on an open structure that will allow flexibility for building interfaces to
communicate with other data groups and operations. The system will also
provide the basic framework for the development and incorporation of a
decision making supporting system and scenario analysis.
ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES
The information and management of the selected individual elements of the
water supply chain, i.e. watershed, reservoir and selected surface water body,
and a reticulation network could be established within 2 years. Also in place are
communication interfaces for the incorporation of data and information from
other sources. The individual management systems could be further developed
and integrated to form the framework of an integrated management system by
the third year. We anticipated a working framework that be available to
demonstrate the capability of the system and the benefits it has on the
establishment of a common database, integration of information from various
relevant sources, sharing and dissemination of information, reporting, providing
advisory and management of the raw water resources and water supply network.
The system will also have in place an initial framework to support data mining
capability to perform data consistency, risk analysis, contingency response and
scenario testing.
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Urban lake monitoring and management: Proceedings of an international symposium, 18 May 2012, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
36 MONTHS
Framework & strategy:
An Integrated Water Management and Water Supply Chain for an Urban Centre:
Watersheds, Reservoirs, and Water Supply Network – Security & Risk
30 MONTHS
watershed
development of
information, development of reservoir
on-line WQ and surface and sub-surface water WQ
reporting and information, reporting and
structural health information system
management management system
24 MONTHS
approach towards
environment and sensors / analytics testing
removal of water quality reservoir - water characterization identification of
relevant data information relevant data development of protocols for trace
particles, nutrient catchment storage and environment and critical elements
and information system and information sensor / sensing chemicals
and contaminants characterization from other
distribution water quality
from other strategy
from raw water sources, sources,
Track 1: Management of Watershed and including other Track 2: Management of multi-function Track 3: Risk management and security of including other Track 4: Water quality monitoring and
harvesting of rainwater utilities, multi-reservoir system water distribution system utilities, instrumentation
government government
agencies, and agencies, and
other R & D other R & D
Projects Projects
Figure 1: The programme roadmap showing the 4 Tracks, and a unified development of the management system during the last 9 months.
Note: The field work, demonstration basin, sensor development and sensor network development will be conducted in liaison with other research groups to
extend the scope and coverage of the research study and to optimise the research resources and returns of the effort expanded. Where it is relevant,
interfaces would be developed to integrate data and information from various sources into the common database and information system.
56
Urban lake monitoring and management: Proceedings of an international symposium, 18 May 2012,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
Sonal Gupta
ABSTRACT
Water is one of the most important elements required for life on earth. The natural
water bodies are vital for the survival of human civilizations. Among the water bodies,
lakes are important and contribute about 87% of all the fresh water on the earth
surface. Inhabitants living in and around a lake depend on it for water, food,
recreation, tourism etc.
There is no single term used for “Lakes” in India. The lakes are generally of many
types– Natural, Manmade and Ephemeral. Many lakes in India are categorized as
wetlands by Ramsar Covention.
Udaipur city is located in the south west part of Rajasthan State. It is the sixth
largest city of Rajasthan. Due to lakes and water bodies, it is called the “City of lakes
or Venice of east”. It is one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Udaipur city is
unique in its own way. Being situated in drier part of India, the city constitutes hilly soil
and unmatchable water resources. The city holds great ecological importance. Lakes of
Udaipur are the lifeline of city as they not only add a picture perfect beauty to the city
but also act as a boon for tourism that helps the local people. However, these lakes are
in immense threat of degradation as a result of catchment degradation, encroachments,
urbanization and waste disposal etc. Due socio-economic importance of these lakes, it
is a timely need to conserve the lakes and their catchments mainly through awareness
building among school children and the residents of the city.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Udaipur is situated in the south - west of the State of Rajasthan in India: -
the “Land of the Raj's’’ - Kings - at the bottom of the mountain range Aravali in
a valley 577m above the sea level. It is a city, a Municipal Council and the
administrative headquarters of the Udaipur district. Udaipur is located at 24°35’
N 73°41’ E/ 24.58°N 73.68°E / 24.58; 73.68. The location of the city in India
and State of Rajasthan is given in Figure 1. It has an average elevation of
598.00 meters. The climate of Udaipur is tropical, with the temperature ranging
between 42.3°C 28.8°C summers. Winters are mild with the maximum
temperature rising to 28.8°C and the minimum dipping to 2.5°C. Usually
climate is pleasant around the year. According to the 2001 India census,
Udaipur has a population of 3.89 lac listing the city among the most populated
cities of Rajasthan. Males constitute 53 % of the total population of the city
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Urban lake monitoring and management: Proceedings of aan international symposium, 18 May 2012,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
the lake periphery. These are some of the reasons attributed for lake
degradation.
The pollution of the lakes has not only affected the health of the people of
Udaipur. It has also practically wiped out several species of fish. The bigger
carps are fast disappearing, leaving only minor carps, minnows and puntius.
The situation is indicative of the slow poisoning of the people of Udaipur.
The city of Udaipur is also famous for its marble mining and production.
Hundreds of Marble mining and producing companies are working in the
Industrial belt of Udaipur city. These industries are generating tons of Marble
slurry which affects the local atmosphere, lake water, agriculture land and
causing respiratory diseases among animals including human.
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Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
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Urban lake monitoring and management: Proceedings of an international symposium, 18 May 2012,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
recorded from the terrestrial habitats whereas 102 bird species representing 26
families were recorded from aquatic habitats. Five species of global importance,
namely, Indian White-backed Vulture; Long-billed Vulture; Green Munia from
terrestrial habitats and Spot-billed Pelican; Indian Skimmer from aquatic
habitats, 6 recorded in the past from the study area were also enlisted in the
checklist but not sighted during the course of study (Mehra et al., undated).
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Urban lake monitoring and management: Proceedings of an international symposium, 18 May 2012,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
clubs will participate and the best performers will be awarded with the prizes.
The resource materials like information packets, posters, activity manual etc.
will be developed every year and distributed among the target groups
During the first year of the project, five wetland clubs were set up in 5
different schools. The club members were trained and motivated to collect the
data on lake water quality, Lake Biodiversity, local issues like improper waste
deposition, marble mining and slurry generation/ deposition.
5.0 REFERENCES
Rathore, N.S. and Sukhadia M.L. undated.University College of Social Science
and Humanities, University, Udaipur.
Mehra, S.P., Mehra, S. and Sharma, K.K. undated.Urban Avifaunal
Biodiversity in context of Udaipur, Rajasthan, India,
independent.academia.edu, Accessed on 02/04/2012).
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Urban lake monitoring and management: Proceedings of an international symposium, 18 May 2012,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
Sandeep Joshi
ABSTRACT
Ever expanding urban sprawls are on the naturally inherited lands of water bodies
like streams, rivers (lotic – hydrodynamic water bodies) and lakes (lentic – hydrostatic
water bodies). Generally development takes place in the catchment of recurrent,
perennial source of fresh water. Unplanned growth of population and industrialization
is causing quantitative and qualitative deficits of water availability in the catchment of
rivers and lakes in the modernized urban areas. Urban growth directs sharing of the
water amongst the human population and ecological biodiversity disproportionately
without acknowledging the ecosystem services provided by the lentic and lotic water
bodies to the urban systems. Governance has primary mandate and objective of looking
after equitable opportunities for everybody, welfare and protection of the population
and natural resources in the geographical area under its jurisdiction. Time taken for
comprehension, capacity building and awareness of governing systems based on
environmental emergencies has resulted in unprecedented scaling up of numerous
global, regional and local environmental problems. Governance - representation of the
people can be strengthened for the existence of lentic and lotic water bodies in the
urban areas – considering the ecological properties and services of aquatic ecosystems
for the livelihood. In this paper, the attempt has made to evolve the axioms, principles
of Government’s Environmental Accountability and Responsibility (GEAR) for the
sustainable lake management through the adaption of six pillar approach of Integrated
Lentic and Lotic Basin Management (IL2BM) with a comparative study of some Asian
lakes and their catchments in different geo-climatic conditions. The attempt has been
made to evaluate the action plans for sustainable management of lakes involving
various stakeholders, civil society initiatives, scientific inputs, professional services and
regulatory mechanisms.
Keywords:Urban lifestyle, aquatic systems, GEAR, ecosystem approach, (IL2BM)
1.0INTRODUCTION
Lakes are generally defined as hydrostatic, lentic, stagnated natural, man-
made or ephemeral waterbodies including ponds, backwaters of dams and
reservoirs (Nakamura, Masahisa and Rast, Walter, 2011; Reddy, M. S. & Char,
N. V. V. 2006). Non-availability of inclusive historical documented references
to the existence of lakes, scientific data about its catchment and water quality
lead to the present trivial status of lakes in different geoclimatic regions of
India. Every district of India had thousands of small lakes, ponds and tanks
integrated with day to day life of people. These were either naturally collected
waters in a depression from the surrounding land, meandering nature of rivers
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greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are the core of worldwide debate. Studies
show that 3-10 times more greenhouse gases are produced by newly formed
reservoirs than from natural lakes of the same size (www.lakescientist.com) or
the lakes which receive urban wastes as in case of Ujjani reservoir in
Mashasrashtra State of India generating 50,000 tons (estimated based on waste
ingress) of methane gas annually (Ghole, V. S., 2011a).
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organic and inorganic wastes and local green plants were grown to support the
activity of microorganisms symbiotically. This resulted in -
• Multifold increase in Dissolved Oxygen from 0 to 10.4 mg/L
• Reduction in ecological toxicity neared to zero
• Exponential increase in phytoplankton and zooplankton
• 250 times fish growth
• The entire river stretch got its life again with return of turtles, snakes
and birds
7.0 CONCLUSION
So, the water governance involves the political, social, economic and
administrative systems as well as livelihood processes with business and
societal wisdom and traditional knowledge that are in place, which directly or
indirectly affect the use, development and management of water resources.
Importantly, it emphasizes that water sector is a part of broader ecological,
social, political and economic developments.
8.0 REFERENCES
Ghole, VS, Patwardhan Ashok and Joshi, Sandeep (2011) Impact analysis of agriculture
and agro-industries on Ujjani Reservoir, Maharashtra, India. 14th World Conference
organized by River Systems Institute, Texas University anmd Interenational Lake
Environment Committee Foundation (ILEC), Japan, Nov. 1- 5, 2011.
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Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandy_Lake
http://www.lakescientist.com/learn-about-lakes/lakes-climate-change/lakes-and-
greenhouse-gases.html
http://www.nyo.unep.org/action/11.htm
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/issues/freshwater.asp
Joshi, Sandeep (2011a) Protection of urban lakes for city’s environment quality and
livability. In proceedings of International Conference on people, places and
opportunities towards sustainable cities – 2030.Organized by AIILSG, UCLG-
ASPAC. Pg. 75 – 91.
Joshi, Sandeep (2011b) Detailed Project Report of Buddha Nala Ecological and
Ecological Restoration (Buddha NEER) submitted to Government of India.
UNEP Report (2010) Sick water.The central role of wastewater management in
sustainable development.Ed. Emily Corcoran.
Kodarkar, Mohan and Joshi, Sandeep (2010) ILBM impact story – ecological
restoration of highly polluted stretch of Ahar river, Udaipur and ecological
improvement of Udaipsagar lake, Rajasthan, India. Presented in Final review
meeting and international symposium of a project entitled “Intengrated Lake Basin
Management (ILBM), Basin Governance, Challenges and Prospects”, Nov. 2- 7,
2010.International Lake Environment Committee (ILEC) Foundation,
Headquarters, Kusatsu, Japan.
Kodarkar, M. S. (1995) Conservation of lakes, case study of five lakes in & around
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. India. Publ. 3. Indian Association of Aquatic
Biologists (IAAB), Hyderabad.
Nakamura, Masahisa, and Rast, Walter (2011) Development of ILBM Platform Process.
Published by RCSE, Shiga University, and International Lake Environment
Committee Foundation, Japan.Pp. 4.
Pokharel, Shailendra and Nakamura, Masahisa (2010) Integrated Lake Basin
Manmagement (ILBM) for the sustainable conservation of Himalayan lakes of
Nepal.Wetland Conservation Publication Series no. 2.National Lake Conservation
Development Committee (NLCDC), Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation,
Government of Nepal. Pp. 15 – 22.
Reddy, M. S. & Char, N. V. V. (2006) Management of Lakes in India. Lakes &
Reservoirs: Research & Management 11(4), 227-237.
United Nations, DESA, Population Division. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005
Revision.
www.moef.nic.in URL: http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/press-note-
launch-of-bio-remediation-project-ludhiana.pdf
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ABSTRACT
A shallow, small man made reservoir located within a high altitudinal populated
city in Sri Lanka was studied to assess the effects of seasonal changes on water quality
and plankton dynamics. Data were collected from four sites during wet and dry seasons
at three months interval for a period of one year, March 2011 to March 2012. From the
measured environmental variables, turbidity, ammonia-N, Total Phosphorus and
Chlorophyl a showed elevated levels during the wet season (October – December) and
conductivity and alkalinity were high during the dry season (February and April).
Diversity of plankton was more during the wet season (34 species) than the dry season
(24 species). However the study reveals that the concentration of plankton was high
during the dry season. In addition, relative abundance data showed that some species of
cyanobacteria (e.g. Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii ) abundant during the wet season
when the reservoir records high nutrient temperature , turbidity and pH values whereas
diatoms (e.g. Aulacoseira granulata ) more abundant during the dry season. Thus the
seasonal environmental changes are likely to affect the water quality which may have
influence the changes of community composition of planktons in the study reservoir.
Keywords: Lake Gregory; plankton; water quality; Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii;
Aulacoseira granulata ; Sri Lanka.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The total annual precipitation falling on Sri Lanka is ~1,370 million m3 out
of which only ~31% is discharged to the sea by 103 main rivers (Arumugam,
1969). However, this large amount of precipitation is not equally distributed
over the country; some areas are consistently wet, whereas others show marked
seasonality and arid conditions (Ranatunga, 1992). The Wet Zone covers only
17,000 km2, and the central highlands are also located in this region whereas the
Intermediate and Dry zones cover 48,000 km2 which is more than two thirds of
the total land area of the country. The Wet Zone receives a mean annual
rainfall (MARF) of more than 2m, which occurs throughout the year from the
southwest-, northeast-, and convectional inter-monsoons. In this zone,
precipitation is much greater than the estimated evaporation rate of 1.5 m
year-1 (Kumarasinghe , 1997). In contrast, precipitation is highly seasonal in the
Intermediate and Dry zones, and evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation
(Kumarasinghe, 1997). These regions get precipitation mainly from the
northeast monsoon which delivers a MARF of between 1.5 and 2 m to the
Intermediate Zone, and 1 to 1.5 m to the Dry Zone (Costa & de Silva, 1995).
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Figure 1: The study site showing the four sampling sites A,B,C and D.
2.2 Sample collection and analysis
Collection of water samples for the analysis of chemical variables from the
study reservoir was undertaken between for 12 months, from March 2011 to
March 2012, to cover both wet and dry seasons. Because the winds were
typically high during the day, most of the sampling and field measurements
were carried out either during the morning or early evening. Water samples
from a depth of ~ 0.5 m were obtained from four sampling sites (site A, site B,
site C and site D- Fig. 1) for laboratory analyses of nutrients, alkalinity,
dissolved oxygen, Chl.a. and sulphate. The samples were collected in 500-ml
polyethylene bottles that were rinsed with lake water prior to sampling.
Preservation of water samples followed the APHA (American Public Health
Association standard methods for examination of water and wastewater, 18th
edition). The samples were stored in a cooler and transported to the Institute of
Fundamental Studies (IFS) Kandy, Sri Lanka within 24 hrs of obtaining the
samples. Onsite measurements of temperature, salinity, conductivity, specific
conductance were taken at 0.5-m of the reservoir with a field instrument
(Thermo Orion- Model 105). Field measurements of pH were obtained using
Orion® Model 230A portable pH meter, using a two-point calibration, which
encompassed the measured value. The Secchi depth of each reservoir was
measured using a 22-cm diameter Secchi disk.
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3.0 RESULTS
3.1. Physical and chemical conditions
According to the results, Lake Gregory is eutrophic in both seasons having
total phosphorus level more than 30 µg/l. (Table 1). However, there is a marked
variation of TP during the wet season having hypereutrophic conditions. In
addition recorded chlorophyll a values also indicate that the primary production
is higher during the wet season. Same pattern was observed for nitrite –N, and
ammonia-N within the study sites of the reservoir. The elevated levels of
dissolved oxygen were observed during the dry season. The conductivity values
indicate a clear dilution effect during the rainy season. Among the measured
environmental variables alkalinity values show that the reservoir is rich in acid
neutralizing capacity during the dry season than the wet season.
Table 1.Seasonal variation in the physic-chemical parameters of the Lake
Gregory.
Parameters Dry season Wet season
Water temperature (⁰C) 18 20.1
Dissolve oxygen (mg/l) 8.54 7.01
Turbidity (NTU) 14.99 34.9
pH 8.98 9.05
Conductivity (µs) 119 107
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3.2 Planktons
Diversity of plankton were more during the wet season (36 species) than the
dry season (26 species). However the study reveals that the absolute abundance
of both zooplankton and phytoplankton were high during the dry season. In
addition, relative abundance data showed that some species of cyanobacteria
(e.g. Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii ) abundant during the wet season when the
reservoir records high nutrient values whereas diatoms are abundant during the
dry season
Table 2. Absolute and relative abundance of planktons recorded in two seasons
in Lake Gregory
Relative Absolute
Species abundance (%) abundance
wet dry wet dry
Phytoplankton
Cyanophyceae
Anabaena sp. 0.2 0.12 10 10
Anabaena circinalis 0.1 0 5 0
Aphanizomenon sp. 0.4 0.06 20 10
Coeleospharium sp. 1.34 0.19 65 15
Cylindrospermopsis
raciborskii 75.4 0 3650 0
Limnothrix sp. 1.44 7.85 70 615
Leptolyngbya sp. 1.13 0.12 55 10
Gomphosphaeria sp. 0.2 0.12 10 10
Microcystis sp. 0.1 0.19 5 15
Microcystisaeruginosa 0.2 0.25 10 20
Microcystis incerta 0.2 0.31 10 25
Merismopedia punctata 0.3 1.78 15 120
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Wet season
No of Individuals / ml
Dry season
Absolute abundance
Figure 2: Variation of dominant taxa in dry and wet seasons in Lake Gregory
4.0 DISCUSSION
Physicochemical changes influence the plankton communities in the aquatic
systems, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Limnological factors such as
temperature, pH salinity controlled the plankton ecotype, and the nutrients
control the biomass is a well known factor worldwide. According to the results
obtained, environmental factors prevailing in the wet season appear to support
high diversity of planktons than the dry season. There were 29 species of
phytoplankton and 5 species of zooplankton recorded in the wet season and 23
species of phytoplankton and one species of zooplankton recorded during the
dry season. However concentration of plankton was high during the dry season.
In addition, relative abundance data showed that some species of cyanobacteria
(e.g. Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii ) dominate the system during the wet
season and could not find a single filament during the dry season. According to
Berger et al. (2006), C. raciborskii biomasses were mainly related to high
temperature and water column stability where as Marcina et al., 2008 suggest
that C. raciborskii population dynamics were influenced by water temperature,
high pH values and low euphotic zone values. In our study also during the wet
season when the water temperature, tubidity and pH values were high,
unusually large filaments of C. raciborskii were observed at high abundance.
However, according to Liyange & Magana-Arachchi (2012), C. raciborskii is
the dominant phytoplankton in many of the Dry zone reservoirs especially in
the Anuradhapula district. However, Briand et al. (2002), explain that C.
raciborskii is a highly adaptable species live under wide variety of
environmental conditions and thus difficult to predict the occurrence of
proliferation. For example, although C. raciborskii is known to prefer thermally
stratified warm tropical waters (McGregor and Fabbro,2000) some studies have
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shown that they prefer to colonize in shallow temperate waters with highly
variable temperature and climatic conditions (Padisák 1997). However in
temperate climates they are highly abundant in warm climatic conditions and
may not even appear under cool a climate which is highly comparable with our
study (Padisák 1997).
During the dry season when the reservoir experience high conductivity and
low water temperature diatom species Aulacoseira granulatewas highly
abundant with relative abundance more than 50%. This species is known to
respond to both physical and chemical limnological variables such as flow
condition, turbidity and silica concentrations (Hotzel & Croome,1996) During
the high floods and low silica concentrations A. granulate tend to reduce in
number which also could be compared with our study as they show drastic
reduction in the wet season.
Past studies have demonstrated that nutrients were the main factors
determining the concentrations of chlorophyll a and plankton communities in
aquatic systems in Sri Lanka (Yatigammana, 2004). In Lake Gregory the
highest chlorophyll a concentrations were recorded during the wet season and
could be due to high nutrient input related to the high soil erosion from nearby
agricultural and economic crop plantations where intense fertilizers are being
used. These results also could be justified by the positive relationship observed
between the nutrient concentrations and the Chl-a (Table 1). However, not all
planktons show same response patterns to different nutrients. For example some
phytoplankton species such as Microsistis prefer phosphorus limited conditions
(Machida et al, 2008) and some species prefer N limited conditions (Perera et
al., 2012). In addition other environmental variables could also be more
important determining factor of the plankton communities. According to
Wasmund (2007) some species such as Aphanizomenon sp. and Nodularia
spumigena respond to salinity changes.
Further, unlike an ecologically balance lentic system where positive
relationship between zooplankton and phytoplankton occur, the Lake Gregory
shows a weak relationship between the two groups. This could be due to highly
variable nature of limnological condition of the reservoir. In addition during the
dry season diversity and abundance of zooplankton was less and could be due to
the less availability of principle food source of the group especially
nanoplankton (McCauley & Kalff, 2011).
Thus the dynamics of plankton species observed under two different
seasons of the Lake Gregory could be directly related to seasonal environmental
conditions as well as environmental changes induced by the variation of
seasons. However as we have measured only few environmental variables due
to the lack of available resources, we may have missed some important
determining factor that could explain plankton dynamics of the study reservoir.
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5.0 REFERENCES
Abeywickrama, B. A., 1979. The genera of the freshwater algae of Sri Lanka.Part 1 –
UNESCO Man and the Biosphere National Committee for Sri Lanka,
Spec. Publ. 6. Nat. Sc. Council Sri Lanka, Colombo: 1-103p.
APHA. 1992. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 18th
edition, America Public Health Association, Washington
Arumugam, S.,1969. Water Resources of Ceylon its Utilization and Development. A
Water Resources Board Publications, Colombo, 415 pp.
Berger C, Ba N, Gugger M, Bouvy M, Rusconi F, Couté A, Troussellier M and C.
Bernard (2006). Seasonal dynamics and toxicity of Cylindrospermopsis
raciborskii in Lake Guiers (Senegal, West Africa). Microbiol.col.. 57(3):355-66.
Bos, D.G. and B.F. Cumming, 2003. Sedimentary cladoceran remains and their
relationship to nutrients and other limnological variables in 53 lakes from
British Columbia, Canada. Can. J. Fish.Aquat. Sci. 60: 1179-1189.
Bos, D.G., 2000. Sedimentary cladoceran remains, a key to interpreting past changes in nutrients
and trophic interactions. Ph.D. thesis, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.190
pp.
Briand, J.F., C. Robillot, C. Quiblier-Lloberas, J.F. Humbert, and A. Coute, 2002.
Environmental context of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (cyanobacteria) blooms
in a shallow pond in France. Water Research 36: 3183-3192.
Broderson, K.P., M.C.Whiteside and C. Lindegaard, 1998.Reconstruction of trophic
state in Danish lakes using subfossil chydorid (Cladocera) assemblages.Can. J.
Fish.Aquat. Sci. 55: 1093-1103.
Costa, H.H. and P.K. De Silva, 1995. Limnological research and training in Sri Lanka:
state of the art and future needs. In (eds. Wetzel, R.G. & B. Gopal) Limnology of
developing countries 1: 63-103.
Desikachary, T. V., 1959. Cyanophyta. Indian council of Agricultural research, New
Delhi: 1- 686p.
Fernando, A.D.N., 1979. Major ancient irrigation works of Sri Lanka. J. Roy. Asiatic
Society (Sri Lanka Branch) 22: 1-24.
Fernando, C. H., 1990. The fresh water invertebrate fauna of Sri Lanka. In: Zoological
survey of Sri Lanka: Fresh water fauna and fisheries of Sri Lanka.
Fernando, C.H. (ed.) Natural Resources, Energy & Science Authority of Sri
Lanka, Colombo: 1 – 444p.
Hann, B., P.R. Leavitt and P.S.S. Chang, 1994. Cladocera community response to
Experimental eutrophication in Lake 227 as recorded in laminated sediments. Can.
J. Fish.Aquat. Sci. 51: 2312-2321.
Hofmann, W., 1996.Empirical relationships between cladoceran fauna and trophic state
in thirteen northern German lakes: analysis of surficial sediments.Hydrobiologia,
318:3, 195-201.
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Wasmund, N., 1997. Occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms in the baltic sea in relation to
environmental conditions. Int. Revue ges.Hydrobiol.Hydrogr., 82: 169–184.
Whiteside, M.C., 1970. Danish chydorid Cladocera: modern ecology and core studies.
Ecol.Monogr. 40:79-118
Yatigammana, S. 2004. Development and application of Paleoecological Approaches to
Study the Impacts of Anthropogenic Activities Reservoirs in Sri Lanka.Ph.D
Thesis, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontarrio, Canada, 178.
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1
Water Resource Science and Technology Consultants, Ragama, Sri Lanka
2
International Water Management Institute, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka
ABSTRACT
In May 1999, Microcystisaeruginosa - a non-nitrogen fixing cyanobacteriaformed
a noxious bloom inKandy Lake,creating a huge socio-political issue. Although attempts
were made to achieve an early recovery, thecyanobacterium remained in high densities
asthe trophic state of the Lake changed from eutrophic under wet weather to hyper-
eutrophic in the dry weather.M. aeruginosa, which has a doubling time of about twenty
hours flush out with the outflow, beingmassively grazed by tilapia and face with
natural death. Consequently, the blooming is being regulated under natural
circumstances.
The outbreakof cyanobacteria bloom is directly related withphysicochemical
variables including nutrients. Since nitrogen species are abundant in this urban water
body, the concentration of soluble reactive phosphate is vital for the rapid growth of
cyanobacterium. The water input (precipitation, surface runoff, drainage and
subsurface inflow of groundwater) and output (evaporation, seepage and outflow as
output) balancehas direct bearings onphosphorous loading into the Lake. Since the
last outbreak, a number of top-down and bottom-up approaches were proposed to cut-
off phosphorus loading into the Lake.Most of them were not implemented due to
various reasons. If water balance is not maintained effectively, existing seasonally
hyper-eutrophic state may lead to an outbreak of cyanobateria bloom again.
Therefore, continuous monitoring of waterinput and output parameters together with
retention time,nutrient concentrationand cyanobacteria biomass in terms of colony
counts is imperative as a management tool.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Emergence of harmfulcyanobacterial blooms resulting from galloping
eutrophication, are spreading globally and threatened the sustainability of
freshwater ecosystems. Increasingly, non-nitrogen -fixing cyanobacteria (e.g.,
Microcystis) dominate such blooms in most cases, indicating that both
excessive nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loads may be responsible for their
proliferation. Traditionally, watershed nutrient management efforts to control
these blooms have focused on reducing P inputs. However, N loading has
increased dramatically in many urban watersheds with poor sanitary facilities,
promoting blooms of non-N2 fixers, and altering lake nutrient budget and
cycling characteristics. We examined this proliferating water quality issues in
Kandy Lake, a typical urban lake located in the heart of Kandy, the hill capital
of Sri Lanka. This shallow water body which shows eutrophic-hypereutrophic
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alteration under wet and dry weather conditions (Silva 2005 ) was collapsed in
May 1999 by an outbreak of Microcystisaeruginosa bloom following a sudden
draw-down (Silva, 2003). Certain strains of M. aeruginosa thrive in Kandy
Lake was toxigenic under stresses conditions (Jayatissa et al. 2006 ) and
patches of algal scums are not uncommon in the edges of the inflow area
although bottom sediment from there were dredged out with translocation of a
fair number of tilapia fish from the Lake.Theemergence of bloom with surface
scum impair the surrounding urban environment of the Lake which is located
adjoining the world famous Buddhist temple where the sacred tooth relic of
Lord Buddha is placed.
Of the four urban lakes in the country (Silva, 2012), Kandy Lake provides
several goods and services to the resident and visiting communities while
contributing to the economy of the city directly or indirectly. Certainly, it has
no high pragmatic value, whereas inspirational, scholarly and tacit values are
incredible. Pragmatic value or direct income generation from Kandy Lake
mainly lies on tourism activities, since the Lake is not being used as a source of
drinking water and prohibited from fishing. Scholarly values extend the
knowledge on urban lake ecosystems and scholarly manifestations often
contribute to pragmatic values. For an example, better understanding of science
of urban lakes can improve management, potentially increasing commercial
fisheries, drinking water extraction and tourism revenues. Nevertheless the
Lake environment is being creatively used for productive activities such as
photography, landscape painting , film locations, literature, songs, other artistic
expressions etc., which are inspirational values. Almost unspoken values, called
tacit values such as enjoyment of scenery and landscape features, jogging, and
bird watching are difficult to quantify. Indeed, Kandy Lake isa fortune for
the city and an asset of the country. Careful management of resources of this
nature bring the health and wealth for the city. However, nutrient enrichment
canlead to blooms of noxious algae which presenttaste and odour problems and
under the worstsituations, prohibit recreational use.It is therefore, necessary to
launch regular monitoring and comprehensive studies as the need arises as
prerequisites for maintain them in a sustainable manner for future uses. On
this line we attempt here to highlight the importance of regular monitoring of
hydrology of the Lake as a management tool for regulating sudden blooming of
this vulnerable urban water body.
VikremaRajasimghe between 1810 and 1812 using forced labour to enhance the
panoramic beauty of the Royal Palace Complex and surrounding temples.
Kandy, the symbolic holy city of the country is presently renowned as one of
the key heritage cities in the world because of its cultural legacy, archeological
importance and aesthetic value. The Lake was in existence since its
construction as a perennial water body and the water from the Lake had been
used to augment the city water supply during the mid seventies for a short
period. Since it is located adjoining the most esteemed religious center, fishing
and bathing are prohibited and at present the Lake water is neither use for
irrigation nor other domestic purposes. People make pleasure trips by
motorboats, which are being operated for several years. A chronic
cyanobacteria species (M.aeruginosa), emerged as a bloom and formed into a
thick scum in Kandy lake with the onset of the southwest monsoon in May
1999. The outbreak of this bloom became a major socio-political issue because
it is assumed that Kandy Lake is a national asset. Some important features of
the Lake are given in Table 1.
Long term data collected from Kandy Lake from 1998 to 2008 on
phosphorous and nitrogen concentrations, chlorophyll-a contents, were
analyzed with rainfall data to identify whether there are specific patterns of
distribution and relationship between parameters. Nitrogen and phosphorous
concentrations and discharge volumes of twelve storm water inlets determined
monthly in 2004 were also incorporated in the analysis to identify the pattern of
N and P loading into the Lake. In most cases, species composition and
population densities of phytoplankton were maintained as a data bank. Data
collected on physicochemical characteristics, total and coliform bacteria and
zooplankton were not incorporated in this analysis. Species composition and
fish population density of the Lake was estimated by National Aquatic
Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA) as an outcome of fish
translocation trails. Hydrological data of the Lake were not available to
incorporate into mass balance calculations. Therefore analysis was primarily
restricted to empirical demonstration rather than accurate quantitative values.
Table 1: Basic morphological characteristics and some limnological features of
Kandy Lake
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(in terms of chl-a) and N and P loss from the Lake per year. Accordingly,
Kandy Lake lose 130 kg of chl-a and 1300 kg and 260 kg of N and P
respectively. When 130 kg of chl-a is converted into algal biomass the amount
will be substantial but it cannot say that whole biomass is cyanobacteria since
planktonic algae even in a hyper-eutrophic waterbody is a species assemblage.
Table 3 shows the annual load of total phosphorous and nitrogen (as nitrate
and ammonia nitrogen) from twelve inlets of Kandy Lake.
Table2: Estimated values of average algal biomass and N and P loss from the
Lake per year
Constituent Annual average Flow through Loss
load (mg m-3) volume (Mm3)
(kg y-1)
Chlorophyll-a 50 2.6 130
Nitrogen 500 2.6 1300
Phosphorous 100 2.6 260
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Figure2:A
A schematic diagram of Cyanobacteria biomass mode
Cyanobacteria
acteria population in the Lake increases by doubling of cells
(growth) if other conditions
ditions (temperature, pH, light, nutrients etc.) are optimum.
Simultaneously, biomass is lost from the system through the outfall, grazing by
tilapia and natural death. In this non-harvesting
harvesting Lake the tilapia population is
regulated by cormorants and otters, s, the grazing pressure is constant and the
natural death of cyanobacteria is invariable. When the biomass is not passing
though the outflow, it will increase within the Lake, perhaps may develop into a
bloom. Under low water level, cyanobacteria may also get access to the
phosphorous available in the deep layers (Silva, 2003). If water balance is not
maintained effectively, existing seasonally hyper
hyper-eutrophic state maylead to an
outbreak of cyanobateria bloom again. Therefore, continuous monitoring of
waterinput
erinput and output parameters together with retention time, basic
physicochemical characteristics, nutrient concentrationand cyanobacteria
biomass in terms of colony counts is imperative as a management too tool.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Kandy Lake is alwaysin ahypo-eutrophic
eutrophic state
state.With diminishing fresh water
inflows, it rapidly reaches a critically unstable status. The year round rains over
the catchments, helps to flush-out
out the lake in a more or less regular manner. IIt’s
lower storage capacity compared withthe voluvolume of freshwater inflows, helps to
sustain this situation.With
.With urbanization this flushing may happen more
frequently. However, nutrient loaded waste water bounces it back to hypo hypo-
eutrophic condition in no time. Therefore, in the longer run the onsiteorlocal
disposal of waste water would not help to save the health of this important
Lake. The situationwouldaggravate
aggravate with the climate change
change.Predictions are not
only flash rains,, but also prolonged dr dry periodsin between themand high air
temperatures. In that light,
ght, the risk of algal bloom persists more than ever
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5.0 REFERENCES
Blomqvist , P.Pettersson, A. and P. Hyenstrand, 1994. Ammoniumnitrogen:A key
regulatory factor causing dominance of nonnitrogen-fixing Cyanobacteria in
aquatic systems. Arch. Hydrobiol.(132): 141–164.
Caraco, N and R. Miller, 1998. Direct and indirect effects of CO2on competition
between a cyanobacteria and eukaryotic phytoplankton.Can. J. Fish.aquat. Sci.
(55): 54–62.
Costa, H. H. and P. R. Silva, 1995. Limnological research and trainingin Sri Lanka:
state of the art and future needs.p. 1–39. In Gopal, B. & R.G.Wetzel (eds),
Limnology in Developing Countries. SIL, Índia.
Flett, R. J., Schindler, D. W. Hamilton, R. D. and N. E. RCampbell, 1980. Nitrogen
fixation in Canadian PrecambrianShield lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and
AquaticSciences (37): 494–505.
Ganf, G. G. 1974. Diurnal mixing and the vertical distributionof phytoplankton in a
shallow equatorial lake (Lake George)Uganda. J. Ecol. (62): 611–629.
Hooker, E.and S. Hernandez, 1991. Phytoplankton biomass in LakeXolotlan
(Managua): its seasonal and horizontal distribution.Hydrobiol. Bull. 25(2): 125–
131.
Huszar, V. L. M. Silva, L. H. S..Marinho, M. Domingos, P. and C. L. Sant’Anna
2000.
Cyanoprokaryote assemblages in eight productive tropical Brazilian
waters.Hydrobiologia 424:67–77.
Jensen, J. P., Jeppesen, E.Olrik K. and PKristensen, 1994. Impactof nutrients and
physical factors on the shift from cyanobacterialto chlorophyte dominance in
shallow Danishlakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (51):
1692–1699.
King, D. L. 1970. The role of carbon in eutrophication. J. Wat.Pollut. Cont. Fed. (42):
2035–2051.
May, C. W.,.Horner, R. R Karr, J. R. Mar, B. W.and E. B. Welch,1997. Effects of
urbanization on small streams in the PugetSound Lowland
ecoregion.Watersh.protect.Techn. (2): 483–494.
Reynolds, C. S., 1987. Cyanobacterial water-blooms.p.67–143. In: Callow, J.(ed.),
Advances in Botanical Research, Vol. 13, Academic Press,London:
Samaradiwakara S.R.M.S. 2003. Some Aspects of Limnology of Kandy Lake. M.Phil.
Thesis, University of Kelaniya, Kelaniya, Sri Lanka,167 p.
Schindler, D. W. 1977. Evolution of phosphorus limitation inlakes.Science (195): 260–
262.
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Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
Shapiro, J.,1990 Currents beliefs regarding dominance by bluegreens:the case for the
importance of CO2 and pH.Verh.int.Ver. Limnol.( 24): 38–54.
Silva E.I.L. 2003.Emergence of a Microcystis bloom in an urban water body, Kandy
Lake in Sri Lanka.Current Science, 85 (6): 723 - 725.
Silva, E.I.L. 2005. Phytoplankton characteristics, Trophic Evolution and Nutrient
Dynamics in an Urban Eutrophic Lake: Kandy Lake in Sri Lanka. p.227-270,In:
Restoration and Management of Tropical Eutrophic Lakes (M. V. Reddy, ed.,) M/s
Science Publishers, Inc., Enfield (NH), USA,
Smith, V., 1983. Low nitrogen to phosphorus ratios favor dominanceby blue-green
algae in lake phytoplankton. Science 221: 669–671.
Talling J. F. and J. Lemoalle. 1998. Ecological Dynamics of Tropical Inland Waters,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998, 441 p.
Zevenboom, W. & L. R. Mur, 1980. N2-fixing cyanobacteria: Whythey do not become
dominant in Dutch, hypertrophic lakes. Dev.Hydrobiol. 2: 123–130.
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R Dalwani
Director, NRCD, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India
ABSTRACT
In India a large number of man-made water-bodies that generally lie within municipal
limits have turned over time into multiple use systems with many stakeholders. They may be
used for drinking water supply to the surrounding urban population, for raising fisheries, for
in-lake recreation (boating, swimming etc), aesthetics & lake shore recreation (parks),
religious & cultural activities or for all of them at the same time. They may also attract
important faunal species, particularly waterfowl and may be considered for their protection.
These Urban lakes or wetlands are now in different states of degradation because of
discharge of domestic wastes, siltation caused by storm runoff, dumping of solid wastes
along the shoreline and various other polluting human activities, besides being affected on
their water budgets.
The conservation, restoration and management of these water-bodies have become a
serious concern and a challenging task because of the multiple stakeholders and their
conflicting interests. In India, these water-bodies are owned and controlled by different
departments of the government at state, district or local level, such as Municipality/Local
urban body/Public Works Department (PWD), Forest, Fisheries, Irrigation etc.
The Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India has undertaken the task of
restoration of these urban & semi urban water-bodies under the National lake Conservation
Plan (NLCP) since 2001. Many lakes in different states have been selected by the respective
State Governments for restoration and management with a major support from the Ministry
through this centrally sponsored scheme. In this paper, two aspects of this programme are
discussed based on our experience of implementation of the scheme.
First, that the formulation of Management/Conservation Plan and its implementation
requires active co-operation and support of all stakeholders besides the commitment and co-
ordination between different agencies and stakeholders. Restored lakes directly benefit all
stakeholders through improved aesthetics, better water quality, income from the goods and
services provided by the lake and the overall quality of life.
The second aspects is requirement of an appropriate Institutional arrangement which is
extremely important for implementation of the combination of engineering & scientific
interventions required for lake conservation, through different state agencies and their long
term sustainability. Different kinds of institutional frameworks have been developed in
different States in India and the results are mixed. In some states a separate ‘Lake
Authority’ has been created for conservation & management whereas in others, an existing
department of the local body has been designated as the nodal department for coordination
and implementation. Some states have developed a common policy for all water-bodies in
the state whereas others take decisions on lake to lake basis. Agencies are also required to
monitor the progress of works & lake quality during implementation and thereafter without
losing sight of various regulatory measures. Both these issues are discussed with examples
of different urban lakes in India.
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1.0INTRODUCTION
In India, there are relatively few natural lakes that lie mostly in the
Himalayan region and in the floodplains of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
However, in the semi-arid and arid regions of western and peninsular
India, a large number of water bodies have been constructed in the past.
These man-made lakes have been used mostly to store seasonally available
water, usually for urban water supply and/or irrigation.Some of these are also
used in fisheries require annual stocking with fingerlings with substantial inputs
of fish feed. The biodiversity in these lakes is usually quite low.
Most of the lakes in India, both natural and man-made, are in different
states of degradation. Watershed degradation is the prime cause of degradation
of these water-bodies besides eutrophication and siltation. During the recent
decades, anthropogenic pressures on lakes such as deforestation, agriculture,
urban settlements and industries have intensifiedtremendously resulting in the
land use changes in their catchments. These anthropogenic activities have also
accelerated the aging process as large amounts of sediments, nutrients and toxic
substances enter the lakes with the runoffscausing eutrophication, toxic
pollution or habitat loss. The catchment-based activities are many a times
accompanied by encroachments on lake-shores through reclamation of shallow
lake margins, sewage disposal, water abstraction, and diversification of in-lake
recreational activities. All these activities directly impact the pace of
degradation.
The conservation, restoration and management of these water-bodies,
particularly in urban areas,has become a serious concern and a challenging task
because of the multiple stakeholders and their conflicting interests. In India,
these water-bodies are owned and controlled by different departments of the
government at state, district or local level, such as Municipality/Local urban
body/Public Works Department (PWD), Forest, Fisheries, Irrigation etc.The
Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India has undertaken the task of
restoration of these urban & semi urban water-bodies under the National lake
Conservation Plan (NLCP) since 2001. The programme has gradually unfolded
the complex problems in undertaking various restoration activities and the
institutional arrangement to support the programme. In this paper, some major
features of this programme are discussed along with various institutional
arrangements made in different states.
3.0PRIORITIZATION OF LAKES
While the causes of degradation of lakes are many, in view of the limited
resources available, it has not been possible to take up all degraded lakes for
conservation under NLCP at the same time. It was therefore, felt necessary to
prioritize lakes along with the catchments, where conservation programmes
need to be taken up first. In order to identify polluted and degraded lakes across
the country, a study was carried out by the Ministry on the request of the
Planning Commission, where 62 lakes were identified across the country for
conservation. This list was sent to all State Governments for their consideration
and finalization, keeping in view the state priority and the justification for their
inclusion in the priority list. The state priority and justification for such a
selection has been a pre-requisite for consideration of the proposal under NLCP.
In view of the prevailing dynamic situation, states if required, may revise the
priority list at an interval of 5 years for covering different geographic regions of
the state.
4.2Scientific Criteria
• The lake is justifiably prioritized by the concerned State Government or if
the water body is highly degraded and cannot be put to its traditional use
primarily because of (a) discharge ofdomestic and industrial waste water into
the lake or (b) dumping of municipal solid wastes or other non point sources of
pollution and flow of heavy silt loads for the catchment.
• The lake water body is degraded and not meeting the desired water quality
criteria. In the absence of specific water quality criteria developed in respect of
lakes, for the present Designated Best Use criteria for surface waters for bathing
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quality as given by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) shall be the target
for maintaining lake water quality (Box-4)Inappropriate land use leading to
heavy soil erosion and sediment transport into the lakeresult in nutrient
enrichment of lake (nitrate and phosphate) signifying eutrophication.
4.3Administrative Criteria
• The lake if getting degraded/eutrophied, is an important source of drinking
water supply, domestic use, recreational use, provide other goods and services,
may be proposed under NLCP, when, a) there is a high degree of demand from
a public forum/local stakeholders for its conservation and, b) if the forum/
stakeholders give their commitment to bear 10% out of State share in the
project cost.
• Lake categorized as a ‘unique fresh water ecosystem.
4.4Other Conditions
The proposals for lake conservation considered for support under the
Programme are required to additionally take into account the following:
9.0 REFERENCES
Ministry of Environment & Forests (NRCD). May, 2008. Guidelines for
National Lake Conservation Plan.
Ministry of Environment & Forests (NRCD). July, 2010. Conservation and
Management of lakes – An Indian Perspective.
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ABSTRACT
Lake Richmond is a manmade Lake located between the Thotulagalla and
Pitarathmale Tea Estates in the Lipton’s Valley in Haputale. This peri-urbanLake was
created by the British in the 1800s to generate hydropower for a downstream coffee
factory and currently provides the Estate Labour community with water for domestic
and agricultural use. No riparian vegetation exists aside from the aquatic plant,
Cyperus rotundus. These large stands of aquatic vegetation though invasive, provide a
buffer for waste entering the Lake including agrochemicals from the surrounding tea
plantations and vegetable gardens, faecal matter and grey water from the line rooms of
the estate community and the Thotulagalla Tamil Vidyalayam (school).
The Neo Synthesis Research Centre (NSRC) initiated a restoration of the riparian
zone of Lake Richmond in 2009 by establishing a vegetation buffer to trap sediments
and bioremediate waste whilst providing habitat for biodiversity. It was also the first
time that native vegetation was used to mitigate the potential of landslides in Sri Lanka.
An inventory was carried out on flora and fauna found in the nearby remnant natural
forest and most of the flora species were used in restoration. The work was carried out
in collaboration with students of the Thotulagalla Tamil Vidyalayam, a secondary
school located adjacent to the Lake, farmers living in the downstream area,
Management of the two Estates, Pradeshiya Sabha5 (Diyatalawa), Forest Department,
(Haputale), Landcare Lanka and NSRC. The Landcare philosophy guided this
participatory restoration process and proved to be highly effective. In 2010, the area
around the Lake was declared the Lake Richmond Nature Park. Monitoring activities
are currently underway.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Lipton’s Valley in Haputale is composed of a series of smaller valleys
and located in the Kalkanna Oya sub basin of the Walawe river watershedin Sri
Lanka. It is 133.13 km2 in extent. Three hundred and ninety-nine (399) streams
of 1st, 2nd and 3rd orders flow down the mountains to form a 4th order stream
called Lemastote Oya. This stream joins the Weli Oya downstream to form the
Kalkanna Oya which, in turn, feeds the Walawe river system. Land use in the
Lipton’s Valley is dominated by tea planted by three large Tea Estates, namely
Thotulagalla, Pitarathmalie and Dambetenne.
5
A local government body
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Lake Richmond is located at the base of the Valley that spans Thotulagalla
and Pitarathmalie tea Estates. Constructed by British Planters in the early
1800’s, the lake was created by excavating a large wetland area. One possible
reconstruction of land use prior to excavation suggests that the streams that
flowed down these mountains entered the wetland and then continued on
downstream. The area would have been covered with montane cloud-forest as
evidenced by a small remnant patch still remaining nearby. The Lake water was
used to drive a downstream turbine to generate electricity for a coffee
processing factory. When a virus affected the coffee industry, the land was
converted to growing Camellia sinensis or tea.
Presently, the Lake water is used by upstream and downstream
communities for domestic and irrigation purposes. They have pipes that draw
water from the Lake and, during the drought when water levels recede, conflicts
arise among water users.
The micro watershed of Lake Richmond is 0.025 km2 in extent
(Kumarihamy, 2012). Three 1st order streams feed Lake Richmond. The micro-
watershed was bereft of any vegetation other than tea Cyperus rotundus and a
few ‘high shade’ trees, Grevillea robusta, until NSRC initiated the project in
2009. With no under storey vegetation beneath the tea on the Pitarathmalie
Estate side of the Lake and with the large-scale application of herbicides like
Roundup (Glyphosate) in tea fields, all the vegetation is killed. Without any
roots to hold soil in this unstable terrain (Wijewickrema, 2009) in the rainy
season, soil erodes and washes into the streams. Hence, there is a strong
possibility that residues of other agrochemicals are carried along with the
sediment into the streams. Some of the agrochemicals that are applied include
nitrogen-based fertilizers like Urea, Dolomite and other specialty mixtures.
Contact fungicides6 that are Copper based (e.g., Copper oxide, oxychloride or
Hexachloride) and systemic fungicides like ‘Shakti’ (Hexaconazole) are
frequently used. However now that ‘buffer zones’ have been established along
many of the feeder streams on Pitarathmalie Estate, the potential for the entry of
eroded soil into the streams is reduced.
The situation on the Thotulagalla Estate side of the lake on is different. The
Estate is a certified organic tea producer and no agrochemicals are used. The
Estate labour community who occupy about 7 ha of land in the upper reaches,
however, cultivate vegetables using diverse agrochemicals including fertilizers,
pesticides and fungicides. Since the streams flowing through the vegetable
gardens are devoid of tree cover and given that many gardens are located
directly above the Lake, these chemicals may enter into streams that feed the
Lake.
6
A contact fungicide kills a pathogen/fungus upon contact and is not absorbed by the plant.
Systenic fungicides have the ability to be absorbed by the plant tissues and could leave behind
residues with better controllability (Tea Research InstituteCircular PU 2, Serial No: 04/08,
November, 2008).
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Park. Three student environmental cadet groups were initiated. NSRC met with
the Regional Forest Office, Haputale to request for their support and clearance
to restore the fragmented natural forest above Thotulagalla Estate. The
participation of the Estate communities was sought through a series of person-
to-person meetings with staff visiting the homes of 116 families where 53
families who showed interest were invited to a meeting with all other
stakeholders. Since the Project had adopted the LANDCARE7 philosophy the
aim was to:
a) Form a Landcare Committee of representatives of all stakeholders.
b) Form Landcare Groups comprising beneficiaries who were interested in
participating in the work.
This preliminary meeting was held on 30th March 2010, at the Greenfield
Fair Trade Cultural Hall and was attended by all of the stakeholder groups and a
majority of members of the Estate labour community. All the participants
representing different stakeholders were encouraged to express their views and
describe their possible interactions with the Project. The meeting culminated in
the formation of a Landcare Committee with representatives from each
stakeholder group. Subsequently a meeting was held with farmers who lived
downstream from Lake Richmond. Fifty-three beneficiaries attended and after
an animated discussion that focused on the restoration of the Lake watershed,
an action plan was drawn up. Three farmer Landcare Groups were formed and a
series of meetings followed to discuss the implementation of the plan. Of
significance was that the farmers requested training in organic agriculture since
their main objective was to reduce or completely stop using agrochemicals in
cultivation. This was how they proposed to care for the land. Meetings were
also held separately with livestock farmers who lived in the downstream of
Pitarathmale and Thotulagalla Estates since they grazed their goats on the grass
in the Lake area or cut grass (Brachiaria brizantha) on the mountain slopes to
stall-feed their cows. Farmers agreed to cultivate CO3 grass instead. Following
up, three training sessions were held for milk producers in a bid to increase milk
productivity. The Provincial Veterinary office conducted these trainings.
Ecological restoration in the Lake micro-watershed
Mapping the watershed
As a preliminary step, GIS Mapping of the micro watershed was initiated to
facilitate the landscape design for planting.
Mapping the resources
Subsequently, an inventory of flora and fauna in the only forest patch in the
micro watershed was completed. This enabled the selection of species that
7
Landcare seeks to address rural land degradation in a cooperative and coordinated manner
that involves everyone from community Landcare groups to the corporate sector and government
agencies (Lockie, 1999)
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would be used in the landscape design and paved the way for plant propagation
since forest species are difficult to purchase.
Setting up the nursery to propagate plants
A nursery was established in the land belonging to the Thotulagalla Tamil
Vidyalayam. The students of the Environmental Cadet groups operated the
nursery and, by the end of November 2010, more than 24,000 plants of native
species had been propagated. These plants will be used for planting.
School model in organic agriculture
The land above the nursery was converted to an organic vegetable garden
where students engaged in vegetable cultivation. NSRC staff taught the students
methods of making compost, liquid fertilizer and biological pesticides. The
vegetables harvested were sold and monies deposited in a bank account with
funds used for students’ welfare.
Lake Richmond Nature Park
With the onset of the monsoon rains, planting began. Since the Lake area
was ‘visible’ to the public, a festive inauguration was held and attended by local
politicians, government officials, members of the Estate community,
Thotulagalla and Pitarathmalie Estate management and school children. The
ceremonious tree planting was inaugurated by holding a religious event (pooja)
in keeping with the cultural norms of the Estate community and signalled the
start of the restoration activity.
Planting in the micro watershed around the Lake
A total of 4,724 trees and plants of more than 39 native and indigenous
species were planted in the micro watershed of Lake Richmond. 1,193 were
planted around the Lake while 3,081 were planted in Gully a1-Upper Lake area,
Gully b-Upper Lake area, Gully b1-Lower Lake area Gully-c, Gully ‘c-School’,
Gully-e and Gully-f in the downstream. Figure 2 depicts the planting around the
lake with each dot representing a plant. Table 1 describes the species used
therein.
In preparation, the land had been cleared of large weeds. Large stands of
grass-Iluk (Imperatacylindrica) and Maana (Cymbopogon nardus) were
removed with their roots to prevent their return. Thereafter, holes were dug in
three/four parallel rows around the Lake and alongside the gullies. Before
planting was initiated in an area, staff moved the plants from the nursery to the
designated planting spot. This was perhaps the most difficult exercise since
moving 2000-3000 potted plants upstream weighted with wet soil in the cold
mist and slippery soil surface in a leeches infested area was really tedious.
Gully planting was then undertaken in a tier like manner; the smallest plants
or shrubs like Strobilanthes sp., Clerodendron chinense, Costus specious and
Impatiens walkeri were planted first in a dense manner. These were followed by
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Gully C - School
Upper Lake area
Gully b - Upper
Gully B - Lake
Total plants
Around the
Down area
Lake area
Gully a1
Gully C
Gully D
Gully E
Lake
Scientific Name Common Name
Areas that were dominated by rocks were planted with the shrubs like
Lobelia nicotianifolia, Osbeckia lanata, Wedlandia bicuspidata and small trees
like Ficus hispida. Species like Pongamia pinnata, Chrysophyllum cainito,
Cassia spectabilis, Erythrina lithosperma and Pavetta indica were planted in
the interface between land occupied by the Estate community and the riparian
zone. Rows of the thorny plant Agave rigida, var. sisalana were planted as fire
belts in areas prone to the fire hazard.
established above the Lake experienced a deathblow last year (2011) when
during the period of the ‘grease devil’ saga, public unrest reigned and people set
fire to the grassland above the Lake killing many of the plants.
The Landcare Groups continue to function but there is the need to bolster
their momentum since the movement is new and groups require continuous
mobilization. On the other hand, the rigorous propaganda of agrochemical
companies who offer ‘easy’ pest control and increased yields threatens the
transition to organic agriculture and thereby the focus of the group. Despite the
lower costs involved, some farmers are loath to spend time in making compost,
liquid fertilizer and biological pesticides. The same is true for the organic
farmers who practice upstream, on Thotulagalla Estate. The force exerted by the
“going with the Joneses” thought process or farm like the other farmers is a
challenge that can be resisted only by a few.
Work in the Thotulagalla School continues with more time being allocated
for the students to engage in organic agriculture while work in the plant nursery
proceeds unabated. The majority of the plants generated last year were used in
the planting of the gullies and mountain ridge on Thotulagalla Estate as well as
in the microwatershed of the Lake.
The Pradeshiya Sabha, Diyatalawahave cleared errant construction in the
immediate area around the Lake. The Grama Sevaka Niladhari8 is monitoring
the management of garbage being thrown in the immediate Lake area.
The Thotulagalla Estate has taken several steps to establish a bio fertilizer-
manufacturing unit where pile compost, vermicompost, vermi-wash and liquid
fertilizer are produced on a large scale. NSRC trained local youth from the
Estate community who now operate the unit. The application of these biological
inputs is ongoing though and the results are being monitored. Needless to state
that positive changes in yields and the ability for the crop to withstand
increasing rainfall variability with climate change will certainly increase the
replicability of these regenerative technologies to the rest of the tea sector.
Pitarathmalie Estate, according to the dictates of Rainforest Certification,
has established buffer zones alongside each stream. These buffer zones are 3 -
10 m in extent and delineated by rows of Gliricidia sepium. It is hoped that
agrochemicals are not applied in these zones.
The restoration carried out was collaborative since it brought together on
one platform several different types of stakeholders with a common focus of
interest. While the results in the short term are positive, an endeavour of this
nature is best assessed in the longer term. The ultimate challenge is for a
restored ecosystem to endure and be able to sustain itself. In this case the
environment is fraught with difficulties ranging from continuing poverty in the
Estate labour community, worker unrest, decreasing productivity, increasing
8
Village level government officer
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costs (depreciation of the Sri Lanka rupee), fluctuations in the global tea
market, climate induced impacts like increasing rainfall variability etc.
Some of these challenges can be understood and dealt with like the invasion
of Cyperus rotundus that could be managed by mechanical means. The danger
posed by goats eating the plants could be addressed through continued
discussions with the herdsmen, Estate management and representatives of the
local authority. Similarly herdsmen who destroy plants will need to be
approached, once again in conciliatory vein to reassure them that there is no
threat from the plants established shading out the Brachiaria grass that they
harvest. Information about increasing milk production through the use of other
fodder grass varieties like Napier/CO3 as well as tree fodder like Gliricidia
must continuously be shared with them. Further, the Pradeshiya Sabha,
Diyatalawa and Provincial Ministry of Tourism must step up to advertise the
Lake Richmond Nature Park as an attractive destination if the sustainability of
this endeavour is to be realized.
However there are some challenges that are more difficult to counter: the
ability to engage in this restoration endeavour was only possible with the
financial support received by Art Gold Sri Lanka and many people who gave
their time voluntarily to the programme. Given that an undertaking such as this
has massive local and national benefits, the need for support from the Estate
Managements and Local and National Government is essential. This is
specifically critical since funding received from most external agencies is
limited and usually follows a “project’ approach where work comes to a
standstill when monies are spent. The approach is also limited in terms of time
since in this case NSRC had only one year to restore the Lake watershed. One
can appreciate that even in ideal circumstances the transformation of a degraded
natural environment is difficult since there are many factors involved. To give it
a finite time line makes the task not only more difficult but also
counterproductive since, just when the benefits begin to accrue, the work must
end.
The other challenge is the lack of clear policy on the use of agrochemicals
in the immediate vicinity of water sources since little is understood about their
impact on aquatic fauna and human health via the food chain. In this case, there
is contamination of the streams that feed the Lake with agrochemicals, many of
which produce and disseminate xenobiotics and their metabolites (Feron et al.,
2002). Given the emerging scientific evidence on the ecotoxicity of several
agrochemicals, the question is: how can we protect our water resources when
chemical pollutants are applied in their very source areas? The time has come to
make a collaborative decision on our water resources.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Protection of urban lakes from external pollutants requires establishment of
a buffer zone which should be aesthetically appealing and economically
productive. Reestablishment of the buffer zone to meet the modern
requirements will certainly require the approval of the local community who
has been dependent on it for their livelihood for generation.
The Landcare approach adopted in this study was proved to be effective,
however, the sustainability depends on the participation of the stakeholders, the
local government officials in particular. The overall effectiveness of the buffer
zone including pollution control and economic benefits should be assessed in
the long run.
5.0 REFERENCES
Feron, V.J.C., Fleming R, Groten, John, P; Van Vliet, Petronella W; Zorge, Job, A.,
2002, 'International Issues on human health Effects of Exposure to Chemical
Mixtures', Health Perspect, vol. 110, no. Suppl. 6, pp. 893-9.
Kumarihamy, Kumudeni, 2012, Personal communication
Lockie, S 1999, 'Community Movements and Corporate Images: "Landcare" in
Australia', Rural Sociology, vol. 64, no. 2, pp. 219-33.
Tea Research Institute, SL 2008, 'Chemical Control of Weeds', TRI Advisory Circular,
vol. PU 3, no. 05/08, p. 3.
Wijewickrema, Hemasiri, 2009, a preliminary Report on the Landslides in the Lipton's
Valley, NSRC Publication.
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DHI-NTU Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute (NEWRI) and Maritime
Research Centre, School for Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore
ABSTRACT
In this short paper, we present an innovative local stormwater containment design
concept and a bio-filtration system for stormwater management near an urban water
body In order to maximize the effectiveness of water quality control. The vertical
wetland facilities have been viewed as a promising and low-cost alternate engineering
solution for urban stormwater treatment. With smaller footprint and deeper penetration
through the porous media, it is regarded as an appropriate flood mitigation facility in
regions, and especially in urban centers including Singapore, that do not have sufficient
space for a large-area constructed wetland.
Keywords: stormwater management; urban centre; bio-filtration system.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Stormwater within an urban environment takes place when the drainage
ancillary failed to discharge the runoff through the system and when that occurs
it will always leads to flooding. There could be a number of reasons including
1) blockage of inlet or drainage channel or reduced capacity of the drainage
ancillary, 2) drainage path deviates from that of the design path as a result of
later change in catchment characteristics and 3) Insufficient capacity of the
drainage system, the occurrence of extremely high intensity rainfall, several
heavy rainfall events in quick successions, or arrival of several runoff peaks at
the critical locations.
Under normal circumstance and with proper management of design and
construction activities, and maintenance of the drainage system, the above 1)
and 2) are usually within the control of the authority whilst 3) is generally
difficult to predict, and harder still with the evident change in climate and
apparent increase in the number of occurrence of heavier intensity rainfalls. The
case we can deal with is that flash flood arising from overflow or runoff amount
that exceeds the local capacity. As a result, this excess water would find its own
way and accumulate at the low points, a local depression or underground
spaces. The accumulation of water, be it a local ponding of water or flooding, is
at the least a nuisance and inconvenience, and more often than not, leads to
economic losses, damage to property and infra-structure and possible loss of
lives.
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For the purposes of the urban stormwater management, urban lak lakes are
defined by six operational conditions [1]. First, they tend to be of a rather small
surface area; second, they tend to be shallow, with an average depth of 2m or
less. Third, they have a watershed area/drainage area ratio of at least 10:1,
meaning that
hat the watersheds exert a strong influence on the lake. Fourth, the
lake watershed must contain at least 5% impervious cover as an overall index of
development. Fifth, whether natural or man
man-made, the lake must be managed
for recreational, water supply, flood
lood control or some other functions that
directly support human activities. Finally, our definition excludes several types
of lakes with unique hydrology or nutrient cycling. These include solution lakes
that are strongly influenced by groundwater, the ra rare nitrogen-limited lakes,
saline lakes and playa lakes. While these lake types can be found in urban areas,
it is not clear whether they share the same quantitative and water quality
response to watershed development as other freshwater lakes.
2.0 INNOVATIVE
IVE METHOD FOR STORMWATER MANAGEMENT IN
AN URBAN CENTRE
2.1 Quantitative Consideration
There are pragmatic engineering solutions including pumping and erecting
local protection such as flood barrier, which may sometimes be not possible
readily, especially if the incidence takes place at unexpected locations.
Nevertheless, these are active responses that require energy, manpower and
resources. Modern designs now consider various means to reduce peak
discharge through innovative considerations and implementa
implementations schemes
along the different elements/pathways of a storm drainage system. A schematic
sketch of the drainage elements and pathways is shown in Figure 1.
Receptor
Figure 2:Underground
Underground detention pond in Tokyo [3]
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resistance to local low areas. The severity of the flooding could be gauged by
comparing the excess amount over the total runoff volume (up to design
capacity), as depicted in Figure 7. While it may be large in other urban centres,
this ratio may be small in Singapore. However, in the perception of the public, a
shallow flood of ankle-deep water covering large area is disconcerting and
alarming. A pragmatic solution is to study the terrain of the catchment carefully
(using GIS and detailed DEM) to develop an appropriate 3-dimensional model
of the catchment, and put in place designated areas as “sacrificial” flood
receptacles. Naturally these spaces are located at lower elevation compared to
the surrounding terrain.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
Many literatures have developed comprehensive programs for storm
water quality control including phosphorus and nitrogenwhich is
achieving significant. In this short paper, we presented an innovative
local storm water containment design concept, bio-filtration system for
storm water management in an urban area.
5.0 REFERENCES
[1] Schueler T. & Simpson J., Introduction: Why Urban Lakes Are Different. Urban
Lake Management, 2001, 3(4): 747-750.
[2] Source of information:
http://www.ciria.org/service/current_projects/AM/ContentManagerNet/ContentDis
play.aspx?Section=current_projects&ContentID=17061Access date: 10 April 2012
[3] Source of information: http://news.yahoo.com/photos/tokyo-s-gigantic-flood-
prevention-system-1319761029-slideshow/Access date: 10 April 2012
[4] Source of information:
http://www.dsd.gov.hk/others/HKWDT/eng/background.htmlAccess date: 16 Jan
2012
[5] Source of information:
http://www.ciria.org/service/current_projects/AM/ContentManagerNet/ContentDis
play.aspx?Section=current_projects&ContentID=17061
[6]Source of information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_Bay,_SingaporeAccess
date: 16 April 2012
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Dong Qing Zhang1*, Junfei Zhub, Yifei Li2, Richard M. Gersberg3, Soon Keat
Tan2
1
DHI-NTU Centre, Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore
2
Maritime Research Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang
Technological University,Singapore
3
Graduate School of Public Health, San Diego State University, USA
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Constructed wetlands (CWs) have been considered and proved to be an
attractive and stable alternative for wastewater treatment because of its low-
cost, and energy-saving. In addition, there is the advantage of multi-purpose re-
use of the high quality effluent, self-remediation and self-adaptation to the
surrounding condition and environment (USEPA, 1993 & 2000).
Operation of sub-surface flow (SSF) CWs (SSF-CWs) in batch-flow (BF)
mode (alternating drain and fill cycles) is a strategy that may improve both
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) removal efficiency in wastewater wetlands
(Burgoon et al., 1995; Stein et al., 2003). Wijler and Delwiche (1954) first
proposed the idea that alternating periods of submergence and drying of soils
might enhance N loss compared to a continuously flooded condition. They
reasoned that alternating periods of aerobic and anaerobic soil conditions could
facilitate the sequential coupling of nitrification and denitrification, with nitrate
generated during the aerobic phase being denitrified in the anaerobic phase.
The long-term mechanism of P retention in wetlands is the adsorption of
orthophosphate onto the surfaces of soil minerals, particularly hydrous oxides
of iron and aluminum (Richardson, 1985; Chambers and Odum, 1990)
Therefore, if the rates of both sequential nitrification-denitrification and Fe
oxyhydroxide formation in CWs are affected by oxygen supply, then in general,
BF operation which promotes more oxidized conditions by mass flow of air into
pore spaces, should exhibit better performance than continuous-flow (CF)
operation.
However, there is still uncertainty as to whether BF operation enhances
removal efficiencies when compared to a CF regime. For example, Busnardo et
al. (1992) evaluated nutrient removal efficiency by SSF wetlands operated in
drain and fill mode, as compared to CM operation, and found that while P
removal efficiency was enhanced by BF operation, it had a surprisingly small
effect on N removal efficiency. Burgoon et al. (1995), evaluated both BF and
CF SSF wetlands which received either primary or secondary wastewater, and
found that while the presence of plants in these CWs had significant effects on
Carbon (C) and N oxidation (presumably due to oxygen transport by the plants),
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periodic draining and filling of the wetlands did not have any significant effect
on biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) or N removal. More recently, Stein et
al. (2003) compared the performance of BF and CF wetlands filled with
simulated wastewater, and found both superior N and P removal in batch mode
operation.
The objectives of the present investigation were to evaluate; i) the influence
of BF versus CF mode on the removal efficiencies of chemical oxygen demand
(COD), N, and P in tropical SSF-CWs, ii) the quantitative role of the higher
aquatic plants in nutrient removal in these two alternative operational modes.
phosphate (98% purity) obtained from Alfa Aesar, Germany were used. The
composition of influent included 300 mg/L COD (averaged), 27 mg/L NH4-N, 7
mg/L PO4-P, and Fe 4 mg/L, 7 mg/L Mg, and 6 mg/L Ca.
Effluent samples were collected on the same day and at the same time, as
well as collected from each bed every two and four days in a 1-L amber glass
bottles, which were transported refrigerated (4°C) to the laboratory. The
samples were immediately analyzed to determine the reduction in concentration
of the general parameters, i.e., COD, ammonia-N (NH4+-N), nitrate (NO3--N),
and total phosphorus (TP). General parameters were analyzed using
spectrophotometer (HACH-DR3800, USA) in accordance with the standard
methods (Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater -
APHA, 1989). Temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH value and electrical
conductivity (EC) were measured using Multi-Parameter Digital Meter (HACH
– HQ40d, USA) directly.
2-day
Planted 21.7±14.3 1.7±0.9 0.3±0.2 9.2±3.2
Removal (%) 92.6 93.7 58.0
Unplanted 30.5±21.2 14.5±4.5 0.3±0.2 13.9±4.8
Removal (%) 89.6 46.3 37.0
Batch
4-day
flow
Planted 12.4±12.2 1.3±1.0 0.2±0.1 6.7±2.3
Removal (%) 95.8 95.2 69.6
Unplanted 20.8±15.6 13.6±4.3 0.2±0.1 13.4±4.2
Removal (%) 92.9 49.3 39.1
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2-day
Planted 26.5±20.6 8.4±2.7 0.6±0.5 15.4±5.3
Removal (%) 91.0 68.9 30.0
Unplanted 36.1±28.3 14.3±5.0 1.8±1.6 15.8±4.4
Continuous Removal (%) 87.7 47.0 28.2
flow 4-day
Planted 12.0±8.4 5.3±1.7 0.2±0.1 12.1±3.8
Removal (%) 95.9 80.4 46.8
Unplanted 26.1±17.1 14.3±2.2 0.3±0.2 16.4±4.2
Removal (%) 91.1 47.0 25.5
degradation acting solely in a gravel filter (with no plants) are sufficient to drive
BOD5/COD degradation to near completion without the need for either plant
rhizosphere aeration or drain and fill operational.
3.2 N removal
Figure 1 shows the comparison of NH4-N effluent concentrations between
batch and continuous modes for the test series with 4-day retention time. In
planted beds, statistical analysis showed that there was significant enhancement
(p<0.001) of NH4-N removal in BF mode operation (95.2%) as compared to CF
mode operation (80.4%); while in unplanted beds, there was no significant
difference (p>0.05) for batch flow (49.3%) as compared to the CF mode (47%).
A similar conclusion was drawn for BF and CF operation at 2-day HRT. In
addition, in both BF and CF operational modes, NH4-N removal was
significantly enhanced (p<0.001) in the planted beds as compared to the
unplanted beds.
Planted beds at 4-day retention time Unplanted beds at 4-day retention time
10 25
Continuous Continuous
8 Batch 20 Batch
NH4-N (mg/L)
NH4-N (mg/L)
6 15
4 10
2 5
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Day Day
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Planted beds at 4-day retention time Unplanted beds at 4-day retention time
25 25
20 20
15 15
TP (mg/L)
TP (mg/L)
10 10
5 Continuous 5
Continuous
Batch
Batch
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Day Day
times faster in drain and fill treatments than that in static controls, due to the
rapid oxygenation of the wetted gravel that was exposed to air during the drain
phase. This could plausibly explain our observations of significant enhancement
(p<0.05) for TP removal in BF flow operation in the planted beds as compared
to that in CF operation, and planted beds showed significantly better TP
removal efficiencies (p<0.05) in BF operation than that in unplanted beds.
4.0 CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study on BF versus CF operation modes for a tropical
SSF-CW showed that while these loading methods had no significant effect on
COD removal, both ammonia oxidation and TP removal were significantly
enhanced in BF mode versus CF mode. At a 4-day HRT, the presence of plants
significantly enhanced both ammonia oxidation and TP removal in both batch
and continuous flow modes of operation as compared to that for unplanted beds.
Estimation of the quantitative contribution of oxygen from batch (drain and
fill operation) as compared to plant rhizosphere aeration from the differences in
nitrification rates between BF versus CF and planted versus unplanted beds,
leads to the conclusion that at the 4-day HRT used for this study, drain and fill
cycling might only account for less than half of the plant’s quantitative
contribution of oxygen. The findings of this study imply that where maximal N
and P removal is desired, periodic draining and filling might be the preferred
operational strategy for a full-scale SSF-CW.
5.0 REFERENCES
APHA, 1989. In: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater
(Clesceri, L.S.; Greenberg, A.F.; Trussell, R.R., eds). American Public Health
Association.
Barnes, D., Bliss, P.J., 1983. Biological control of nitrogen in wastewater treatment,
EFN Spon, London, 1983.
Behrends, L.L., Coonrod, H.S., Bailey, E., Bulls, M.J.,1993. Oxygen diffusion rates in
reciprocating rock biofilters: potential applications for subsurface constructed
wetlands. Proceedings Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands Conference. August
16-17. El Paso: University of Texas, 1993.
Boström, B., Jansson, M., Forsberg, C., 1982. Phosphorus release from lake sediments.
Arch. Hydrobiol. Beih.Ergebn.Limnol. 18, 5-59.
Breen, P.F., 1997. The performance of vertical flow experimental wetlands under a
range of operational formats and experimental conditions.Wat. Sci. Tech. 1997;
35(5):167-74.
Burgoon, P.S., Reddy, K.R., DeBusk, T.A., 1995. Performance of subsurface flow
wetlands with batch-load and continuous-flow conditions. Water Environ. Res,
Vol.67 No.5.
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Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
Busnardo, M.J., Gersberg, R.M., Langis, R., Sinicrope, T.L., Zedler, J.B., 1992.
Nitrogen and phosphorus removal by wetland mesocosms subjected to different
hydroperiods. Ecol. Eng. (1992) 287-307.
Caselles-Osorio, A., García, J., 2007a.Impact of different feeding strategies and plant
presence on the performance of shallow horizontal subsurface-flow constructed
wetlands. Sci. Total Environ. 378 (2007) 253-262.
Caselles-Osorio, A., García, J., 2007b. Effect of physic-chemical pretreatment on the
removal efficiency of horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetlands. Environ.
Pollut. 146 (2007) 55-63.
Chambers, R.M., Odum, W.E., 1990. Porewater oxidation, dissolved phosphate and the
iron curtain; iron-phosphorus relations in tidal freshwater marshes.
Biogeochemistry, 10:37-52.
Diemont, S. A., 2006. Mosquito larvae density and pollutant removal in tropical
wetland treatment systems in Honduras. Environ Int (2006) 32(3):332-41.
Faulkner, S.P., Richardson, C.J., 1989. Physical and chemical characteristics of
freshwater wetland soils. In: Hammer, D.A. (Ed.), Constructed Wetlands for
Wastewater Treatment. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Michigan, pp.41-72.
Henze, M., Harremoes, P., Jansen, J.C., Arvin, E., 1995. Wastewater treatment:
Biological and chemical processes, Springer, Berlin, 1995.
Jing, S.R., Lin, Y.F., Shih, K.C., Lu, H.W., 2008. Applications of constructed wetlands
for water pollution control in Taiwan: review. Pract. Periodical of Haz., Toxic, and
Radioactive Waste Mgmt. Volume 12, Issue 4, pp249-259.
Richardson, C.J., and Nichols, D.S., 1985. Ecological analysis of wastewater
management criteria in wetland ecosystems. In: Godfrey, P.J., Kaynor, E.R.,
Pelczarski, S. and Benforado, J. (Eds), Ecological Considerations in Wetlands
Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New
York, pp.351-391.
Stein, O.R., Hook, P.B., Biederman, Allen, W.C., Borden, D.J., 2003. Does batch
operation enhance oxidation in subsurface constructed wetlands? Wat. Sci.Tech.
Vol 48, No 5, 149-156.
Tanner, C.C., 2001. Plants as ecosystem engineers in subsurface-flow treatment
wetlands.Wat. Sci. Tech. 44(11-12):9-17.
USEPA, 1993.Constructed Wetland for Wastewater Treatment and Wildlife Habitat.
Office of Research and Development, EPA 832-R-93-005, Sep 1993.
USEPA, 2000.Constructed wetland treatment for municipal wastewater.EPZ/625/R-
99/010. Cincinnat, OH: Office of Research and Development; 2000. 166pp.
Vymazal, J., 2005. Horizontal sub-surface flow and hybrid constructed wetlands
systems for wastewater treatment. Ecol. Eng. 25 (2005) 478-490.
Wijler, J., Delwiche, C.C., 1954. Investigations on the denitrifying process in soil. Plant
Soil, 55-169.
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S.A.M.Azmy,K.A.W.S.Weerasekara,N.D.Hettige, C. Wickramaratneand
A.A.D.Amaratunga
ABSTRACT
This study focused to identify the current status of water quality in Giant’s Tank in
Akurala water bodies and Puttalam Lagoon of Sri Lanka during the year 2011.
In-situ analysis was conducted for the determination of pH, Dissolved Oxygen
(DO), Turbidity, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and
Salinity. Laboratory analysis was carried out in accordance with the Standard Methods
for Examination of Water and Waste Water (APHA), 20th edition.
Results of the Puttalam Lagoon revealed that, pH, DO, chlorophyll-a and nutrient
concentrations are within the accepted limits for the survival of fish and aquatic life.
However, TSS (8.48 ± 4.22 mg/L), Turbidity (6.93 ± 2.60 NTU) and TDS (23.2 ± 2.74
mg/L) indicated slightly high values.
Gaint’s tank indicated that DO, EC, Nitrate, Hardness, Alkalinity, Turbidity and
BOD were within permissible levels proposed by the CEA, 2001.However the pH and
phosphate level that fell slightly above the ideal pH range and maximum phosphate
level for above the standards.
Akurala water bodies revealed that, pH, and Nitrate, values were within the
permissible levels. The phosphate (0.45 ± 0.18 mg/L) level was slightly above the
maximum recommended values. Average values of DO (4.82 ± 0.37 mg/L), EC (630 ±
59.70 mS/cm), TDS (340.71±24.52 g/L), and Ammoniacal – N (0.24±0.15) were found.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water quality parameters are important observation that would reveal the
current conditions within a catchment and downstream waters. These data
would assist in understanding the potential impacts on the system if there is any
change in the conditions. Hence, this rapid assessment is an initial attempt to
understand how the water quality of the system may be altered if the area is to
be altered for commercial utilization. Rapid assessment, for the purpose of this
guidance, is defined as: “a synoptic assessment, which is often undertaken as a
matter of urgency, in the shortest time frame possible to produce reliable and
applicable results for its defined purpose” (Anonymous, 2006).
Giant’s Tank, with an area of 3941 ha is one of the largest and shallowest
reservoirs located in the Mannar district which supports numerous economical
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activities within the area (Daily News, 2011).Giant’s Tank provides water to an
irrigable land area of 24,438 ha and channels water to over 162 small tanks
(Sunday Observer, 2008).
Akurala is a coastal village in the Galle district which was once famous for
its lime industry. The villagers have been engaged in mining both the seabed
and the land side for lime stones for generations. A coastal lagoon system
consisting of brackish water exists adjacent to the main road in Akurala. The
system comprises of a large number of interconnected water bodies which
expand over a vast area of around 30 ha. The tsunami event which took place
in 2004 had a devastating effect on the coastal ecosystem, small farms and
home-gardens.
The Puttalam Lagoon and associated coastal areas on the north western
coast of Sri Lanka (Latitude 70 45’- 80 25’N, Longitude 790 42’- 790 50’E) fall
under the jurisdiction of the North Western Provincial Council. Though widely
referred to as a lagoon, the Puttalam Lagoon technically is an estuary.The
Puttalam Lagoon is open to the sea at the northern end of the Puttalam Lagoon.
The only input of fresh water from riverine sources to the estuarine system is by
two rivers Mi Oya and Kala Oya, of which both discharge into the Puttalam
Lagoon (Dayaratne et al., 1997).
The main objective was to study the current status of water quality to
identify the aquatic health of selected eco systems such as Puttalam Lagoon,
Giant’s Tank in Mannar and Akurala during the year 2011.
2.0 METHOD
The following physico-chemical parameters were selected for this study to
ascertain the quality of water and to ascertain changes and effects. In-situ
analysis were conducted for the determination of pH, which was measured
using a pH meter (Orion 260A), electrical conductivity (EC), measured using
Hanna portable multi range conductivity meter (HI 8733), Dissolved Oxygen
(DO) concentration, measured using a portable meter (Orion 830A), and
Turbidity, measured using portable meter (Hach 2100P). In addition, EC, Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS) and salinity were measured at the site, during the time
of sample collection. Furthermore, laboratory analysis was carried out in
accordance with the Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Waste
Water (APHA), 20th edition.
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The pH measured in the samples collected from the Giant’s Tank reflected
values that fell slightly above the ideal pH range proposed by the Central
Environmental Authority (CEA) for fish and aquatic life (Figure 1). Eriyagama
(1961) states that much of the Mannar District is composed of soils that are
sandy clay to sandy clay loams with concretions of carbonates of calcium,
sodium, and manganese oxide. The above could be one of the reasons for the
higher pH values recorded within the water body.
The DO values obtained from the Giant’s Tank samples were higher than
the minimum DO concentration required for aquatic life as proposed by the
CEA at most of the sites, mainly due to strong water currents. The less DO
concentrations at sample points 1 and 10 could be due to the water bodies being
separated from the main reservoir and thereby, being stagnant.
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9
8.5
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample
Ideal pH pH DO (mg/L) Min DO (mg/L)
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4.0 CONCLUSIONS
Results of Giant’s tank indicated that most of the water quality parameters
such as DO, EC, Nitrate - N, Hardness, Alkalinity, and Turbidity [never
discussed BOD results] were either slightly above or in align with the ideal
range or the maximum levels proposed by the CEA as the ambient water quality
standards for the aquatic life in the inland waters of Sri Lanka. However, the pH
and phosphate level were slightly above the ideal pH range and maximum
phosphate level for above the standards
Results of the Akurala water bodies revealed that, pH and Nitrate- N, were
within the ideal level proposed by the CEA for fish aquatic life. However, the
phosphate level was slightly above the maximum recommended values refer to
the above standards.
According to the results of Puttalam Lagoon, water quality parameters
including pH, DO levels, Chlorophyll-a and nutrient parameters are within the
accepted limits for the fish and aquatic life. However, TSS , turbidity and TDS
concentrations showed considerably high values. Therefore, it will impact to
aquatic fauna in the lagoon. Also, in some places high chlorophyll-a values and
dissolved phosphate concentrations were recorded reflecting meso-trophic
conditions.
5.0 RECOMENDATIONS
The proposal to initiate eco-tourism or education centres based on the
Giant’s Tank.
The proposal to initiate re-habilitation and utilization based on Akurala area
such as a water related theme park should be reconsidered as the particular eco-
system may be vulnerable to additional developments.
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The environment around the study area show very good quality and reports
of Dolphins and Dugongs are frequently sited in the Puttalam lagoon. So that,
the potential for developing the areas around the Puttalan Lagoon islands could
be considered. The Eco-tourism activities could be bird watching, trekking,
marine mammal watching (Dolphins, whales, Duguongs etc.), tranquil holidays,
zero carbon foot prints, sea angling, mangrove and coral reef viewing, scuba
diving & sport fishing.
It should be noted that the following results are based only on a rapid
assessment survey, it would not give a thorough idea of the system which could
be subjected to seasonal and other numerous environmental changes. Hence, it
is recommended that a comprehensive study during a minimum of one year
period.
6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to National Aquatic Resource Research and
Development Agency for providing funds to carry out this rapid assessment
surveys.
7.0 REFERENCES
APHA, 1998, Greenburg A.E., Rhodes T.R., and Lenore S.C. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Waste water, 20th edition, APHA/AWWA/WEF
Bilotta, G. S. and Brazier, R. E. 2008.Understanding the influence of suspended solids
on water quality and aquatic biota.Water Research 42 (1), pp. 2849-2861.
Eriyagama, G.J. 1961. The semi-arid vegetation in Mannar region.The Ceylon Forester
5 (1), pp. 66-74.
Siriweera, W.I. 2011. Heritage of Sri Lanka: Marvels of irrigation technology. Daily
News, 11th May. URL: http://www.dailynews.lk/2011/05/11/fea03.asp (Assessed
on 3/06/ 2011).
Yatawara, D. 2008. Brightening the green: ‘Rice Bowl’ sows the seeds of hope, Sunday
Observer, 6th July. URL: http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2008/07/06/sec10.asp ,
(Assessed on 3/06/ 2011).
Dayaratne P., Linden, O., and De Silva, M.W.R.N. 1997. The Puttalam /Mundel
estuarine system and associated coastal waters: Environmental Degradation,
Resource Management Issues and Options for their Solution. NARA, Colombo, Sri
Lanka.
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National Aquatic Resource Research and Development Agency (NARA), Sri Lanka.
ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to investigate the fish kill incidents occurred in
different aquatic environments and identify the causes of pollution.
pH, phosphate and Electrical Conductivity (EC) levels which exceed the standard
limits were identified as the cause of the fish kill for Pamunuwila Canal.
1. INTRODUCTION
A ‘fish kill’ is a significant and sudden death of fish or other aquatic
animals such as crabs or prawns. Such events are characterized by large
numbers of aquatic animals dying over a short time, usually in a clearly defined
area (Anonymous, 1998).
Fish kills are important signs of environmental stress and it is important to
investigate fish kill incidents to determine the cause. Identifying the cause of
fish kills helps fisheries researchers and the public, as they may indicate
significant environmental changes, to recognize disease conditions and water
pollution events.
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Therefore, the main objective of this study was to investigate the fish kill
incidents occurred in different aquatic environments and identify the cause of
pollution and to propose recommendations to avoid such fish kill incidents in
future.
2. METHOD
Seven fish kill occurrences in six water bodies were investigated from
January 2011 to January 2012 including Beira Lake, Diyawannawa Oya,
Siyabalagamuwa Wewa, Thalan Lagoon and Pamunuwila Canal, Kelaniya.
In-situ analysis was carried out to measure pH, Water Temperature,
Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Turbidity, whereas
laboratory analysis was carried out to determine Nitrate-N (NO3-- N), Nitrite-N
(NO2--N), Ammoniacal-N (NH4+-N), Phosphate, Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD), and Chlorophyll-a concentrations.
For laboratory analysis, samples were stored at 4 0C and transported to the
laboratory. All water quality analyzes were carried out in accordance with the
Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Waste Water (APHA), 20th
edition. Microsoft Excel 2007 was used as a data analysis tool to identify the
water pollution status. Proposed Central Environmental Authority (CEA)
ambient water quality standard for inland waters in Sri Lanka (2001) was used
as standard guidelines for fish and aquatic life.
Results also indicated that low DO levels (2.79 ± 0.417 mg/L), high
turbidity (20.12 ± 6.601 NTU), TDS (39.60 ± 3.219 mg/L), and BOD (15.33 ±
3.786 mg/L), levels during the fish kill investigations showing deterioration of
water quality in the Beira Lake.
3.2 Diyawanna oya
Low DO levels, which is below the acceptable limits for survival of fish
and aquatic life and high levels of salinity, EC, turbidity, ammoniacal – N,
phosphate and BOD values were observed by the fish kill incident investigation
done during the month of June.
EC (15.06 ± 6.802 mS/cm) and salinity (11.83 ± 6.948 ppt) levels indicated
high values possibly due to salt water intrusion through the canal connected to
Diyawannawa Oya during high tide period.
3.3 Siyabalagamuwa Wewa
Siyabalagamuwa wewa indicated Ammonical-N, pH, BOD, TDS, and
turbidity levels which did not comply with the standard limits (Table I).
Table 1: Results of the water quality parameters measured on site
Parameter SG 1 SG 2 SG3 Avg. Stdv.
pH 9.05 8.66 8.71 8.81 0.212
DO (mg/L) 4.3 5.98 4.29 4.86 0.973
EC(mS/cm) 515 511 503 509.67 6.110
Since live fish samples were not available at the time of visit, the preserved
fish samples were taken for the investigation. Scale losses, hemorrhages, lesions
and ulcers were visible in those samples and the lesions were mainly observed
closer to the mouth and tail. In some fishes deep lesions were observed and
bones also visible.
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Figure 4: Haemorhagic lesions in the base of the pelvic fin of Mugil cephalus
This fish mortality could be happened due to water pollution conditions
prevailed in the lagoon and minimum water circulation in Dunkolawatta –Ela
has obstructed by stabilizing Ja –kotu, Sluice gate creating the lagoon as
stagnant water body.
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Table 2: Identified causes for the fish kill occurrences and Remedies proposed
Water Body Causes Remedies
Beira Lake Ammonical-N, BOD and the Identify water pollutant sources
phosphate levels at some through proper monitoring
locations did not comply with programs.
the standard limits.
Eutrophic conditions might be Actions should be taken to
reason for this situation prevent further damage to the
water bodies.
Proper management and
maintenance of the water body.
Diyawannawa Oya Low dissolved oxygen levels in Avoid discharging effluents into
the water which is below the water bodies which do not
acceptable limits for survival of follow the guidelines and
fish and aquatic life. general standards limits for
discharge of effluents into inland
surface waters using
High levels of salinity, EC, recommended dilution factors.
Turbidity,Ammonia,phosphate
and BOD.
Siyambalagamuwa Ammonical Nitrogen, pH, Control of EUS in natural waters
Reservoir BOD, TDS, Turbidity levels is probably impossible. In
which did not comply with the outbreaks occurring in
standard limits for the survival small,closed water bodies,
limits of fish and aquatic life liming of water and
improvement of water quality,
together with removal of
infected fish, is often effective in
reducing mortality.
The disease is suspected as Enforce existing environmental
Episootic Ulserative Syndrom regulations to overcome
(EUS). discharge of sediments and
pollutants by anthropogenic
activities in the area
Thalan Lagoon Stagnant water body and zero Actions should be taken to
water circulation facilitate better water circulation.
The levels of pollution owing to Increase awareness of people
the increase of unionized about best land use practices in
ammonia, low DO and nitrite the catchment.
has resulted pathological effects
in the gill tissue.
EUS (Epizootic Ulcerative
Syndrome) was identified.
Pamunuwila Canal pH,Ammonia,Phosphate which Frequent fish kills would be
did not comply the standard happened during the peak of the
limits for fish and aquatic life. dry season and onset of rains
regularly unless proper measures
are taken to reduce the nutrient
enrichment due to waste
discharges.
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4.0 CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded that deterioration of water quality due to various
anthropogenic activities and the absence of proper monitoring programs to
ascertain the current status of water bodies are the main causes of most of the
fish kill incidents.
5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
Water pollutant sources, should be identified through proper monitoring
programs and actions should be taken to prevent further damage to the water
bodies.
Frequent fish kills would happen during the peak of the dry season and
onset of rains regularly unless proper measures are taken to reduce the nutrient
enrichment due to waste discharges.
Prevent discharging effluents into water bodies which do not follow the
guidelines and general standards limits for discharge of effluents into inland
surface waters using recommended dilution factors.
Report as soon as possible suspected outbreaks to relevant authorities to
take immediate action to identify the cause of fish kill and take remedial
measures.
6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to National Aquatic Resources Research and
Development Agency (NARA) for providing funds to conduct this study.
7.0 REFERENCES
Anon. 1998, Fish kill reporting and investigation manual,Department of Environment
and Heritage,
URL: http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/register/p00366aa.pdf, (Assessed on 08/05/
2012).
APHA.1998, Greenburg A.E., Rhodes T.R., and Lenore S.C. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Waste water, 20th edition, APHA/AWWA/WEF
Central Environmental Authority. 2001, Proposed Ambient Water quality Standards for
Inland Waters Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Environment Action 1 Project
(Funded by ADB).
OECD. 1982, Eutrophication of Waters: Monitoring, assessment and control.
Organization for Economic and Co-operative Development, Paris, France.
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ABSTRACT
This study was carried out with the objective of assessing the agricultural activities
taking place within the Gregory lake catchment and surrounding agricultural areas to
identify their threats on the soil and water environment in general and specifically on
the lake. Questionnaire survey was conducted within the Gregory lake catchment and
surrounding areas of Nuwara Eliya to assess the agricultural practices, fertilizer and
agrochemical usage by the farmers using 50 households who are directly or indirectly
engaged in agriculture. Satellite images were analyzed to assess the land use changes
of the Gregory lake catchment and to identify the morphological changes in Gregory
lake during 1992 and 1998.
The results revealed that farmers tend to apply overdoses of fertilizers and
pesticides to their crops aiming high economic gains. In addition, very steep slopes and
riparian areas of the streams are used for cultivation posing threat on water resources.
According to the study, the cultivated area in the lake Gregory catchment has increased
approximately by 10% in 1998 compared to 1992. In addition, morphological changes
in the lake also has occurred with time. Changes in the water surface area are mainly
attributed to the sedimentation and aquatic plant growth. Dredging of sediments to
restore lake environment has become a huge economic burden and is a temporary
solution to the prevailing problems.
Considering the nature of agricultural practices and land management aspects in
the area, it is recommended to further investigate the over application of fertilizers and
pesticides in agriculture and identify sustainable solutions through capacity building of
farmers.
1. INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is one of the major causes of degradation of surface and ground
water resources through erosion and chemical runoff (FAO, 2011). Since Sri
Lanka is an agricultural country, the chances of water sources being
contaminated due to agricultural activities are very high (Dayawansa, 2006).
For several decades, farmers are applyingoverdoses of fertilizers and pesticides
(Mubarak, 2000) in intensive agricultural areas in Sri Lanka. It is revealed that
theses excess fertilizers and pesticides, which are added into the environment,
can easily contaminate surface and ground water sources (US EPA, 2009). As
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encourage the aquatic plant growth (UDA, 2004). The catchment of Gregory
Lake has intensive vegetable cultivation and high population density and
therefore high amount of urban wastewater and sediments come through runoff
(Amarathunga et al., 2010). Water quality data of Lake Gregory shows the
presence of the nitrogenous and phosphorus compounds, iron etc. (UDA, 1996).
To maintain the aesthetic beauty of the lake, it is important to maintain the
quality of water. In this respect, identification of the threats faced by the
catchment area due to agricultural and other human activities is a prime
importance. Within this background, the objective of the study is to assess the
agricultural activities taking place within the Gregory lake catchment and
surrounding agricultural areas to identify their impact on the soil and water
pollution.
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Fifty six percent of the sample has obtained secondary education. Thus,
they should have the knowledge of agricultural pollution and its general impacts
to the environment. However, De Silva, (2009) has revealed that the educational
standards and literacy level of the estate population in Nuwara Eliya district is
far below the national level. Thirty percent of the members (both males and
females) of the sample are engaged in farming as their primary occupation.
Except this portion, about 19% of sample population is engaged in farming as
their secondary occupation. This shows the high involvement of people in
agricultural activities in Nuwara Eliya, providing evidence for environmental
degradation. The rest of the sample is involved in the labour works (7%)
including estate labour. There is a big diversity in land ownership in the study
area. According to the survey, 57% of the sample owns their lands while 9% is
under encroached land. These lands have been encroached from the reservation
areas making streams and other important land features vulnerable to pollution
and degradation.
With respect to soil conservation, majority (61%) of the lands are in poor
state with no soil conservation measures. The farmers in those households
cultivate their lands even in steep slopes without considering the possibility of
soil erosion. According to the field observations, it is evident that these lands
are totally bare just prior to start cultivation and highly vulnerable to soil
erosion. About 22% of the households were engaged in intensive farming
activities. They have used every space in the land for cultivation. The edges and
the banks of the water bodies, drains and streams are cultivated by the farmers
creating a huge threat to the water sources. Virtually, there are no riparian areas
left in small streams running in these areas. There is a great possibility to
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contaminate the water sources by the fertilizers and pesticide applications to the
cultivations at banks of such water bodies. The
Majority of the farmers (50%) do not apply soil conservation methods even
though they have their own lands. The main reason for this can be lack of
awareness about soil conservation, carelessness about the economic capability
of the land (focus group discussions with farmers, 2008). Out of total sample,
about 36% of farmers have applied soil conservation methods whether they are
owners or not owners of these lands.
4.2 Fertilizer and agro-chemical
chemical usage in the area
The fertilizers applied by the farmers in the surveyed area are many times
higher than the recommended standard application rate of Department of
Agriculture of Sri Lanka. The over applied amount as a percentage of standard
amount for the given fertilizers for the given crops are given in the Figure 1.
According to Mubarak (2000) Sri Lanka is the highest fertilizer consumption
(101.5kg/ha) country in the SAARC region and it reflects the excessive and
inefficient use of fertilizers by the farmers.
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Since farmers are over applying the fertilizers than the standard
recommended rate given by the Department of Agriculture, there is a great
possibility to retain the excess fertilizers in the soil profile. The build up of
phosphorus in the cultivated soils is a result of adding much more phosphorus
in the form of fertilizer than is removed by the harvested crop. Taking carrot as
an example, the survey showed that on an average the farmers apply 680 kg of
triple superphosphate per acre. This amounts to the addition of 293 kg of
phosphorus to a hectare. However, a 40 tonne carrot crop (fresh weight)
removes only about 15 kg of phosphorus from one hectare of land(Potash
Development Association, 2010). This calculation shows that every time a
carrot crop is harvested, the soil gains a quantity of 278 kg of phosphorus,
assuming that none of it leaves the field. If this practice of adding excessive
amounts of P fertilizer for two to three crops a year continues, the soil P levels
will build up to very high levels, some of the high P soils will enter water
bodies as runoff, P content of the water will rise sharply, and pave the way for
algal blooms to become common occurrences in the water bodies like Gregory
lake. According to the soil test based recommendations given by Department of
Agriculture (1995) the Olsen phosphorus in soil of 30 ppm is generally
considered adequate. In Nuwara Eliya district 65% of intensively cultivated
lands have higher soil phosphorus than 30 ppm and 30% of the lands have
phosphorus in soil higher than 120 ppm (Yapa, 2010). The Olsen phosphorus
content in some cultivated soils of up country is as high as 400 ppm
(Wijewardena, 2011).
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Figure 2: Pesticides used by the farmers in vegetable farming in the study area.
4.3 Agriculture and other human activities in Catchment oof Lake Gregory
Other than the forest area in the upstream, rest of the catchment of lake
Gregory is occupied with either agriculture or built up lands including a part of
Nuwara Eliya municipal area. Hence, major water pollutants of the lake are of
agricultural or urban origin. Major agricultural activities in the area are
vegetable cultivations and tea plantations. The major vegetables crops
cultivated in the catchment area are cabbage, beet, carrot, leeks and potato.
Questionnaire survey identified that similar pract
practices are carried out by the
farmers in the lake catchment as other farmers in Nuwara Eliya. Number of
small tributaries flow into the lake from agricultural areas carrying
sediments and agricultural pollutants. According to the key informant
interviews, farmers
armers used to wash vegetables and sprayers by dipping in
some of these tributaries. The accumulation of floating aquatic plants at
the edge of the lake is common. According to the key informant
interviews, wastewater from the hotels located in the surroun
surrounding is also
contributing to the pollution of lake water.
4.4 Land use changes in the catchment of Lake Gregory
The changes of land use of catchment of Gregory Lake in 1992 and 1998
were investigated by using satellite images. According to the land use maps
prepared using Landsat TM image of 1992 and IRS LISS III (1998), general
land uses were identified as cultiva
cultivated, non cultivated and water. The areas
under each category was calculated and illustrated in the Table 2.
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Table 2: Land use pattern in Catchment of Lake Gregory in 1992 and 1998.
The above statistics show that there is an increase in the cultivated area
during the period. Sediments and agricultural pollutants are drained into the
lake with the increasing agricultural activities. Reduction in the water surface
area with time is an indication of either aquatic plant growth in the lake or high
sedimentation.
Water surface area of the Lake Gregory was extracted from the multi
temporal satellite images and the changes in the surface areas were assessed to
identify the morphological changes with time (Table 3). This is an indication of
the changes in the physical condition of the lake due to sedimentation and
aquatic plant growth.
Accordingly, the water surface area of Gregory Lake in 1998 has reduced
compared to the water surface area in 1992. The details of Urban Development
Authority revealed that there was a huge occurrence of algal bloom and aquatic
plant growth on the water surface of Gregory Lake in 1998. This can be a major
reason for the deduction of the water surface area. The Urban Development
Authority has carried out dredging by spending huge cost to clean the lake
Gregory.
6. REFERENCES
Amarathunga, A.A.D., Weerasekara K.A.W.S., Sureshkumar N., Shirantha R.R.A.R.
and S.A.M. Azmy 2010. Total Suspended Solis and Turbidity Correlation in
Kotmale Sub- catchment of Mahaweli pcatchment, Water Resources Research in
Sri Lanka, Symposium proceedings of The Water Professionals’ Day, Crossing
Boundaries Project, Postgraduate Institute and Geo-Informatics Society of Sri
Lanka, pp 115-124.
Amarasiri, S. 2007. Declining Water Quality and Its effect on Water Security, Water
Resources Researches in Sri Lanka, Water Resources Research in Sri Lanka,
Symposium proceedings of The Water Professionals’ Day, Geo- Informatics
Society of Sri Lanka (GISSL), pp 1-10.
Chandrasekara, S.S.K., Kumari, M.K.N., Aravinda, A.L., Galagedara, L.W. and N.D.K.
Dayawansa, 2010. Effects of Delayed Cultivation on Irrigation Water Management
and other cultivation practices: A case study in Maha – Illuppallama, Water
Resources Research in Sri Lanka, Symposium proceedings of The Water
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Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
Dayawansa, N.D.K. 2006. Water Pollution in Sri Lanka, Geo-Informatics Society of Sri
Lanka.
De Silva, S. 2009. Water: A Root of poverty among estate women in Sri Lanka,
Interfacing poverty, Livestock and Climate Change in Water Resources
Development : Lessons in South Asia, Fourth South Asia Water Research
Conference, Nepal Engineering College, Chargunaryan, Bhaktapur, Nepal, pp 78-
89.
Mubarak, A.M. 2000. Water Pollution, Natural Resources of Sri Lanka, National
Science Foundation, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Urban Development Authority (UDA). 2004. Development Plan for Nuwara Eliya
Urban Development Area (Nuwara Eliya Municipal Council area) 2004-2016,
Volume 1, Situational Plan and Development Report.
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Wijewardena J.D.H .2011. Agriculture and Water Pollution in Sri Lanka, Water
Resources Research in Sri Lanka, Symposium proceedings of The Water
Professionals’ Day, Crossing Boundaries Project, Postgraduate Institute and Geo-
Informatics Society of Sri Lanka, pp 3-17.
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ABSTRACT
The Hamilton canal was built in 1821 by the British engineer Hamilton as an
alternative water transport way to the Old Dutch canal. It drains from Puttalam to the
metropolis of Colombo and flows parallel to the west coast of Sri Lanka. Water
pollution in theHamilton canal has taken place due to various human activities.
Contamination by undesirable objects thrown to the surface fresh water sources such as
canals, rivers, and tributaries causes water pollution. There are many direct and
indirect effects of surface water pollution on animals, humans, plants and ecosystems.
Land value reduction is another effect that occurs as a result of surface water pollution.
The main objective of this study wasto assess the effect of surface water pollution on
reduction of land value using GIS analysis. This study also examined the socio-
economic conditions of both urban and industrial areas that are subjected to water
contamination. Water samples were collected randomly at nine places inside eight GN
Divisions of Wattala DS Division inregular intervals. Initially pH,Electrical
Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Dissolved Oxygen, Salinity and Temperature were
measured usinga water quality meter. Chemical Oxygen Demand was also determined.
Secondly, information regarding socioeconomic and urban conditions related to water
pollution and land values were collected using a questionnaire survey from randomly
selected households in six GN Divisions in the study area. Finally, all the data were
added into aGIS database and the relationship between water pollution and land value
was shown on maps. SPSS and MINITAB software packages were used for statistical
analysis. According to the study Balagala, Elakanda, Palliyawatta North, and
Thimbirigasyaya was found high in water pollution. Study found high in pH value of 6.8
near solid waste reproduce centre and 28.5 ºC of higher temperature value near where
the sub canals flows from Kerawalapitiya Industrial zone, to the Hamilton Canal in
Balagala GN Division. Also it showed 0.6 Mg/l of high level of salinity too in the same
GN Division. Study revealed, gradually increasing levels of Total Dissolved Solid in
Palliyawatta North and Elakanda GN divisions with the amount of 1.6.Mg/l and 250
Mg/l higher level of COD due to the processes of rapid urbanization and the
industrialization in Elakanda GN Division. Furthermore, high amount of 3.50 Mg/l of
Dissolve Oxygen was found in Palliyawatta North GN Division. According to the
survey, high land value of Rs1, 67895 to Rs2, 03200 (per perch) were manifest where
less water pollution took places such as Palliyawatta South, Hekitta and Kurunduhena
GN Divisions. And lower land value of Rs 97,000(per perch) was found in Dikowita
GN Division where average level of water pollution occurred and moderate land value
of Rs 97,001to Rs 167894 (per perch) was marked where GN Divisions found in highest
water pollution in the study area.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water and the land are naturally occurring resources which assist to sustain
the human life on earth.From the early times our ancestors built their
civilization along the river banks, where the fertile land and the fresh water are
available. At that time, demand of the land mainly based on accessibility to
water sources and fertile soil. Nowadays this demand has changed with the
availability of transportation, infrastructure and sanitation facilities etc. but still
the water act as a key factor to determine the land value. However, quality of
water will now play a decisive role in determining land value.
Only 0.4 percent of the water available for the human being’s use is mainly
divided into two categories as surface water and groundwater. Surface Water is
the water that remains from Rain, Snow, Sleet, Hail, etc after evapo-
transpiration and infiltration losses. These waters are stored in streams, rivers,
lakes, tanks, and canals. Ninety-five percent of all fresh water on earth is
groundwater. Ground water is found in natural rock formations. These
formations, called aquifers, are a vital natural resource with many uses.
Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to
the addition of large amounts of unnecessary materials to the water. Water
pollution can be defined as “contamination of water by undesirable foreign
matter” (http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/waterq/forms.html). Today the water
quality of many canals in the world is severely deteriorated, placing a risk at the
health and livelihoods of all those who reside along their banks. Every year, 19
trillion gallons of waste enter the surface water. Pollution of freshwater is a
problem for about half of the world's population. Each year there are about 250
million cases of water-related diseases reported with roughly around 5 to 10
million deaths.
Among the key environmental issues of the South Asia, freshwater
pollution and scarcity have became most prominent issues of the region.
Limited access to potable water, water-borne diseases, arsenic contamination of
drinking water, seasonal limitations of availability of natural freshwater
resources, depletion of freshwater aquifers, organic pollution and specially the
degradation of land resources due to surface pollution are some of the matters
include in this issue. Pollution of Sri Lanka’s water occurs throughout the island
from domestic, industrial and agricultural sources. Contamination of wells from
urban discharges and agrochemicals are rising in rural and urban areas.
1.1 Study area
Hamilton canal drains from Puttalam to metropolis of Colombo and flows
parallel to west coast of Sri Lanka. It flows within W4 agro ecological region
in low country wet zone where rainfall is over 1525mm/annum and with a flat
terrain. Soils are bog and half bog and are highly acidic. Tide alone causes
oscillating flows in the canal with discharges of 1.5-4.5m3/s and velocities of
0.1-0.25m/s. Salt penetrates into Hamilton canal during dry season.
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b). Observations
Observation method was used for selecting the location for the hypothesis
testing and for the water testing methods. In the field, observation method was
used for identifying the pollution sources, interaction of residents with the
Hamilton canal.
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Water testing techniques used to measure the pollution states of the canal
varied according to the GN divisions in order to facilitate the hypothesis.
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fragmentation and the residents mainly depend on piped borne water supply.
The shallow groundwater is polluted due to seepage of canal water in peat and
peat bog soil. High Fecal coliform levels in water indicate sewage pollution.
High COD in canal water also an indication of industrial pollution.
According to the study, high land value was found where less water
pollution is occurred. Moderate land value was identified in the area where high
water pollution occurred. Less land value was identified where moderate water
pollution occurred and away from theurban area. Flood hazard and socio
cultural condition further enhanced the situation in the area.
Land value reduction and the surface water pollution were the major
problems of the area while flood hazard further worsen the stage. To overcome
the land value reduction, it is important to control water pollution in the
Hamilton canal. Hence, the industrial discharges should be strictly controlled
and prior treatments are necessary before discharging. Water purification can
implement in the sub canal mouths by using bricks and gneiss.
A strict legal procedure in necessary to control discharge of toilet waste into
the canal hence it should make it mandatory to obtain prior approval for
construction of houses. Illegal constructions in the environmental sensitive area
have to be removed without any political influences. To overcome the flood
hazard, bank protection should be done and illegal reclamations should be
stopped.
Since this canal is located in an area with scenic beauty, tourism can be
promoted. It will help to increase the land value. Water transportation system
can be introduced in Hamilton canal and the riders can travel between
Negombo-Colombo. This will directly benefit the people of the study area by
generating occupations and high demand for fishing. This also indirectly
enhances the attitudes of the residents toward maintaining a clean environment.
This will help to increase the land value.
4.0 REFERENCES
Changhua.W.A., Maurer.C., Xue.S., and D.L.Davis. 1999. Water Pollution and Human
Health in China."Environmental Health Perspectives Volume 107.
Dayawansa, N.D.K.& Ranjith Premalal W.P. 1998. Modelling Non-Point Source
Pollution Risk at Nilambe Catchment, SLASS Annual Publication,Colombo.
Michel. H.J. 1996.Water Quality Affects Property Price, Marine agriculture and forest
experiment Station, University of Maine.
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