7 Road Drainage 7.1, INTRODUCTION Road drainage is the process of interception and removal of water from over, under and vicinity of the road surface. For safe and efficient design of road, road drainage is very important. The stability of road Pavements can be maintained only if their surface and foundation bed remain in dry condition. During rains, part of the rain water flows on surface and part of it percolates in the subgrade or any other layer of the pavement. If this water is not removed it may cause the road pavement failure. 7.2. NECESSITY OF ROAD DRAINAGE Road drainage work is necessary because of the following reasons. (a) _ Variation in moisture content in expansive soils Causes variation in the volume of Subgrade and contributes to the failure of Pavement. (b) Excess moisture content in soil subgrade causes considerable lowering of its Stability. (c) The entrance of water Causes reduction in bearing capacity of Soil subgrades like WBM and stabilised soil, (d) Due to poor drainage, waves and corrugations are formed in flexible pavements which causes failure of pavement. (e) ue to poor drainage of Toad, water remains in contact with the D bituminous material for longer time causing Stripping of bitumen from aggregates and formation of Pot holes. () — Inrigid pavements failure occurs by *mud i Pumping due to the presence of water in fine Subgrade soil, * Mud Pumping : Itis the process of ej “ection of soil slurry through the joints and cracks of cement concrete pavement caused during the downward movement of slab under the wheel loads.goa? DRAINAGE ) 0) () Poor road drainage work c; aus ; unsurfaced road, slopes etc ©S Erosion of solfrom 1% . 8 toy Increase in moisture conte Pot i a, nt ca , weight and thus increase in str USES Considera ble ; e : incr in strength of the soil mass. SS and simuttan eda OU reduction The shoulders and pavement ed ater. 92S get damaged due to excess 7,REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD ROAD DRAINAGE work Requirements of a good road drainage work are as follows : () (ii) (i) (iv) (v) (vi) (i) (Vii) Road formation should be 74, ROAD DRAINAGE WORK of Road drainage work, adopt Surface and sub-surface water, from The surface water flowing from the adjoini @ adjoini prevented from entering the roadway. Peng Tend show bs The surface water from the shoulder and carriage way should effectively drain off before percolating to the subgrade. The side drain should have sufficient longitudinal slope and capacity to effectively carry away all the collected surface water. Seepage and other source of underground water, ifany, should be intercepted and drained off by the subsurface drainage system. Surface water flowing across the road pavement should not develop cross ruts or erosion of road surface. / Maximum level of ground water table should be maintained well below the level of subgrade, preferably by atleast 1.2m ial measures should be taken, if In water logged areas. special ™ salts are present or if chance of flooding is there. designed in such away th FLL. at ail points. at it should be 600 mm above the H. ing an contro! ‘ed for intercepting, us ment strut entering into the pav! r ate Classified as follows : (a) (b) ton Surface drainage Sub-surface drainage fo ~ 2 wa atehTRANSPORTATION ENGIN 134 FERING out percolating inti to'flow from the paver eds cutting or deen foe an Let in aa pankment The water is first collected in side drain; eeeed of at the nearest stream, valley or water course. 7.4.1.1. Methods of Providing Surface Drainage Steps generally taken to provide effective surface drainage are as follows : (a) Providing a impervious pavement surface. (b) Providing sufficient cross slope or camber to the pavement (c) Providing shoulders of rural roads with sufficient cross Slope, (d) Providing side drains of rura! roads with suitable cross-section and longitudinal slopes. (e) Providing longitudinal drains (side drains) on one or both sides of the road. () Keeping height of the road embankment atleast 1.2 m above H.F.L. of the area. 7.4.2. Sub-Surface Drainage Sub-surface drainage is the system of diversion or removai of excess soil water to the ground water. The main function of sub-surface drainage is to keep the variation of moisture in sub-grade soil to. a minimum. Under the following conditions the sub-surface drainage system is recommended: (a) When the water table of the region in which road is situated is very high (within 1.2 m below the road subgrade). (b) When there is considerable si @ road in cutting, (c) When there is structure, (d) When the ro hill seep in houlders ankmens S and itis seepage through the side slopes of danger of rise of capillary water to the pavement ad is at the fot of a hill and water running from the ito the road subgrade. Whi (e) len the pavement Structure is subjected to the action of spring 7.4.2.1. Methods f Providing Sub. 4, Lowering the water table 2. Control of S€€page fioy, 2 Control of Capillary risepralNAGE ing the water table; In or cowering ‘ ST that the a Es not Sia No esse Moisture, the high and Pavement sy pould be ates h the i Mm Below the ieyes Of subg ® sob swater table is high, the best remedy is to make the roag oy Places anarament of height not less than 1) Ten the formate (OF™ation in a Palow the ground level, then it beco, a Nis to, be |, o S essen} id an ane sub-soil water table can be low. eo iy the water eerads, depending upon the Permeability of Soil, Y oF the ‘ollowing me (a) Incase of permeable gs, Oil, the Sub-soil wat 7 er t construction of longitudinal drainage trenches ith dre ay sored in Fi > "ain pipe and fit as shown in Fig. 7.1. The depth Of draina J euied lowering of water table. 9° french depends on the Pavement = Original Water table Lowered Water table Longitudinal drain pipe Fig. 7.1. Lowering of water ta () In case of less peri Suffici ble by using longitudinal drains and filer sand meable soil, the lowering of water table is not ent by providing longitudinal drainage trenches only. Hence tans draing alongwith the longitudinal drains are to be precee oli pwer the water table upto the level of transverse Grains. Pr between the transverse oF cross drains is kept bolseene eo ndepending Ubon the nature of subgrade soil. Fig. 7.2 shows & 46 “rainage system with fongitudinal and wansverse dt envious 2.Controt of Seepage Flow : Where surface rene Lebel Strata below it are sloping towards the ee eos ata detiless 7 Si tang Sue and affects strength the t should be intercepted Kerk than 60 to 99 cm from the road subgrade, i hows the method by w! Sec P8E line to the desired depth. Fig. 7.3 ssibility ePage line can be lowered. Carats areas, there lary action 3. Control of capillary rise : In waterlogged? table eve rovided Of water ‘ising up to the subgrade from the cut-off treat "some of the tog fening itn such situctions, 2 cary te water ‘0 attest the capillary rise instead of some pilary n° Suitable capillary cut-off layers to check ©136 TRANSPORTATION ENgy Ni Sand blanket extending over the full embankment 7 Ey "ath (b) Heavy duty tar felt (c) Polythene envelope (d) Bituminous stabilised soil Ldhgitudinal drain Tansverse dra Section Transverse drains longitudinal drain Plan Fig. 7.2. Sub-surface drainage system with longitudinal and transverse drains. Control of seepage flow Fig. 7.3._-_ \ we 5 4 soo S AINAGE sani? oso OR 4. pete te an embal een thy Ss j : fsa sand blanket, Thickness eoa48 a OVied g : . . By jge of water remain with in this eo sand blankat est lever at” Ont ” Another method of proy; Yer. sucha bi » ingermeable membrane like tar nS, Pillay hi gubgrade and water table felt, Polythene tof iS by ing Rt ete, heyy td a Pvemen tween th Embankment Highest Water eve Fig. 7.4. Capillary cut-oft by sand blanket Pavement Impervions layer or membrane —— tot tet KE digest evel ot water table Fig. 7.5. Capillary cut-off by impervious layer 74.3. Cross-Drainage Works . . . . water, The function of the cross-drainage works is to Seen ane Collected in side drains or that of natural streams, across Sond paael Side to the other as quickly as possible. The adequate fun pends to alarge extent on the effectiveness of cross tainage prevents water from penetrating into the Prevents failure. ¢ are the The commonly used cross-drainage structure race Ma Small bridges. A-culvert is a type of cross drainadt sis less than linea ; YP rye faces of abUIME” jrycture Is Water way between the inside 3 rainage reg wnerees len the linear water exceeds 30 ™. the ae sal const ridge. Across small streams and nallas cul ycted culvert, Cros . jdges are cons! are BOX 8s latge streams or rivers bridges A oe works Culverts commonly used for or055 culverts and138 ‘TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Arch culvert, Slab cluvert and Pipe culverts. Fig. 7.6 shows a section of pipe culvert used in cross drainage work. Road Pipe C) for drainage P.C.C base Fig. 7.6. Pipe Culvert. 7.5. SIDE DRAINS Side drains are longitudinal drains provided Parallel to the road for Collecting and disposing the surface water, They are generally trapezoidal in shape provided by cutting the subgrade soil at a suitable distance from the road surface. For roads in embankment the distance of side drains should Not be less than 1.85 m from the toe of the embankment Side drains are Provided just after the edges of shoulder for roads in cutting Generally, the side drains are classified into two groups. (i Closed or covered drains (ii) Open drains (i) Closed Drains : Closed drains are provided in places where there is restriction of space and construction of open drains are undesirable. Closed drains are of two types : (a) Drains provided with gratings (b) Jelly drains. (a) Drains provided with gratings : These drains are usually provided in urban areas. Water drained from the pavement Surface is carried forward in longitudinal direction between the kerb and the road pavement for distances. It is then collected in catch pit and led through underground drain pipes. The catch pits are provided with grating to prevent the entry of rubbish into the drainage system. It is shown in Fig. 7.7, (b) Jelly Drains : Jelly drains are closed drains filled with filter material. These drains are trapezoidal in shape and are filled with filter materials like ayers of gravel and sand. In the filter the larger size particles are provided it the bottom and smaller size at the top of the drain @s shown in Fig. 7.8.ROAD DRAINAGE 139 Foot path POONR |-<—Building line = Road sutaeg yom | ~Kerb catch 7 {—Pipe for drainage j-—P.C.C base Fig. 7.7. Drain with grating. a . 586 Gy Fig. 7.8. Jelly Drains. ins ; These drains are generally pr (i) Open Drail ovided in rural areas where there is no F traffic. These are also trapezoidal i varies from 0. to 1.0 M and dep' topography of the area. These drains are SO desig! water level in them should remain atleast 250 mm cutting. spoil bank pen side drain shoulder Road pavement estriction of space and the road is subjected to light in shape. The bed width of such a drain th 0.15 to 0.5m depending upon the ined that the maximum below the road bed in spoil bank Fig, 7.9. Open side drain.8 Road Maintenaney 8.1. INTRODUCTION When a constructe are subjected to wear and t d road is opened to traffic, its various componer). ear. Certain defects may also creep in due to f construction of road. If these de! faulty design and improper quality of co! | wear and tear are not rectified time to time, they get deteriorated and ma, lead to unsafe, uneconomical and inconvenienent movements of traffic Hence maintenance of roads is essential to provide safe and smooth movements of traffic. Maintenance is intended to keep the pavemer structure in serviceable condition as best as practicable and as long 4s possible. Poor maintenance of road is not only harmful to the traffic using * but is also harmful to the road itself. Poor maintenance may cause large number of accidents. : Maintenance are of three types : routine, recurrent and periodic. Routine maintenance does not depnd on traffic level. It consists of grass cutting drain clearing, maintenance of culverts and bridges etc. Recurren’ maintenance eee on traffic level and consists of patching and gracing roads. Periodic maintenance consists of Surfac: i erlaying at intervals of greater than one year. ace Cressing endows” 8.2. GENERAL The wsiowne arte OF PAVEMENT FAILURE g are the ci ; (2) Bad quality of ees of failure of any pavement : quality of construction material. ‘b) Fault it i (6) y design and improper quality control of construction (c) Inadequate road drainage system (d) Increase in wheel load : (e) Settlement of fill material of embankt 8.3. FAILURE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS, ment The localised deformation or Settlement of any one of the layers of dlROAD MAINTENANCE 143 flexbile pavement leads to the failure of ir flexible pavement may be due to the entire pavement. The failure in (a) | Subgrade failure (b) ‘Base Course failure, or (c) Wearing course failure. eee Failure : The excessive deformation in subgrade soil is one of the main cause of pavement failure. This type of failure causes excessive undulations or waves and corrugations in the pavem: rf ‘undt jations in th sl eaters avement surface The basic reasons of subgrade failure are : (i) Inadequate Stability due to improper compaction or presence of excessive moisture in the soil (ii) | Excessive stress application. (ii) Inadequate road drainage. Load Wearing Course Sub base course Soil subgrade Fig. 8.1. Subgrade failure. (b) Base Course Failure : The following are main types of base course failure : (i) Inadequate stability i) Loss of binding action (ii) Crushing of base course material (iv) Lack of lateral confinement of base course (v) Insufficient wearing course (vi) Loss of material from base course (vii) Inadequate road drainage. (c) Wearing Course Failure : The failure in wearing course IS mainlyTRANSPORTATION EN : IGINEER IG due to the following reasons : (i) Lack of proper mix design. (i) — Use of inadequate quantity of binder (iii) Use of inferior quality of binder (iv) \nadequate quality control (v) Volatilization and oxidation of binder. Load Wearing Course a Base Course ~—Sub base course Soil Subgrade Fig. 8.2. Base Course Failure Load Wearing Course Base Course ANI Soll Subgrade Fi "98.3. Wearing Course Faiture 8.4. TYPICAL FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT p, Al LURES Some ofthe typical flexible pavement a i biaumiror. Deane pee Ist "Mon type of the ’ ; local © of failure of and fatigue of the materials. The gen. weak spot areata ral pattern of Rosin the base course '@P cracking is show" lu : : eS are mentioned below:/ E oad MAI INTENANG 145 Ce 4 , Fig. 8.4. Map Cracking. (i) Longitudinal Cracking : These cracks are developed along the length of the pavement. This type of pavement failure is caused due to (a) _ differential volume change in subgrade (0) settlement of fill (c) _ sliding of side slopes (d) frost action. (ii) Shear Failure : Heavy loading and weakness of pavement mixtures are mainly responsible for shear failures of the pavement. The shear failure causes upheaval of pavement materials by forming a cracking or fracture. ‘The shear failure is shown in Fig. 8.5. x Pavement width ————>1_ Shoulder urneaval Shear failure Fig. 8.5. Shear failure ene Consolidation of pavement layers or Rutting : These are en inal depression that form due to repeated application of loads on ai Portion of road, This is mainly due to the consolidation of one or avers of the pavement. This type of failure is shown in Fig. 8.6. J+ Pavement width ————*1 Fig. 8.6. Formation of ruts.TRANSPORTATION ENGINEEpy, heaving up of pavement portion is 5 . | portion is followed by. called fro: i shear failure, UP heaval r i ws fost eth of frost action localized portions of the Pavemen, depression, lifted up. Fig. 8.7 shows failure of pavement due to frost heaving, are : a j-—— Pavement width 146 : , (v) Frost Heaving : A localize al upheaval due to frost Fig. 8.7. Frost Heaving. (vi) Pot Holes : These are bow! shaped holes of various sizes in the pavement. These are formed due to slipping of surface course material when the surface course is not properly keyed with the underlying base Course. This type of failure is more common when the prime coat in between two layers is lacking. Fig. 8.8 shows the formation of pot holes. Pot hoie formation is frequent in cases where bituminous surfacing is provided over the existing soil cement base or cement concrete base. Bituminers ‘Surfacing loss of surfacing Cement Concrete base Fig. 8.8. Formation of, cracks ai Facks : The surfacing lai Ghee ‘bituminous + on concrete pavements, a 7 9 Cement pete on bituminous surfacing arco Pattern pe as existing in cemem® (te same Pavement. The strencs Pavement is_not influaat, 1 the presence of reflection graye °° DY the Cracks allow surface waters Cutthese into the underlying layers P°"Olate damage to the soil subgrade pp Use Shows formation of reflection gg.2,82 S. | + Fig. a.9. - ee ' Formation of rentection cracks. Pot holes,oad MAINTENANCE Ke ‘ei FAILURE IN CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS 147 The following are the main causes Of fail (a) Poor quality of materials Used in the mix, (b) Poor workmanship during construction, () Poor joint filler and sealer material used (@) Inadequate pavement thickness, : (e) Incorrect spacing of joints, () Inadequate subgrade Support due to poor subgrade soil (g) \nadequate curing. ° ‘Ure of cement Concrete roads: The various defects that creep in due to the above are : (i) — Poor riding surface (i) — Spalling of joints (iii) Cracking of slab corners (iv) Development of shrinkage cracks (v) Mud pumping (vi) Widening of joints (vii) Settlement of slabs 86. TYPICAL FAILURES OF RIGID OR CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS Some of the typical failures of rigid pavements are as follows : (i) Scaling of cement concrete (i) — Structural cracks (ii) Mud pumping (iv) Shrinkage cracks (v) Warping cracks (vi) Spalling of joints ‘oration ()) Scaling of cement concrete = Scaling shows overal er a or OF the concrete. This defect is due to deficiency in the FINE A ing Presence of some chemical impurities which da ar tar comes to the onstruction due to excessive vibration, the ona aggregate ofthe mi P Which gets abraded with the use and exPosind , "Smakes the pavernent Surface FUG, ing sucliatcee S (i) Structural Cracks : The prime reasor type of traffic. The tan ‘adequate pavement thickness for the et Senerally develop near edges and at in ETTRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 8 jing : lh defective joints and Cracks, wat, Hy me Rote te soften it. Due to repeated tratfe en patches get settled and small initial Spaces are developeg under the slab. Further percolation of water forms soil slurry which Starts ejecting out through the joints and cracks of concrete pavement. This Process of ejecting out the soil slurry through Joints and cracks under the action of wheel loads is known as mud pumping. The pavement cracking due to mud Pumping is generally a progressive type of Pavement failure. The factors which cause the mud Pumping are amount of free water, tyep of subgrade Soil and extent of slab deflection, (iv) Shrinkage Cracks : These cracks are developed in the concrete Pavement due to inadequate curing after laying of slab. These cracks develope in longitudinal as well as in transverse directions. 'nfiteration of water through acon and Cracks C.C. Pavement Less than 1.2m ==. 2oad MAINTENANCE uv) warping Cracks : If the jonits 149 iqned to accommodate the warping of aeonerete Pavement are not desig ae S a giresses 2° developed resuling in cracking at ae edges, excessive att tes ee inte euse any structural dete ot net ect if proper E is provided i itudi reinforcement i pI < in the longitudinal and transverse (uv) Spalling of Joints : If preformed filler m: fonts. angle at the time of casting of slab, an overhan ce formed at the top. This joint edges later on shows ! subsidence from traffic action. a 81. MAINTENANCE OF BITUMINOUS ROADS The maintenance work of bituminous roads consist of : (i) Patch repairing work (i) Surface treatment (ii) Resurfacing. i) Patch Repairing Work : Patch work is carried out when localized pot Holes are developed on the surface of the road. Repairing of pot holes are carried out in following stages : (a) Cutting of pot holes : The pot holes are marked on the road surface. Cutting of marked areas is done in rectangular shape 9 and all the affected materials are then removed from it (b) Cleaning of pot holes : The cut pot holes are cleaned of all loose materials and dust. A prime coat of bituminous binder is . then applied in the pet holes. () Preparing Premix : Coarse aggregate and bitumen are mixed in desired proportion to get a premix. Ifheating facilities er available, premix is prepared by cold process using Sera or cutbacks. While preparing premix it should be one original prepared premix is similar in composition ane construction. 7 vared pot (@ Filling the Premix : The premix is filed In pot hol iS hole and is compacted by using rammer. done in two or three more than 75 mm deep, filing should pe ae the nex layers and each layer is rammed before P ieot slightly The finished surface of pot hole should be paction ___ than the original level to allow for Cue nes slipeelY and patch? Surface Treatment : Bituminous paverent Ronstracton, inthe Supst Sue to bleeding of excess bitumen, used gations develop in f Course. Defects like rutting, ' ials are placed at an the concrete layer is ‘cessive cracking and higher shoving or corrug®TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING 150 tified by spreading blot le can be rec y Ottin, ce, Such a to maximum 10 mm siz Or Coarse sang ips o} < rea permanent bond between the existing surface pavernent surfat materials like a9} Rolling is also done and new materials. ‘The binders in the bituminous surfaces also get oxidized due to ageing it it ent surfaces. Such surfaces can lop minute cracks in the pavem' ane ected by applying renewal coat or seal coat. If the damage to the surface, due to oxidation or volatilization of binders is considerable, more than one layer of surface treatements may be applied. (ji) Resurfacing : When the pavement surface is totally worn out and develops a poor riding surface, laying of an additional surface coarse on the existing surface may be more economical. Resurfacing operation consists of clearing the road surface, applying seal coat, applying aggregate chips and rolling. 8.8. FORMATION OF WAVES AND CORRUGATIONS IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS The factors whi pa which constribute to formation of waves and corrugations i) P a a root conditions : When subgrade consists of weak boulders into the MeaaeaeS W's surface course, there is sinking of pavernent surface. Contributes to the formation of corrugated (ii) Poor Mix : Ay i the defective mix The dare een SIves rise to the wave formation is action caused due to traffic movement. een ®Y Pushing and puling Mii) Defective Rotting : ifthe rol waves are formed in the pave ie to traffic movement, ee . (iv) Unstable Unde, waves are formed due ong Layers ; a ra during construction is improper ©. This defect would increase due nee Underlying layers are weak, ent of traffic on such road. Ie i Oru there is no wal 4 Ugatioy provided Baad Dying ee . unlese “anothe cloped in the road surface lary i ; proper investigation for the es 2 SOUrse. But oul surface course B measure is not taken. IC reason ji lefects again creep in | 'S not done ai P ind proper remedial ¥ ifthe failure is due to weak sup, F = grade soi Soil is done to improve the strengty, Soil, then st 7 characteris Stabilization of subgrade tic of soilAD MAINTEN: j|ANCE ifthe failure is due to the instability of underh ture content, suitable sub-surface drainag M05 permanently. If the failure is due to impro fect PF ~ Per com} ic wes then complete reconstruction is needed to renee sae lower 40. MAINTENANCE OF CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS Cement concrete roads need very little of main i opety designed and constructed. In this type of eet re fae formation of cracks. The cracks developed in the road should be serioush examined and causes are ascertained before any remedial measure i suggested. 151 lying layer due to excessive € IS provided to remove the 8.10.1. Treatment of Cracks The common defect noticed in a cement concrete road slab is the appearance of cracks. Cracks can be structural cracks, contraction cracks, shrinkage cracks, warping cracks and comer cracks. The cracks are of varying width. Fine cracks or hair cracks are not harmful and do not need immediate maintenance. Medium and wide cracks are harmful as they can cause progressive destruction of the subgrade by allowing water to percolate. These cracks are first cleaned by removing dirt, sand and loose particles using stiff brush, a sharp tool or by a pressure blower. Kerosine oil is applied on the cleaned cracks for proper bonding of sealing material. Cracks are then filled with liquid bituminous materials like bituminous emulsions, cut back or joint sealing compound, whose basic ingredient is bitumen. This sealing material is placed upto about 3 mm above the level of the road slab along the cracks. A layer of sand is then spread over it to Prevent the removal of sealer under traffic. 8.10.2, Maintenance of Joints ofthe failure in the cement conerete pavements are OUST! A Fi ang hints. Therefore, periodic inspection is to be eae ee mer the sealer Sealer materials used in the joints are intact, DATS SC ab, During Material is squeezed out of the joints due 10 EPO, The open uP Winter the joint gap opens up due to contraction OT aay Itints are cleaned properly and refiled with on filer material at expansion i joint filler of pavement life the joint fille rand sealer fin oy ee aged ace damaged oF deteriorated ed ‘and fresh get 7 i The joints are jal. The Mater from joints. ler mater! aren removed tthe top is then sealed with So is inter st time to do this type of maintenance is wine are the joints. Most ear the