MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GENERAL RELAYING PRACTICE

A Narrative Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in

Power System Protection I (EE 145)

Submitted by:

Adrian Dave R. Ancheta

Andres A. Andres

BSEE IV-B

Sumbitted to:

Engr. Rigor G. Gabur

Instructor

A.Y. 2023-2024
 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GENERAL RELAYING PRACTICE

Introduction

A relaying practice encompasses the shared principles, recommendations, and

approaches utilized in the creation, setup, functioning, and upkeep of protective relays and

relay systems within electrical and power systems. These systems play a critical role in

guaranteeing the dependable and secure operation of electrical networks.

Overview

Considering the term 'practice,' its primary emphasis lies in safeguarding, ensuring

safety. Engineers configure relay settings, including pickup values, time delays, and other

parameters, to ensure the timely and selective operation of relays based on system

characteristics and protection requirements. This includes maintaining accuracy and

reliability via calibration.

Standards

Every testing and maintenance are crucial aspects of relay practices, adhering closely

to guidelines and standards set by international organizations such as IEEE (Institute of

Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission).

These standards are essential for ensuring the reliability and safety of electrical systems and

are in line with regulatory requirements.

Protective Relaying

When we typically envision an electrical power system, our focus tends to gravitate

toward its prominent elements such as large generating stations, transformers, high-voltage
 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

lines, and so forth. Although these represent fundamental components, there exists a

multitude of equally vital and captivating elements. Protective relaying stands as a prime

example of such components.

To elucidate the significance of protective relaying in the design and functioning of

electric power systems, we can gain insight through a concise exploration of the broader

context. This examination will revolve around three key facets of a power system, namely:

A. Normal operation.

B. Prevention to electrical failure.

C. Mitigation of the effects of electrical failure.

The term "normal operation" presupposes the absence of equipment failures, human

errors, or unexpected external events. It encompasses the essential conditions for meeting the

current demand as well as an anticipated portion of future load requirements. Several factors

to consider include:

A. Choice between hydro, steam, or other sources of power.

B. Location of generating stations.

C. Transmission of power to the load.

D. Study of the load characteristics and planning for its future growth.

E. Metering.

F. Voltage and frequency regulation.

G. System operation.

H. Normal maintenance.

Ensuring regular operation represents a significant investment in equipment and

operations. However, a system designed solely around this aspect would be inadequate for

today's demands. Equipment failures would lead to unacceptable disruptions, necessitating

additional measures to reduce damage and service interruptions during such incidents.
 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Two recourses are open: (1) to incorporate features of design aimed at preventing

failures, and (2) to include provisions for mitigating the effects of failure when it occurs.

The most worrisome electrical failure is typically the short circuit, commonly referred

to as a "fault." However, certain elements within the system can experience other unique

abnormal operating conditions that require attention. Several aspects of design and operation

are aimed at preventing electrical failures, including:

A. Provision of adequate insulation.

B. Coordination of insulation strength with the capabilities of lightning arresters.

C. Use of overhead ground wires and low tower-footing resistance.

D. Design for mechanical strength to reduce exposure, and to minimize the likelihood of

failure causable by animals, birds, insects, dirt, sleet, etc.

E. Proper operation and maintenance practices.

Some of the features of design and operation for mitigating the effects of failure are:

A. Features that mitigate the immediate effects of an electrical failure.

1. Design to limit the magnitude of short-circuit current.

a. By avoiding too large concentrations of generating capacity.

b. By using current-limiting impedance.

2. Design to withstand mechanical stresses and heating owing to short-circuit

currents.

3. Time-delay undervoltage devices on circuit breakers to prevent dropping loads

during momentary voltage dips.

4. Ground-fault neutralizers (Petersen coils).

B. Features for promptly disconnecting the faulty element.

1. Protective relaying.

2. Circuit breakers with sufficient interrupting capacity.

 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

3. Fuses.

C. Features that mitigate the loss of the faulty element.

1. Alternate circuits.

2. Reserve generator and transformer capacity.

3. Automatic reclosing.

D. Features that operate throughout the period from the inception of the fault until after

its removal, to maintain voltage and stability.

1. Automatic voltage regulation.

2. Stability characteristics of generators.

E. Means for observing the electiveness of the foregoing features.

1. Automatic oscillographs.

2. Efficient human observation and record keeping.

F. Frequent surveys as system changes or additions are made, to be sure that the

foregoing features are still adequate.

Functions

Protective relaying's primary purpose is to swiftly remove any component from a

power system when it experiences a short circuit or operates abnormally, potentially causing

harm or disruptions to the system's efficiency. Circuit breakers complement this function by

disconnecting the faulty element when instructed by the relaying equipment.

Circuit breakers are typically positioned to enable the complete isolation of each

generator, transformer, bus, transmission line, and so on from the rest of the system. These

circuit breakers need to have ample capacity to briefly handle the maximum short-circuit

current they may encounter and then interrupt this current. Moreover, they must meet specific

standards for closing in on such a short circuit and subsequently interrupting it.
 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Fusing is used in situations where the cost-effectiveness of protective relays and

circuit breakers is not justified.

In addition to its primary role in addressing short circuits, protective relaying is

essential for handling various abnormal operating conditions, especially when it comes to

generators and motors.

Protective relaying also serves a secondary function by indicating the location and

nature of failures. This data not only helps expedite repairs but, when compared with human

observations and automatic oscillograph records, provides a means to assess the effectiveness

of fault prevention and mitigation features, including the protective relaying system itself.

Functional Characteristics

Sensitivity, selectivity, and speed. The functional traits of protective-relaying

equipment are often described using terms like "sensitivity," "selectivity," and "speed." These

qualities are implicit in the earlier discussions about primary and backup relaying. For any

relaying equipment to perform effectively, it must possess enough sensitivity to reliably

operate when needed, even under conditions where the tendency to operate is minimal. It

should have the capability to distinguish between situations requiring immediate action and

those necessitating no action or a delayed response. Furthermore, it should operate at the

specified speed. The extent to which protective-relaying equipment meets these criteria must

be evaluated for each specific application.

Reliability. The reliability of protective-relaying equipment is a fundamental

necessity. When protective relaying malfunctions, the associated mitigation measures become

significantly less effective. Hence, it's crucial for protective-relaying equipment to possess

inherent reliability, and its application, installation, and maintenance should ensure the

realization of its full capabilities.

 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Protective Practices on the Probability of Failure

Protective practices are shaped by the likelihood of failure, a reflection of years of

experience where the frequency of failure has undoubtedly influenced these practices.

However, the probability of failure typically doesn't directly dictate the choice of a specific

relaying equipment type, unless there are challenging circumstances that make the preferred

type impractical. Regardless, the probability of failure should always be considered alongside

the potential consequences if failure were to occur. It has been argued that the rationale for a

particular practice is the product of the likelihood of encountering issues multiplied by the

cost associated with those issues. Regardless of the probability of failure, every part of a

system should have some form of protection, even if it's merely a backup relaying system.

Conclusion

Thus, protective relaying is just one aspect of system design focused on reducing

equipment damage and service interruptions during electrical failures. When we use the term

"protect" in relation to relays, we are emphasizing that they collaborate with other equipment

to mitigate damage and enhance service quality. It's clear that all these mitigation elements

rely on each other to successfully minimize the consequences of failures. Therefore, the

capabilities and the application requirements of protective-relaying equipment should be

considered concurrently with the other features.

References:

Mason, C. R. (1956, January 15). The Art and Science of Protective Relaying. GE Grid

Solutions. Retrieved September 11, 2023, from

https://www.gegridsolutions.com/multilin/notes/artsci/artsci.pdf.