:Biotechnology Defined

Biotechnology involves using living organisms or their products for commercial purposes, and it has a
long history in activities like baking and breeding. A more specific definition focuses on manipulating
DNA for commercial applications, driven by recent laboratory techniques. These techniques provide
insights into the design and function of living organisms, enabling various fields to explore exciting
.commercial applications

:Principles of Biology

All living organisms consist of cells containing DNA in their chromosomes. DNA holds essential
information that serves as a blueprint for an organism's characteristics, with genes as its "words"
derived from a 4-letter alphabet. Genes typically contain between 1,000 and 100,000 letters, while
the entire recipe (genome) can range from 4 million (simple bacteria) to 3 billion letters or more (in
humans). Remarkably, DNA from any organism is chemically and physically the same, and
.biotechnology has revealed that it can function when transferred to other organisms

:Using Biotechnology to Modify Plants and Animals

Combining DNA from different organisms results in modified organisms with a mix of parental traits, a
process occurring naturally through sexual reproduction and widely used in breeding programs.
However, sexual reproduction is limited to the same species, like a Holstein cow mating with a
Hereford bull, both being cattle breeds. Attempting to mate different species, like a cow and a horse,
.is unsuccessful due to species incompatibility

Since 1972, a significant development has been the ability of scientists to identify specific DNA genes
responsible for desirable traits and transfer only those genes, often carried on plasmids or viruses,
into other organisms. This process is known as genetic engineering and involves DNA transfer through
methods like direct injection, Agrobacterium, electroporation, or particle gun transformation. It
.enables the transfer of DNA across various living cells, including plants, animals, insects, and bacteria

In principle, nearly any desirable trait found in nature can be transferred into a chosen organism
".through genetic engineering. An organism modified in this way is referred to as "transgenic

:Products of Genetic Engineering

:Genetic engineering has numerous and rapidly growing applications. Some specific uses include

Pharmaceuticals: Human drugs like insulin, growth hormone, and tissue plasminogen activator, as )1
well as animal drugs, are produced by fermenting transgenic bacteria containing the relevant human,
.cow, or pig genes

Gene Therapy: Clinical gene therapy is used to correct enzyme deficiencies, like ADA in children, )2
where defective DNA is supplemented with normal DNA in bone marrow cells before being returned
.to the patient's body
Transgenic Plants: Transgenic plants with traits such as herbicide tolerance, resistance to pests, or )3
modified fruit/flowers have been grown and tested outdoors since 1987. Genes for these traits are
.delivered to the plants via genetic engineering techniques

Transgenic Animals: Most transgenic animals are created for research in diagnosing and treating )4
human diseases. Some are designed to produce important pharmaceuticals in their milk, potentially
.replacing the fermentation-based production of drugs like insulin and growth hormone

:Using Biotechnology in Diagnostic Applications

Every living creature possesses a unique DNA recipe, and even individuals within the same species,
breed, or hybrid line can be distinguished by minor differences in their DNA sequences. Techniques
like DNA fingerprinting and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) allow scientists to diagnose infections,
.differentiate closely related individuals, and map specific genes within DNA molecules

By using RFLP technology (restriction fragment length polymorphism), DNA fingerprints can be
created, enabling the unique identification of individual organisms. This technique has various
applications, including determining family relationships in paternity cases, matching organ donors
.with recipients for transplants, and connecting suspects to DNA evidence at crime scenes

Genetic engineers use genetic "maps" to locate genes, much like using a map to find a friend's house.
These maps are developed through statistical analyses, PCR, RFLP, and DNA sequencing and are being
created for various species with commercial or research significance, such as humans, mice, swine,
.cattle, corn, wheat, and other plants or animals