PROTEINS AND AMINOACIDS

The word Proteins is derived from the Greek word “protos” which means to take the first place.
The term Proteins refers to a group of complex nitrogenous compounds which constitute the protoplasm of plant and
animal tissue. Proteins are therefore essential constituents of both plant and animal cells.
Proteins are the only nutrients which supply the body with Nitrogen the vital element for cell formation and growth.
Many plants have the ability to manufacture proteins from the nitrates in the soil. Animals (human being) in turn obtain
the proteins from the plants or animal products we eat.
So, the body needs an adequate supply of proteins and amino acids to maintain cells, their functions, healthy body,
reproduction and they also make us the unique individuals that we are.
Composition of Proteins
Proteins are extremely complex organic compounds containing the elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen.
They contain an average of 16 % nitrogen.
They may also contain sulphur and phosphorous in small amounts. Some specialized proteins may contain iron, copper and
other inorganic compounds. These elements are joined together to form amino acid chains which are joined together
to form proteins.
AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids are the basic building blocks or smallest molecules or subunits of proteins in the body. Amino acids are
water soluble and are able to diffuse through the cell membrane. There are about 20 naturally occurring amino acids
which are arranged together to form the different proteins during the process known as Protein synthesis.
Structure of an Amino acid
All amino acids have the same basic structure. They are made up a weakly alkaline Amino group (-NH 2), a weakly acidic
Carboxyl group (-COOH) and an alkyl or Side chain (R) which varies with different amino acids. All these are attached to
a Central carbon atom. The unique side group attached makes the amino acids different and specific in action.
Molecular structure of an Amino acid
H
Carboxyl group
NH2 C COOH
Amino group
R Central carbon atom
Hydrocarbon / Side group chain
R varies from one amino acid to another in different aminoacids
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids can be grouped into two (2);
1. Essential Amino acids (indispensible)
These are the amino acids which cannot be made or synthesized by the body and should be provided daily in the
diet. Examples of essential aminoacids include;
Valine Leucine Tryptophan Histidine Methionine
Isoleucine Phenylalanine Lysine Threonine
2. Non – Essential Amino acids (dispensible)
These are the amino acids which can be made or synthesized by the body from simple precursors hence a daily
supply is not very important. Examples of non-essential aminoacids include;
Glycine Alanine Tyrosine Cysteine Aspartic acid Proline
Norleucine Serine Ornithine Glutamic acid Arginine
Aminoacids can also be classified as neutral, acidic or basic as follows;

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 1. Neutral Aminoacids contain one amino group and one carboxyl group with no additional group with a straight
hydrocarbon side chain e.g. glycine, alanine, Valine, Leucine, Methionine, Isoleucine, Norleucine, Serine,
Cystine, and Cysteine. The side chain may have a ringed structure e.g. tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine.
2. Basic Aminoacids contain one carboxyl group with an additional basic group on the side chain group e.g.
ornithine, lysine, tyrosine and histidine.
3. Acidic Aminoacids contain one amino group and an additional carboxyl group on the side chain group e.g.
aspartic acid and glutamic acid.
PROPERTIES OF AMINOACIDS
1. Solubility
Amino acids are white crystalline substances that are highly soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents.
2. Colloidal systems / nature
The aminoacids that are large and insoluble in water will be dispersed in solution to form a colloid or colloidal
solution. A colloid or colloidal solution is a gelatinous solution of both soluble and insoluble particles/phase.
3. Amphoteric nature
Amino acids have both basic (amino) groups and acidic (carboxyl) group. These ionize in solution to from positive
and negative charges. This enables them to act as an acid or base (buffer) when in solution.
4. Formation of peptide bonds
Amino acids have the ability to link up and form dipeptides, tri-peptides or polypeptide chains that form protein
molecules. This linkage occurs at specific points known as peptide bonds with the loss of a water molecule.
5. Isoelectric point
In solution, amino acids are weak electrolytes and ionize according to the pH of the solution. If an acid is added to a
neutral solution, a positive ion is formed, where as if an alkali is added, a negative ion is formed. A point will be
reached when the positive charges or ions formed are equal to the negative charge and a zwitterion or dipolar ion
is formed. This is known as the isoelectric point. Such zwitterions are effective buffers as they can combine with
both acids and alkalis (bases) and prevent pH changes.
6. Melting points
Have very high melting points of up to 200 – 300 0C
FORMATION OF PEPTIDE BONDS OR PROTEIN MOLECULES
This occurs when the basic amino group (-NH 2) of one aminoacid reacts with the acidic carboxyl (-COOH) group of
another aminoacid with the elimination of water. This leads to the formation of a peptide bond or linkage. A peptide
bond is a characteristic joining structure of aminoacids to form proteins.
This occurs in a condensation reaction that gives off water and forms a dipeptide (2 aminoacids) as shown below.
Illustration

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When the dipeptide joins with another aminoacid it forms a tri-peptide. This is repeated to form polypeptide chains
which also join to form larger complex protein molecules. The reverse reaction occurs during the hydrolysis causing the
molecule to break into its constituent aminoacids i.e. during digestion.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
Proteins are mainly classified according to the following forms;
1. Biological value
2. Molecular structure
3. Derived proteins
4. Tissue proteins
Biological Value (BV)
This refers to the degree or measure of how nourishing a protein is i.e. how much of the protein or nitrogen is available
for growth and repair of the body. It can also be used to denote the percentage of absorbed nitrogen retained in the
body in form of tissue manufacture or body protein i.e.

Biological value is of 2 forms i.e.;

1. High biological value / Complete / First class proteins;
These are the proteins that contain all the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts to meet the body’s needs.
Most of their nitrogen is available for growth and repair. They are obtained from animal proteins e.g. meat (beef,
mutton, pork, game), fish, eggs, milk and milk products (cheese, butter, yoghurt) and soyabeans.
2. Low biological value / Incomplete / Second class proteins;
These are deficient or lack one or more of the essential amino acids required by the body. They are obtained from
plant food sources like; Legumes e.g. peas, beans, nuts, Whole grain cereals e.g. maize, rice, wheat, pulses and
gelatine.
Molecular Structure
This is due to the specific linkages and chain structure or arrangement of the protein molecules. These are grouped into
2 major classes i.e. Simple proteins and Complex proteins
1. Simple Proteins
These are proteins made up of only amino acids and their derivatives. They are of 2 forms;
a) Globular proteins
These have polypeptide chains which are rounded and folded with crosslinks to form spherical molecules.
They are all soluble in water and easily denatured. Examples include; Albumin, Globulin, Insulin and all
enzymes.
b) Fibrous proteins
These have peptide chains which are coiled and twisted to form zigzag and spring like coils. They are elastic,
insoluble in water, have less internal bonding and need prolonged cooking to become edible. Fibrous proteins
are found in the protective and supportive tissues like skin, hair, tendons and muscles. Examples include;
Gluten found in wheat flour, Elastin found in tendons and arteries, Collagen in connective tissue of muscles,
Myosin in muscles
2. Complex or Conjugated proteins
These are simple proteins which are chemically combined with a non-protein or prosthetic group. They are named
after the chemical group that is attached. Examples include;
a) Nucleoproteins; contain nucleic acids e.g. DNA and RNA present in the cell nuclei, thymonucleic acid
found in the thymus gland
b) Phospho-proteins; contain phosphate group or phosphoric acid e.g. casein in milk
c) Lipoproteins; with triglyceride or other lipid / fat material like lecithin
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 d) Chromo proteins; contain a pigmented or chromatographic group e.g. haemoglobin, chlorophyll, Metallo-
proteins with metal or mineral groups attached e.g. haeme or haemoglobin (iron),
ceruloplasmin (copper), chlorophyll (magnesium)
e) Glycoprotein or Muco-protein; contain a carbohydrate group e.g. mucin found in the secretions from
the mucous membrane
Derived proteins
Derived proteins are produced by the action of acids, alkalis or enzymes leading to change in their primary structure.
These are of two forms;
1. Primary derived proteins are produced from physical reactions that involve denaturation and coagulation. They are
insoluble in all reagents.
2. Secondary derived proteins are produced from hydrolysis of proteins by chemical agents and enzymes. They are
soluble in water e.g. proteases, peptones, peptides.
Tissue proteins
Proteins may also be classified according to the different roles they play in the body structures and metabolism. These
include;
1. Structural proteins like collagen
2. Contractile proteins e.g. myosin, actin
3. Antibodies like white blood cells, CD4s
4. Blood proteins such as fibrinogen, albumin, thromboplastin
5. Hormones like thyroxine, insulin and other regulators
6. All enzymes in digestion and cell metabolism
Some protein foods and the proteins found in them;
Protein food / source Protein present Type
Meat (muscle fibre) Elastin HBV
Meat / fish (connective tissue) Collagen / Gelatine HBV/LBV
Meat / fish (Muscle tissue) Myosin HBV
Cheese Caseinogen HBV
Milk Lactoglobulin & Lactoalbumin HBV
Egg white Ovalbumin, Albumin HBV
Egg yolk Lipovitellin HBV
Wheat Gliadin, Glutenin (Gluten) LBV
Maize Zein LBV
Nuts / Pulses / Legumes Legumin LBV
Potatoes Tuberin LBV
Soya beans Glycenin HBV

PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS
The properties of proteins are similar in many ways to those of the aminoacids from which they are constructed.
These include;
1. Most proteins are insoluble in cold water, salty solutions and alcohols except globulin, albumin and fish protein but
the solubility is increased by the application of heat e.g. converting of the insoluble collagen to soluble gelatine by
use of moist heat. This makes meat soft and tender.
2. Proteins form complex high molecular weight compounds that form large sized protein molecules. Due to this,
when mixed with water they don’t form true solutions but form colloidal dispersions / colloids / sols. This is
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 important in the regulation of water balance in body cells (colloidal osmotic pressure) and colloidal food systems
like milk, butter and ice cream
3. Proteins are denatured / destroyed by a slight change in pH, rise in temperature and vigorous physical actions like
beating, shaking.
Denaturation is the irreversible change in protein structure, properties and biological activity due to action of acids,
alkalis, heat and vigorous physical actions. It leads to the unwinding or untwisting and destruction of protein
molecules. Denaturation of proteins is caused by the following agents;
a) Excessive heating or high temperature which leads to loss of the water binding power. The proteins will form
tough solids which are difficult to digest.
b) Chemicals like acids, alkalis and alcohols. Alkalis or salts like sodium chloride, ammonium sulphate and lead
acetate form insoluble compounds and precipitate out the proteins present. Acids lower the pH far from the
isoelectric point which alters the solubility thus forming insoluble solids.
c) Vigorous physical actions like beating, whipping, shaking, agitation and whisking lead to the unwinding and
untwisting of protein compounds. This destroys the protein properties.
d) Catalytic metals like lead, mercury, copper.
Denaturation is mainly employed in food preparation to avoid excessive heat application and use of chemicals that
can lead to protein destruction and loss.
4. Proteins are hydrolyzed to produce polypeptides and eventually constituent aminoacids in the presence of water,
acids and enzymes. This is important during digestion, absorption and metabolism of proteins.
5. When protein molecules are heated in the presence of enzymes, they shrink, clump together and form a solid mass.
This is known as Coagulation. Coagulation starts at a temperature of 600c and in this state the proteins will be most
digestible but if the temperature is raised to 100 0c and above, they will harden, get denatured and become
indigestible. This property is employed in clotting of milk by rennin, manufacture of yoghurt and cheese and in
cooking methods like roasting, grilling, stewing.
6. Proteins especially fibrous proteins have the ability to stretch and contract providing an elastic property. This is
important in the elastic nature of muscle proteins like myosin, actin and elastin. It also enables the wheat protein
gluten to stretch during baking (yeast cookery).
7. On application of dry heat to foods that have both protein and carbohydrates, they produce brown compounds and
change in flavour. This is known as Maillard browning or non-enzymatic browning.
This refers to the browning reaction in which the amino group of the proteins reacts with aldehyde / carbonyl
group of sugars producing brown compounds and change in flavour. The property is used in the browning of
cereals, top crust or layer of bread, toasting of bread, roasting of nuts and flavouring of meat extracts and biscuits.
8. Protein molecules contain free amino and carboxyl groups at the ends of the polypeptide chain and thus carry both
positive and negatives to form zwitterions. They are thus amphoteric in nature and act as buffers. This is important
in acid-base balance in body fluids.
Task: Summarize the properties of Proteins.
SUPPLEMENTARY VALUE OF PROTEINS
This refers to the ability of one protein food to make good use the deficiency of another. It involves the mixing of one
protein food which contains most of the essential aminoacids with one that lacks most of them but has those missing in
the high biological value protein food so as to provide the correct proportion of essential aminoacids.
For example milk can be supplemented with cereals like maize, millet, fish and rice, soya beans can also be
supplemented with rice, potatoes.

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 COMPLEMENTARY VALUE OF PROTEINS
This involves the mixing of low biological value protein foods especially vegetable protein so as to provide the required
proportion of essential aminoacids for protein synthesis. For example gelatine can be complemented with bread
(wheat), maize or beans. Gelatine is a low biological protein as it lacks essential aminoacid tryptophan but it’s rich in
lysine which is absent in cereals like wheat.A mixture of these will provide the required amount of essential aminoacids.
So, vegans who eat no animal protein can stay healthy if their diet is well planned with a good mixture of vegetable
proteins like soya beans, groundnuts, brown rice, wheat, beans and black-eyed peas. This will provide all the essential
aminoacids required for protein synthesis without animal proteins.
The dietary conclusion reached here is that a large variety of protein foods, both animal and vegetable, should be
included in the diet, so that those rich in a particular aminoacid may supplement those with little or none at all.
EFFECTS OF HEAT ON PROTEINS
 Most protein foods are very delicate and set very quickly when heat is applied. These changes are very important
during protein cookery.
 Heating to 600c causes proteins to shrink and turn into a solid mass. This is known as coagulation e.g. in the
formation of the skin on boiled milk.
 Heating of proteins to 1000c and above leads to the untwisting and unwinding of protein molecules and their
destruction. This is known as denaturation and it’s an irreversible reaction.
 The proteins will then become tough and indigestible.
 Some proteins change colour such as meat changing from reddish brown to grey/brown, white to cream/brown.
 Overcooking causes proteins to burn or blacken in colour.
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS IN THE BODY
1. Proteins supply material essential for the growth, building, repair, maintenance and continuous replacement of
cellular tissue throughout life. This makes proteins particularly important in the diet of babies, children, expectant
and nursing mothers.
2. Proteins provide amino acids for the synthesis of nitrogen containing substances like hormones and enzymes
required for regulation of body processes. They are found in all body cells and regulate metabolism.
3. Proteins also act as a secondary source of energy to the body. This occurs when the main energy producing
nutrients (carbohydrates and lipids) aren’t enough to provide the required energy. This leads to the deamination of
proteins to provide energy. Deamination involves the removal of the amino group (-NH 2) from an aminoacid with the
help of amino dehydrogenase enzyme. The amino group is then converted to the less toxic ammonia in the liver
and later excreted as urea. The remaining carboxyl group (-COOH) is converted to glucose which is metabolized via
the Acetyl CoA in the Krebs’ cycle to form energy. This yields a total of 4 kcal per gram of protein.
4. Blood or plasma proteins are essential for the regulation body water / osmotic balance in both the extracellular and
intracellular fluid compartments through the process of osmosis. The plasma proteins have a high molecular weight
which prevents them from diffusing through the cell membrane. They thus form colloidal solutions and thereby
maintain fluid / water balance of the compartment. If the plasma protein level decreases as in protein deficiency,
excess fluids accumulate in tissue leading to a condition known as oedema.
5. Blood proteins help to maintain the normal pH of blood (7.4). They neutralize or pick up hydrogen ions produced
from cell reactions and release them when required. This avoids a shift in the pH for cellular reaction. This is made
possible due to the amphoteric nature of protein molecules.
6. Proteins are essential in the manufacture of antibodies like white blood cells and CD 4s which destroy infectious
organisms hence fight diseases. This improves body immunity.
7. Proteins are the major component of the solid matter of muscles and other body organs like the matrix of bones
and teeth, skin, nails, hair, blood serum and all cells.

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8. Proteins form complex molecules with other compounds which help in the transportation of nutrients like lipid
(lipoproteins), phosphorous (phosphor-proteins), and other compounds like oxygen (myoglobin) and carbondioxide
(haemoglobin).

DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
Protein digestion is necessary in order to degrade the proteins into their constituent aminoacids for absorption to take
place. This is done by proteolytic (protein-splitting) enzymes as follows;
Mouth
 Food is masticated, mixed with saliva and since there are no proteolytic enzymes in the mouth, food arrives in the
stomach intact.
Stomach
 Churning action of the stomach walls turns food into a viscous liquid called chyme.
 Chyme is mixed with gastric juice which contains gastric acid, rennin and inactive pepsinogen enzyme.
 Gastric acid coagulates the protein so that they can be easily acted upon by enzymes. It also provides a suitable
acidic medium for action of pepsin and other proteolytic enzymes. Gastric acid also activates the inactive
pepsinogen to active pepsin enzyme.
 Rennin present in infants together with calcium ions coagulates or clots caseinogen protein in breast milk for easy
digestion.
 Pepsin enzyme starts the breakdown of proteins into large polypeptides and smaller peptones.
 After about 3 - 4 hours, chyme passes to the duodenum.
Duodenum
 Chyme is mixed with pancreatic juice from the pancreas which contains inactive trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen
and trypsin inhibitor to avoid digestion of the pancreas itself. This is then pushed to the ileum.
Small Intestines
 The intestinal mucosa produces enterokinase and erepsin enzymes.
 Enterokinase activates trypsinogen to form trypsin which also activates chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin.
 These (trypsin and chymotrypsin) convert peptones and large polypeptides to peptides
 Erepsin, peptidases, dipeptidases and some amino peptidases catalyze the final hydrolysis of peptides into
dipeptides and finally split into free aminoacids. These are then ready for absorption into the intestinal mucosa.
ABSORPTION
The end products of protein digestion i.e. aminoacids are absorbed from the intestinal mucosa via the villi structure
into the blood stream. Most of the aminoacids are water soluble so they present no problem.
An active transport mechanism involving vitamin B 6 (pyridoxine) in its active form pyridoxal phosphatase (PLP) moves
aminoacids through the intestinal mucosa to the bloodstream.
Some short-chained peptides are absorbed directly with their final hydrolysis taking place in the absorbing cells. The
absorbed aminoacids are then transported to the liver via the hepatic/portal vein and other cells or body tissues for
further degradation and utilization.
METABOLISM OF AMINOACIDS
The absorbed aminoacids have 2 possible fates in the body i.e. they may be incorporated directly into body tissue in
anabolism or degraded in the component parts through catabolism.
Anabolism (tissue building)
Tissue building takes place in the process known as protein synthesis.
Protein synthesis refers to the assembling of proteins from aminoacids in the cell cytoplasm. This process is governed by
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), Ribonucleic acid (RNA) and Ribosomes. RNA is in 3 forms i.e. messenger RNA (m-RNA),
transfer RNA (t-RNA) and ribosomal RNA (r-RNA).

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The aminoacids necessary for the formation of the protein are taken into the cells from the general blood circulation
and are strung together in patterns which are detected by the DNA from the cell nucleus. This process is called
polypeptide cell formation and occurs on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. This process takes place as follows;
Information in form of codons from the DNA is carried from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm by m-RNA.
This forms the m-RNA-ribosome complex known as the polysome. This process is known as transcription.
Transcription is the formation of a single stranded m-RNA polymer from a single strand of DNA.
Transfer-RNA molecules transfer the activated aminoacids to the cytoplasm. Each t-RNA molecule contains a single 3
nucleotide sequence called anticodon that fits a similar sequence on the m-RNA strand. This enables them to collect
the appropriate aminoacids necessary for protein synthesis from the aminoacid pool in the cytoplasm.
The t-RNA then takes the aminoacids to the ribosome where they link up to form polypeptide chains. This makes the
chain one aminoacid longer. The process is known as translation or peptide linkage.
Translation is the process by which a specific aminoacid sequence is formed in accordance to with the m-RNA codons.
The complete polypeptide chain of the protein is detached into the cytoplasm when the ribosome reaches the
termination point.
Catabolism (Tissue protein breakdown)
Body tissue breakdown is constantly taking place so as to release the constituent aminoacids. If a given aminoacid isn’t
used for tissue protein synthesis, it is then degraded or catabolized to yield more energy. Catabolism of aminoacids sets
off in the liver and the kidneys in the process known as deamination. Deamination is the removal of the amino group (-
NH2) from an aminoacid with the help of amino oxidases to form ammonia. Ammonia is then converted to the less toxic
urea which is excreted in urine. This takes place in the Urea or Ornithine cycle.
The amino group may be;
 Transferred to another aminoacid residue to form another aminoacid with the help of transaminases in the process
of transamination
 Used to form other nitrogenous compounds like purines and uric acid which are excreted in urine
The aminoacid residue or non-nitrogenous compound may be;
 Converted to glucose for immediate energy production or stored as glycogen.
 Stored as fats in adipose tissue
 Used to build new aminoacids
The end products of protein metabolism, chiefly urea, are excreted by the kidneys in form of urine, sweat or in faeces.
Hormonal influence of protein metabolism
Both anabolism and catabolism of proteins are regulated by specific hormones.
Anabolic hormones include;
1. Growth hormone (GH) which stimulates the body cells to retain protein so as to ensure tissue growth
2. Androgens (sex hormones) especially testosterone stimulates retention of protein and further tissue growth during
stages of puberty especially in reproductive tissue.
3. Insulin is necessary during protein synthesis as it prevents gluconeogenesis.
4. Thyroid hormones in normal amounts work with growth hormone to stimulate protein synthesis.
Catabolic hormones include;
1. Adrenal steroid hormones like cortisone, hydrocortisone stimulate deamination, gluconeogenesis and conversion of
aminoacid residues to glucose or glycogen.
2. Thyroid hormones in large amounts stimulate excessive breakdown of muscle tissue.
The rate of protein utilization is determined by measuring the nitrogen content in ingested food, urine and feaces
(Since 1g of nitrogen is equivalent to 6.25g of protein). This enables us to ascertain the nitrogen balance or equilibrium
and determine how much is used for tissue growth and how much is excreted.
NITROGEN BALANCE

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Nitrogen balance refers to the metabolic equilibrium or balance between the nitrogen intake in dietary protein foods
and the output of nitrogen in compounds like urea and feaces. It can also refer to the equilibrium between the amount
of nitrogen absorbed from protein foods for protein synthesis and the amount of nitrogen supplied to the body i.e.
N2 Intake = N2 Absorbed
This balance is adaptive to the body protein needs and is affected by the following factors;
 The degree of digestibility and absorption of a given protein food
 Body calorie/energy level which affects protein synthesis
 Nature of the diet
 Timing of meals; spacing between meals lowers the competition for active sites which increases action of enzymes.
This increases digestibility of food and promotes a positive nitrogen balance.
 Clinical factors like fever, diseases and other infections, medication, traumatic injury and post-surgical conditions.
This leads to 2 forms of nitrogen balance i.e.
1. Positive nitrogen balance
This is a state when the rate of synthesis of protein or intake of nitrogen exceeds its breakdown or output. It occurs
when new body tissues are added that is growth throughout childhood, pregnancy, muscular development in
athletes, and during recovery from infections, injury or stress.
2. Negative nitrogen balance
This occurs when the rate of excretion of nitrogen is greater than the intake. There is a high rate of catabolism and
it leads to loss of nitrogen or protein. It mainly occurs during the following circumstances;
 Inadequate dietary supply of quality protein to meet the body’s synthetic needs
 Inadequate calorie/energy intake as in starvation
 Malabsorption diseases like diarrhoea, indigestion will lead to excretion of undigested protein in feaces
 Severe injury, burns, surgery, high fever and other infections
 Excessive loss of blood (haemorrhage)
 Excessive production of thyroxine or adrenocortical hormones without increasing dietary intake
PROTEIN TURNOVER
This refers to the rate of breakdown of body protein/tissues and the re-synthesis of new tissues. The rate varies in
different tissues due to the level of activity. It is highest in the intestinal mucosa, liver, pancreas, kidney and plasma. It
is lower in the muscles, brain and skin tissues. Turnover is slowest in structural tissues like collagen and bones.
Tissue protein is continuously breaking down into constituent aminoacids even when the intake of dietary protein and
other nutrients is adequate. Therefore, for tissue maintenance, a constant supply of essential aminoacids is important.
However, protein turnover is influenced by conditions like age, type of diet, body infections, injury, stress and rate of
activity.
MEASUREMENT OF PROTEIN QUALITY
Dietary protein quality is determined using the indices or ratios of protein quality
Indices of protein quality are the ratios used to measure or determine the essential amino acid content of protein foods
or how much of the protein is available to the body during protein synthesis. These include;
1. Biological Value (BV); this is the percentage of the absorbed nitrogen retained in the body i.e. nitrogen converted
to body protein from dietary protein i.e. nitrogen retained by the body under normal conditions

2. Net Protein Utilization (NPU); this is the product of the biological value of a protein food and the degree of food
protein digestibility. The value is less for indigestible protein foods like the cereals.
3. Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER); this is the change in body weight gain relative to the protein intake. It shows how
much of the ingested protein has been used for body growth and repair.

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Chemical or Amino Acid Score; it’s the ratio between the content of the limiting amino acid in a test protein food to
the content of the same amino acid in a reference protein food like eggs.

* Limiting amino acid is one that denies the ability of a protein to take part in protein synthesis.
PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS
The recommended intake of protein each day is 1 g of protein for each kg of body weight e.g. a person weighing 60kg
needs 60g of protein daily. This should comprise of both animal and plant protein.
More protein is required by children, teenagers, pregnant and breastfeeding women, and during illness.
The Average requirements are as follows;
Infants (1 – 10 years) 30 – 50 g

Teenagers (Adolescents) 60 – 75 g

Adults (Men and Women) 60 – 70 g

Pregnant and Lactating women 75 - 85 g

People who require Proteins most include;
1. Pregnant (expectant) mothers; to cater for growth of the foetus and maintain their own bodies.
2. Lactating (breastfeeding) mothers; proteins are needed to support breast milk production for the baby.
3. Infants (Childhood); for the proper growth of strong and healthy bodies.
4. Adolescents; to maintain the rapid growth rate and hormonal changes.
5. Invalids (sick) and Convalescents; to promote quick recovery and repair of worn out tissues.
PROTEIN DEFICIENCY
Protein deficiency is mainly caused by the following;
1. Primary deficiency
This is due to insufficient dietary supply of proteins to the body. The cells will thus lack the aminoacids for their
synthetic activities. It leads to the following effects;
 Retarded growth in infants
 Diarrhoea which leads to loss of body fluids
 Dehydration
 Keratinization of membranes
 Malfunctioning of various body organs like the liver and gastro-intestinal tract due to hormone deficiency.
2. Secondary deficiency
This develops due to different pathological or physiological conditions in the body like liver damage, kidney failure,
intestinal problems, infections which lead to indigestion and bleeding. The following effects are shown;
 Loss of proteins due to kidney failure
 Loss of proteins from the body through haemorrhage and wounds
 Tissue damage due to injuries, fractures and surgical operations
 Utilization of proteins as a source of energy in absence of lipids and carbohydrates
 Tissue or muscle wasting and degeneration of the body
 Increased susceptibility to infections and diseases due to lack of antibodies
 Delayed wound healing
 Severe cases of deficiency can lead to kwashiorkor and other protein energy malnutrition (PEM) diseases
Kwashiorkor is a protein deficiency disease which affects infants especially after weaning.
It has the following signs and symptoms;
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  Retarded or stunted growth  Distended abdomen (pot belly)
 Muscle wasting or loss of weight  Poor resistance to infections
 Diarrhoea and body dehydration4  Coarse, light, brown and sparse hair
 Poor skeletal and mental development  Loss of appetite
 General body oedema (swelling of the face,  Skin lesions and scaly skin patches
feet and abdomen)
EXCESS PROTEIN INTAKE
Excess proteins in the body may result into obesity and its related complications. Excess proteins are not stored in the
body but are deaminated to form glucose and ammonia. Glucose is used for energy production and if it’s not needs it is
stored as glycogen in form of fats (adipose tissue). Ammonia is excreted by the kidney with other nitrogenous products.
Food sources of Proteins
1. Animal protein (1st class proteins)
 Meat (pork, beef, veal, poultry, mutton, goat’s meat, bacon, sausages, burgers)
 Fish (fresh and canned)
 Eggs
 Milk and milk products like cheese, butter, cream, yoghurt
2. Plant protein (2nd class proteins)
 Whole grain cereals like maize, wheat, rice, simsim
 Legumes like soya beans, groundnuts, peas, beans, cashew nuts
 Bread
 Breakfast cereals
Revision Questions

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 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates have been of prime importance in the human diet and provide the major source of heat and energy for
the body activity (work) and human development. Animals are unable to synthesis carbohydrates but most plants can
manufacture them from water and CO2 with the help of sunlight in a process known as photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the process by which chlorophyll containing plants are able to manufacture carbohydrates from CO 2 in
the air and water from the soil. Sunlight is used as energy and it is trapped by chlorophyll pigment.
General equation of Photosynthesis:

Oxygen and water are given off during the process as the by-products.
At first a very simple carbohydrate (glucose) is formed but as the process continues the single molecules
(monosaccharide) are linked together to form larger molecules (disaccharides) and eventually polysaccharides. These
are stored as starch or cellulose in various parts of the plants like the roots, pods, seeds, fruits, stems or leaves. This can
be oxidized to produce energy for the plant itself or when eaten for the human body.
Composition and Structure of Carbohydrates
The term carbohydrates refers to the compounds of the hydrates of carbon i.e. they consist of the elements Carbon (C),
Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O) in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 1.
They have the general or basic formula; C n H 2n O n or C n (H2O) n
These are joined to form simple or single sugars which are joined to form complex carbohydrates.
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified according to the number of single sugar units in the structure. These are Monosaccharides,
Disaccharides, Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides.
1. Monosaccharides (C6H12O6)
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates which cannot be hydrolyzed any further by enzymatic
action. They have the basic carbohydrate structure and are made up 3 - 7 carbon atoms i.e. trioses (3 carbons),
tetroses (4 carbons), pentoses (5 carbons), hexoses (6 carbons) and heptoses (7 carbons).
The most important monosaccharides in human nutrition are hexoses which include glucose, fructose and
galactose. They all have a sweet taste; dissolve in water; diffusible; form crystals and not affected by heat.
(i) Glucose (Dextrose / Grape / Corn Sugar)
Glucose is the simplest hexose sugar found in sweet ripe fruits like grapes, sweet vegetables, maize, roots and
onions. Glucose is a white, moderately sweet crystal obtained from the hydrolysis of starch.
Glucose is a strong reducing sugar or agent capable of dissolving blue Benedicts / Fehling’s solution. It reduces
copper from the cupric (Cu) state that is blue to cuprous (Cu 2+) state which is colourless. This test is also used
for detecting glucose level in urine.
Glucose is the form in which sugar circulates in the blood stream to provide the major energy or fuel source to
the body. This sugar or glucose concentration is maintained at 90 mg / dl of blood by insulin hormone.
Insufficient level of insulin hormone in blood can lead to diabetes.
Glucose is commercially available in crystalline or powder form, tablets, syrup or colourless liquid. It is often
used in confectionary, jam making and brewing industries.
(ii) Fructose (Laevulose or Fruit Sugar)

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 Fructose is the sweetest of all the hexose or simple sugars and doesn’t crystallize easily. It mainly occurs in
sweet fruits, honey and sweet vegetables. It can also be got from the hydrolysis of sucrose.
Fructose provides an acceptable nutritive sweetener for use in carbohydrate and calorie modified diets.
(iii) Galactose
Galactose results from the hydrolysis of lactose and is changed to glucose in the liver for energy production.
The reaction is reversible and during lactation, glucose may be reconverted to galactose for use in breast milk
production.
Structure of Glucose Structure of Fructose Structure of Galactose

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

2. Disaccharides (C12H22O11)
Disa ccharides are also known as double sugars because they are composed of 2 monosaccharide units linked
together with the help of a glycosidic bond.
Glycosidic bonds are the characteristic linkage or joining structures between sugar units which occur in a
condensation reaction with loss of a water molecule.
Disaccharides are all white solids, water soluble, diffusable, crystalline and vary in sweetness. They are split to
simple sugars by acids or enzymes. The 3 main disaccharides include Sucrose (from glucose and fructose), Lactose
(from glucose and galactose) and Maltose (from 2 glucose molecules)
(i) Sucrose (Table Sugar)
This is mainly found in sugarcane, beetroots, sorghum cane, brown sugar, syrup and all the sweet fruits and
root vegetables. It is formed from 1 molecule of glucose and 1 molecule of fructose. It can be hydrolyzed by
enzymes and acids.
(ii) Lactose (Milk Sugar)
Lactose is the sugar found in milk and is the least sweet of all the disaccharides. It is formed from 1 molecule of
glucose and 1 molecule of galactose.
(iii) Maltose (Malt Sugar)
It is made up of 2 glucose units and occurs in malt products of starch hydrolysis, germinating seeds and cereal
grains and starchy material on action of diastase and maltase enzyme. It can also be hydrolyzed by boiling
starch with dilute acids. Maltose has α (1, 4) glycosidic bonds.

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 Formation of a Disaccharide (Maltose)

Figure 1

3. Oligosaccharides
These are complex carbohydrates made up of small portions ranging from 3 to 10 single units. They are irregular in
form and when digested yield few constituent monosaccharide units. Naturally occurring oligosaccharides include
starchyose (a tetra-saccharide made of glucose), raffinose (a tri-saccharide of glucose, fructose and galactose).
They are usually found in legumes and cannot be digested but provide food for bacteria flora to thrive in the
intestinal tract producing gas that can bring abdominal discomfort, pain and embarrassment.
Commercially prepared oligosaccharides are used in special infant formulas, on people with gastrointestinal
problems and sports drinks since they are easily digested.
4. Polysaccharides [(C6H10O5)n]
These are complex carbohydrates composed of many or several single sugar units bonded by glycosidic bonds at
each connection. They contain long chains and branched formations with relatively high molecular weight.
Unlike sugars, they are amorphous (non-crystalline), tasteless and generally insoluble.
Examples of polysaccharides include starch, cellulose, glycogen, pectin, dextrin, hemicellulose and gums.
(i) Starch
Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants and thus it’s the most significant source of energy in
human nutrition. It will yield glucose on complete hydrolysis and consists of long chains of glucose often
branched or linked by glycosidic bonds.
Starch is of 2 forms i.e. Amylose and Amylopectin
 Amylose only makes up 20 -30% of the starch portion of starch is made up of long coiled chains of glucose units
with α (1,4) glycosidic bonds and less branching. It is responsible for maintaining the normal blood sugar
level and forms the outer coating of starch cells which makes them insoluble in cold water but more soluble
in hot water than amylopectin without swelling but does not form a gel. With iodine, it stains blue.
 Amylopectin is the large portion of starch made of branching chains with 1,4 and 1,6 linkages at specific
points along the chains. Less soluble in water, but soluble in hot water with swelling. It has gel-like
properties responsible for the thickening of starch mixtures. Turns yellow or orange with iodine.
(ii) Glycogen (Animal Starch)
This is the form in which animals store carbohydrates. Animals convert glucose into glycogen which is stored in
the liver and muscle tissue as a temporary energy reserve. Glycogen helps to maintain the normal blood sugar
level when fasting. It also provides fuel for muscle action especially during athletic activity. It also prevents

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 body fatigue, tissue protein breakdown, ketoacidosis and energy loss. Glycogen is more highly branched than
starch, more soluble and rapidly hydrolyzed to glucose for energy production.
(iii) Cellulose
Cellulose forms the chief cell structure of plants, skins of fruits, coverings of seeds and bran layer of cereals. It is
made up of long straight chains of about 5000 glucose units linked by β-glycosidic bonds. These cannot be
broken down by human digestive enzymes. This renders them indigestible but they are a source of bulk in the
diet which stimulates peristaltic movement of gut muscles to remove wastes and thus prevent constipation.
(iv) Dextrin
These are polysaccharide compounds formed as intermediate products in starch breakdown due to action of
heat, acids and enzymes. The large starch molecules nearest to the heat or acids are broken into simpler but
still fairly large brown compounds known as dextrins e.g. the crusty brown top on bread toast.
(v) Pectin
These are indigestible carbohydrates found in ripe fruits and some vegetables. They lack nutritional significance
but have the ability to absorb water and form gels. This is used in making of fruit jellies and setting of jam.
BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. The primary function of dietary carbohydrates is to provide fuel (energy and heat) for the body. When oxidized
they release 4 kcal/g of energy. This takes place in the cells in the presence of oxygen. This energy is used for the
proper functioning of the body muscles and maintenance of body temperature.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Heat Energy
2. Excess carbohydrates in the bloodstream are converted into body fat which is stored under the skin as adipose
tissue. This forms the layer which helps in insulating the skin against heat loss but too much can lead to obesity. The
layer of fat also surrounds and protects body organs like the heart, pancreas and kidneys against physical shock and
damages.
3. Complex carbohydrates like cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose are useful in stimulating the peristaltic movement
of the gastro-intestinal tract. They absorb water to give bulk to the intestinal contents, give a wide surface area for
absorbing nutrients and eases removal of wastes. This enables easy digestion and thus prevents constipation and
other intestinal disorders.
4. Carbohydrates are highly satisfying due to the presence of indigestible carbohydrates like cellulose which are bulky
and give a feeling of satisfaction.
5. Dietary carbohydrates have a protein sparing effect hence they help to regulate protein metabolism. The body will
use carbohydrates preferably as the source of energy when they are sufficiently supplied in the diet but a low
carbohydrate intake will lead to use of the proteins stored in the tissues for energy production. This is so because
body energy needs take priority over other functions. Therefore, sufficient amounts of carbohydrates will prevent
channeling of too much protein for energy production and thus spare them to be used for their primary role of
tissue building.
6. A constant amount of glucose is necessary for the proper functioning of the brain and the central nervous system
(CNS). The brain has no storage for glucose but depends on the minute to minute supply of glucose from the blood.
Insufficient supply glucose may lead to fainting, shock and irreversible brain damage.
7. Glucose is converted to glycogen which acts as an emergency energy reserve for the body. This helps to maintain
the normal blood glucose at 90 – 100 mg / dl. This is controlled by insulin, glucagon and epinephrine hormones.
8. Glycogen is also an important source of contractile energy for the cardiac muscles. Low glycogen stores due to low
carbohydrate intake may cause cardiac symptoms like angina.
9. Carbohydrates are required for the normal metabolism of fats. When carbohydrates are severely restricted e.g.
during fasting, starvation or uncontrolled diabetes, excess fats will be metabolized faster so as to provide energy.
This will lead to accumulation of incompletely oxidized products (intermediates) like ketones and acids which

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 cannot be metabolized. This can lead to keto-acidosis which causes cell damage. Therefore, a sufficient supply of
dietary carbohydrates prevents the formation of ketone bodies
10. Carbohydrates combine with proteins to form glyco-proteins which help in the form of the cell membrane.
11. Oxidation of carbohydrate leads to the production of heat energy. This provides warmth to the body.
12. Lactose being less soluble than any other sugars, it remains in the intestines for long enough to encourage the
growth of intestinal bacteria useful in the synthesis of B group vitamins.
13. Lactose also enhances the absorption of calcium by forming calcium lactate which is soluble.
Functions of Carbohydrates in cookery
1. Carbohydrates such as vegetables are used as accompaniments to protein and fatty dishes so as to make a
balanced meal for example steamed matooke + fish stew, chips + fried chicken.
2. Sugars are important sweeteners in a variety of dishes like fruit juices, cakes and puddings. This improves the taste
and appetite.
3. Sugar is used as a preservative in jam, soft drinks like soda, quencher and dried fruits.
4. Pectin is an important setting agent of jam and jellies.
5. Carbohydrates like flour act as a base in many baked products like cakes, biscuits, bread and pizza
6. Sugar is a basic ingredient in baking due to its caramelisation properties. This helps them to form a fine brown
texture of biscuits, cakes, bread, buns, puddings and sweets.
7. Starch, sugar and maltose are important raw materials during the fermentation process to give alcohol.
8. Carbohydrate foods provide plenty of bulk in the diet due to the presence of starch and indigestible cellulose. This
is useful in satisfying hunger.
9. They add variety and flavour in the diet since they can be cooked in various ways e.g. fried, baked, roasted,
steamed or eaten raw.
10. Starch is used as a thickening agent of liquids like soup, gravies and sauces.
11. Carbohydrates are the cheapest foods available which makes them to be eaten in larger amounts by any group of
people or individuals.
Effects of heat on Carbohydrates
Moist heat and dry heat affect the physical and chemical properties of carbohydrates differently as below;
Moist heat
 Starch grains absorb water, swell, softens and burst releasing the starch cells and amylopectin (gel) which thickens
the liquid e.g. when making porridge, white sauces, millet bread and soup. This process is known as gelatinization.
 Moist heat causes cell walls of fruits and vegetables to soften and become more digestible. If overcooked they will
disintegrate.
 Moist heat causes sugar to dissolve more easily to form syrup.
 Further heating causes the syrup to darken in colour.
 Sugar will burn or carbonize at 1600c.
Dry heat
 Dry heat causes the starch grains to burst e.g. popcorns, maize.
 Surface or outside starch grains are converted to pale cream or brown compounds known as dextrins. These
improve the flavour and appearance of food e.g. the brown crust of toasted bread, brown colouring of grilled or
roasted potatoes or cassava. This process is known as dextrinisation.
 Excess or overheating leads to burning or blackening
 Dry heat causes sugar to melt and form a brown coloured molten liquid known as a caramel. This is known a
caramelisation.
 Overheating will develop a bitter unpleasant flavour.
 Further heating will lead to burning and form charcoal (carbon).

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 DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Mouth
 Digestion of carbohydrates starts off with mastication by the teeth to breakdown food into small particles.
 Food is then mixed with saliva which contains salivary amylase (ptyalin) enzyme.
 Salivary amylase (ptyalin) converts cooked starch to maltose. Salivary amylase has no action on raw or uncooked
starch, therefore, cooking helps to rupture the starch cell walls to ease action of enzymes. Food is then pushed to
the stomach.
Stomach
 Food is mixed with gastric juice which contains gastric or hydrochloric acid.
 Hydrochloric acid stops the action of the alkaline ptyalin and no further digestion of carbohydrates takes place in
the stomach since the enzyme is inactive in acidic medium. Peristaltic action pushes food into the duodenum and
small intestines.
Duodenum
 Food is mixed pancreatic juice from the pancreas which contains pancreatic amylase.
 Pancreatic amylase converts the remaining starch to maltose. Food is pushed to the small intestines.
Small Intestines
 The intestinal glands produce 3 enzymes to complete carbohydrate digestion. These include;
 Maltase converts maltose to glucose.
 Invertase or sucrase converts sucrose to glucose and fructose.
 Lactase converts lactose to glucose and galactose.
 Indigestible polysaccharide may undergo partial breakdown by the intestinal bacteria.
Absorption
 Carbohydrates are absorbed from the small intestines through the villi and into the blood stream in form of glucose
with some fructose and galactose. The villi increase surface area for absorption.
 Fructose and galactose are converted to glucose for the final absorption. These travels via the hepatic portal vein to
the liver where they are either oxidized to produce energy and heat, combined with phosphate and potassium to
form glycogen and stored in the liver for future use.
 The excess is converted to fats and stored as adipose tissue.
 The rest is eliminated as feaces.
METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES (Glucose)
The main aim of carbohydrate or glucose metabolism is to extract energy from glucose the end product of
carbohydrate digestion and absorption. This goes on in all the cells but the major sites are the liver, adipose tissue,
muscle tissue and renal or kidney tissue.
The initial step is known as glycolysis (sugar-splitting).
Glycolysis refers to the splitting apart of simple hexose sugars like glucose into 2 molecules of a 3 carbon compound
known as pyruvate / pyruvic acid and finally into Acetyl CoA. This takes place in the cell cytoplasm as follows;
 Glucose is phosphorylated by addition of a phosphate molecule to form the more reactive glucose-6-phosphate.
 This is further phosphorylated and reorganized to form fructose-1,6-diphosphate.
 It’s eventually split into two 3 carbon molecules known as glyceraldehyde and di-hydroxyl acetone phosphate. This
process utilizes 2 ATP molecules.
 Two pairs of phosphate molecules are lost from the compounds to form 4 ATP molecules.
 The compounds are then finally converted to two 3 carbon compounds known as pyruvate / pyruvic acid.
 A total of 10 ATP molecules are produced in this step.
 The hydrogen atoms released are taken up by the Hydrogen ion receptor molecules.
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 The pyruvate is oxidized by combining with coenzyme A (CoA) to form Acetyl CoA and 2 carbon compound with the
release of CO2. This reaction is catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme and it produces 6 ATP molecules.
2Pyruvate + 2NAD+ + CoA 2Acetyl CoA + 2NADH + H+ + CO2 + Energy
 Acetyl CoA now enters the Kreb’s cycle
This is the final stage of carbohydrate metabolism and it takes place in the Kreb’s or Tri-carboxylic acid (TCA) or Citric
Acid Cycle. It occurs in the cristae of the mitochondria. The Kreb’s cycle is a cyclic sequence of 8 reactions with the final
dual purpose of energy production. This occurs as follows;
 Acetyl CoA combines with a 4 carbon oxaloacetic acid (oxaloacetate) to form a 6 carbon citric acid (citrate).
 This then goes through a serie
 s of reactions which involve progressive loss of 2 molecules of CO 2 with final generation of the 4 carbon oxaloacetic
acid.
 This links up with another Acetyl CoA molecule to continue the cycle.
 8 Hydrogen atoms are produced from the Kreb’s cycle and are taken up by hydrogen ion (H +) receptors. The
hydrogen atoms produced are taken to the Electron Transport System (ETS) or Respiratory Chain.
The ETS is a means by which hydrogen atoms released during glycolysis and the Kreb’s cycle are converted into ATP or
energy molecules. The ETS is made up of electron carriers and hydrogen acceptor molecules like FAD, NAD, Coenzyme
Q (Ubiquinone) and Cytochrome b, c and a. These capture hydrogen atoms as they are released from the cycle and
separate them into constituent electrons and protons.
The electrons pass through the ETS from carrier to carrier with the subsequent formation of 3 ATP molecules from each
electron. This leads to a total production of 24 ATP molecules from 8 hydrogen atoms. This is known as Oxidative
phosphorylation.
The hydrogen protons and electrons from the ETS combine with oxygen to form water with the help of cytochrome
oxidase enzyme. 2e- + 2H+ + ½ O2 H2O
A total of 40 ATP molecules are produced and net gain of 38 ATP molecules.
Summary
Stage Spent (ATP) Gained (ATP)
Glycolysis 2 10
Pyruvate – Acetyl CoA 6
Kreb’s or TCA Cycle 24
Total 2 40
Net Gain 38
Food sources of Carbohydrates
Food sources of Sugar
 All sweet fruits and vegetables like bananas, apples, mangoes, melons, beet roots, cherries
 Bee honey
 Jam, Sugar canes
 Sweetened food products like soft drinks
Food sources of Cellulose
 Skins of fruits and vegetables
 Whole grain cereals like maize, wheat, oats and barley
Food sources of Starch
 Cereals e.g. wheat, maize, rice, barley, millet
 Root vegetables like cassava, yams, potatoes, carrots
 All types of flour i.e. wheat flour, maize flour, millet flour

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 Deficiency of Carbohydrates
Insufficient supply of carbohydrates in the diet is very rare as it is the cheapest food available but can occur in cases of
actual starvation and can lead to marasmus.
Marasmus is a protein energy malnutrition (PEM) disease mainly due to lack of a number of nutrients but especially
carbohydrates. It has the following signs and symptoms;
 Extreme body thinness (muscle wasting)  Retardation of growth especially in children
 Lack of energy (body weakness)  Constipation and diarrhoea
 General body fatigue (tiredness)  Dryness of the skin and mucous membranes
 Low body weight  Little or no body fat
Effects of excess Carbohydrates
Too much or excess carbohydrates in the body can lead to the following;
 Tooth decay (dental caries) due to eating of too much of sweet and sticky sugary foods
 Accumulation of fats under the skin and abdomen which can lead to obesity
 Fat deposition around the body organs like the kidney, pancreas and the liver can lead to insensitivity of body organ
which causes diabetes mellitus (type II)
 Accumulation of fats in blood vessels can leads to cardiovascular problems like atherosclerosis, high blood pressure
and heart attacks.
HYPOGLYCAEMIA
This is a condition when the level of blood glucose falls to below 70 mg / dl of blood. This level of glucose is too low to
meet the body’s needs. It is a metabolic disorder caused by any of the following; habbits
 Pancreas disease or tumors which lead to excessive insulin production
 Rapid conversion of glucose into glycogen after eating a meal rich in simple sugars
 Liver damage which makes it unable to store enough glycogen and release it when required
 Hyperthyroidism leads to excessive thyroxine hormone production which uses up all the glycogen stores.
 Alcohol intoxication which blocks glucose production by the liver
People with hypo-glycaemia show the following signs and symptoms;
 Body weakness and fatigue
 Excessive perspiration
 Mental confusion leading to brain damage
 Blurred vision
 Palpitations and convulsions
 Faintness
 Inability to speak clearly
 Always feel hungry
 Light headaches, nervousness and irritability
 Shakiness
 Hunger and nausea
 Tingling or numbness in the lips or tongue
 Sleepiness
 Lack of coordination
 Seizures
 Unconsciousness

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Low carbohydrate intake or decreased blood glucose will lead to the secretion of a number of blood glucose raising
hormones. These include;
a) Glucagon hormone from the α-cells of the pancreas acts in opposition to insulin to increase breakdown of liver
glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis).
b) Thyroxine hormone from the thyroid gland increases formation of glucose from carbohydrates and production of
epinephrine hormone.
c) Epinephrine hormone from the adrenal glands stimulates the breakdown of muscle glycogen to glucose.
d) Somatostanin hormone produced from the delta cells of the pancreas and the hypothalamus suppresses the action
of insulin and increases the action of glucagon. It also modulates the related metabolic activities.
e) Other steroid hormones like growth hormone, glucocorticoids and adrenocorticoids also stimulate the conversion of
glucose from other sources like fats and proteins and also delays uptake of glucose by muscles.
Extreme cases of low dietary carbohydrates will lead to depletion of glucose and glycogen stores as in cases of actual
starvation leading to marasmus.
HYPER GLYCAEMIA
This occurs when the blood glucose level rises too high above 180 mg / dl of blood. Too much glucose will be found in
blood and if not taken up by the cells it will lead to diverse effects. Hyper-glycaemia can be caused by the following;
 Excessive intake of carbohydrate foods which are rapidly changed into simple sugars (glucose)
 Overproduction of thyroxine hormone which increases glucose production
 Insufficient supply of insulin hormone due to defects of the β-cells of the pancreas
Normally, increased dietary supply of carbohydrates will lead to secretion of insulin which lowers the blood glucose
level. Insulin regulates blood glucose level through the following ways;
 Conversion of glucose to glycogen in the liver for a constant energy reserve (glycogenesis)
 Conversion of glucose and other metabolites to fats for storage in adipose tissue and around other body organs like
intestines, blood vessels, kidneys
 Inhibits fat and protein breakdown to avoid glucose production
 Enhances glucose transport through the cell membrane and uptake by muscle tissue allowing glucose to be
oxidized to supply energy
 Influences phosphorylation which increases activity of the enzymes responsible for glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
 Promotes uptake of amino acids by the skeletal tissue and thus increasing protein synthesis
Excessive secretion of insulin can cause reduction of glucose to such an extent that the brain cells are deprived of
glucose. This can lead to stroke, shock, fainting and even coma. It can also increase fat deposition leading to
accumulation of fats in the body.
However, insufficient supply of insulin can lead to increased blood glucose and its excretion in urine. This can progress
to diabetes (to pass through) mellitus (honey/sweet nature of urine).

DIABETES MELLITUS
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by the absence or inadequate insulin hormone which
leads to increased glucose level (hyper-glycaemia). This condition can be hereditary but is also common with
overweight, obese and elderly people.
Diabetes mellitus is mainly caused by the following factors;
 Genetic factors which lead to inheriting of altered or mutated genes responsible for production of insulin. This
makes insulin unavailable.
 Failure or defective β-cells of the pancreas to secrete any insulin hormone
 Obesity and hypertension which increases the insensitivity of tissues to insulin hormone
Forms of diabetes mellitus
1. Type I or Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)
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 This form of diabetes develops more rapidly due to failure of the β-cells of the pancreas to secrete insulin hormone
which controls blood glucose level and other metabolic activities. It develops from genetic factors and
immunological action of the β-cells of the pancreas. IDDM develops between the age of 6 – 11 years and at any age
less than 40 years. It can also be known as Juvenile diabetes mellitus.
Type I is difficult to manage and can only be controlled by insulin injections. It mainly leads to excessive urination,
thirst, hunger, weight loss and ketoacidosis. These can lead to coma and death.
2. Type II or Non-Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
This type develops more slowly due to the presence of some amount of insulin in the body. It occurs due to the
insulin resistance or insensitivity by the cells. This develops from physical inactivity, obesity and hypertension. The
condition is milder, stable and mainly occurs in adults usually above 40 years and 80% of these are obese. It can
also be known as Adult or Obesity diabetes mellitus.
Type II mainly leads to increased thirst, body fatigue, blurred vision, vascular and neural complications like
atherosclerosis and paralysis. Ketoacidosis is less common as some insulin is available to prevent fat breakdown but
loss of fluid (dehydration) and electrolytes are common which can lead to coma and death.
Type II patients improve with weight loss, exercise and nutritional therapy.
Effects of diabetes mellitus
The following occur during the initial onset or its uncontrolled state;
 Increased blood glucose (Hyper glycaemia)
 Excretion or presence of glucose in urine (glycosuria)
 Increased thirst (polydipsia)
 Increased urination
 Weight loss in type I and obesity in type II
More serious cases can lead to;
 Mental instability, forgetfulness and confusion
 Blurred vision
 Joint pain
 Skin irritation
 Body sore which fail to heal
 General body weakness
Severe cases can lead to;
 Brain damage
 Fluid and electrolyte imbalance which leads to oedema and body dehydration
 Ketoacidosis occurs due to disturbance of the acid-base balance from ketone bodies accumulating from excessive
fat breakdown. The hydrogen ion concentration increases and these appear in urine. This leads to formation of
acidic urine and renal failure.
 Coma and death
Diet during diabetes mellitus
The diet for any person with diabetes mellitus is always based on normal nutritional requirements or needs of that
individual. Too little carbohydrates could cause hypoglycaemia (faintness and coma) and too much can lead to
hyperglycaemia (excretion of glucose in urine and body dehydration). The following can be considered;
 The doctor’s advice should be followed especially if a special diet is prescribed.
 The diet is basically of low carbohydrate.
 Sugar is completely cutout and can be replaced by sweeteners like fructose, saccharin and sorbitol with no energy
value.
 High fiber foods like cereals, fruits and vegetables should be increased.

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 Consumption of bread, sweets, biscuits and milled cereals is reduced.
 Foods high in saturated fats and cholesterol should be reduced.
 Increase protein intake and favourable foods include lean boiled or roasted beef, eggs, fish and chicken.
 Meals should be regularly served and never be missed.
 Salt intake should be minimized to reduce risks of hypertension.
 Exercises and increased physical activity should be included on the dietary plan to reduce body weight.
 Severe cases need daily insulin injections usually before the meal to keep up the level.

DIABETES INSIPIDUS
Diabetes insipidus is a condition or specific injury of the pituitary gland which produces insufficient antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) or vasopressin, a hormone that helps the kidney to reabsorb adequate amounts of water.
This leads to copious output non-sweet urine, great thirst and sometimes a large appetite. Large quantities of dilute
non-sweet urine may be excreted. This can be as high as 5 to 30 litres /day.
The condition can be controlled by daily injection of posterior pituitary extract.

OBESITY
Obesity is the excessive weight gain due to accumulation of fats in the body. This over weightness will impose a lot of
strain on the body organs like the heart, kidneys, liver as well as the joints and ligaments.
Causes
 Overindulgence or overeating of high energy foods (fats and carbohydrates) with reduced body activity. These are
excess and are stored in the body as fats resulting in fattening.
 Constant snacking and overconsumption of sweets, biscuits, candies, and chocolate as a compensation for
happiness during boredom, as a habit or as additional foods
 An active social lifestyle which may involve ways of entertainment like wedding ceremonies, parties which involve
very rich meals and alcohol consumption
 Many women gain weight during pregnancy and may not lose it afterwards. Successive pregnancies mean
progressive weight gain and thus obesity.
 Genetic factors such as presence of gene-controlled low basal metabolic rate, presence of yellow or white body fat
cells will also contribute to obesity.
 Family background is also responsible. Children of obese parents are more likely to be obese especially of both
parents are obese. They copy and reflect the feeding habits and dietary patterns of their parents.
 Poverty which prompts people to eat cheap high carbohydrate foods
 Enzyme defects due to malfunctioning of the hypothalamus. This leads to inability to respond adequately to hunger
and appetite.
 Reduced body activity and sedentary living
 Lack of nutritional education
Complications of Obesity
 Varicose veins especially in elderly people and pregnant women
 High blood pressure
 Hyperglycaemia which can also result into diabetes mellitus (type II)
 Cardiovascular problems like heart attacks
 Piles and gall stones especially in obese women
 Hernia or displacement of abdominal organs
 Difficulty in giving birth (labour) as the foetus may be fat and abnormally positioned
 Arthritis (inflammation and pain in the joints like knees, back, hips or ankles due to increased body weight)

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 Surgical operations may be difficult due to the adipose tissue

LIPIDS (FATS AND OILS)

The term Lipids is the biochemical name given to a group of complex greasy substances found in animals and many
plants. They are hydrophobic (water hating) and thus insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents like benzene,
alcohol, ether, ethanol, etc.
Lipids are called Oils when they are liquids at room temperature e.g. cooking or vegetable oils, olive oil, seed oils and
they are called Fats if they are solids at room temperature e.g. lard, butter.
Composition of Lipids
Lipids are composed of the elements; Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O) in different proportions. These elements
then make up fatty acids (alkanoic acids) and glycerol (glycerines). They contain less Oxygen but more Carbon. This
factor makes them such a powerful energy source for the body.
Chemical Structure of Lipids
Lipids are composed of 2 main parts that is Glycerol and Fatty acids.
GLYCEROL
Glycerol contains 3 hydroxyl (-OH) groups each of which combines with a fatty acid molecule to form esters
(triglycerides).
Structure of Glycerol Structure of a Fatty acid chain (Acetic Acid)

Figure 2 Figure 3
FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids are composed of long hydrocarbon chains with a Carboxyl (-COOH) group at one, methyl (-CH3) group at the
other end and with hydrogen atoms along the chain. Examples of fatty acids include stearic acid, oleic acid, palmitic
acid, triolein acid, butyric acid, capric acid, etc.
Fatty acids vary in length ranging from 2 to 20 carbon atoms and this determines the different physical properties of the
lipid i.e. colour, texture, flavour, solid, liquid or waxy.
The fatty acids combine with glycerol in a condensation reaction to form esters known as triglycerides with loss of 3
water molecules. These combine at a specific joining structure known as the ester bond.
CLASSIFICATION OF FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids can either be saturated or unsaturated depending on the degree of saturation of the fatty acid chain i.e. the
extent to which hydrogen is joined to the carbon atoms present or the C – C bonds present in the fatty acid chain.
1. Saturated Fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids possess only single C – C bonds along the fatty acid chain. All the carbon atoms in the
hydrocarbon chain between the methyl group (-CH 3) and the carboxyl group (-COOH) are filled with hydrogen
atoms producing a more dense and compact structure.

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 Examples include acetic acid, stearic acid, butyric acid, palmithic acid and myristic acid. Saturated fatty acids are
found in animal fats like lard, suet, butter, beef fat and hardened vegetable fats like margarine.
2. Unsaturated Fatty acids
These possess one or more double bonds along the hydrocarbon chain, some of the carbon atoms are not filled
with hydrogen and therefore possess double or triple bonds for example Oleic acid (1 double bond), Linoleic acid
(2 double bonds), Linolenic acid (3 double bonds) and Arachidonic acid (4 double bonds).
They are mainly obtained from fish oils and vegetable oils like soya oil, sunflower oil

Unsaturated fatty acids are further divided into 2;

(i) Mono-unsaturated fatty acids possess only one double bond in the structure for example oleic acid from
olives, avocado and legumes like ground nuts and almonds.
(ii) Poly-unsaturated fatty acids have 2 or more double bond in their structure. Examples include Linoleic acid (2
double bonds), Linolenic acid (3 double bonds) and Arachidonic acid (4 double bonds).
Unsaturated fatty acids especially the polyunsaturated fatty acids can be referred to as Essential fatty acids.
Essential Fatty acids
These are fatty acids which cannot be synthesized by the body and their absence can lead to specific deficiency
symptoms. They should therefore be supplied in the diet in small amounts for efficient body functioning e.g. linoleic
acid (linolenic and arachidonic acid can be synthesized in the body from linoleic acid).
EFAs can be obtained from vegetable oils, fish liver oil, fatty fish and other sea foods.
EFAs are valuable in the diet especially in the diet of overweight, obese patients and those with cardiovascular diseases
due to the following;
 They lower cholesterol by increasing its transport and metabolism. This counteracts the hardening effect of
cholesterol in the coronary arteries and thus reducing incidences of coronary heart diseases and heart attacks.
 They strengthen cell and capillary membranes. This maintains the integrity of tissue membranes like the skin.
 They help to prolong blood clotting time and increase the activity of fibrinogen.
 EFAs are important in the formation of cholesterol esters, phospholipids and lipoproteins.
 They are also important in the formation prostaglandins and thromboxanes useful in the regulation of blood
pressure, movement of smooth muscles and inducing uterine contractions for birth and abortions.
 They are important in the regulation of growth.
Absence of EFAs can lead to skin lesions (dermatitis), growth and reproductive failure, liver and kidney damage and
increased susceptibility to infections.
FORMATION OF A LIPID (Triglyceride)
Triglyceride is the chemical name for Lipids (fats and oils). It is formed by the attachment of 3 fatty acids to a glycerol
base. This occurs in a condensation reaction which produces a substance known as a triglyceride or ester. The carbon
atom at the acid end of the fatty acid bonds with an open oxygen atom on the glycerol base to form a monoglyceride.
The process is repeated to form a diglyceride until the final fatty acid attaches to the remaining oxygen on the glycerol
base to form a triglyceride. This leads to formation of 3 water molecules.
This is show below;

Figure 7

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 FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
1. Fats are burnt down to produce energy. They have a high energy value than any other nutrient and produce twice
the energy produced by carbohydrates i.e. 1 g of fat will produce 9 kilocalories.
2. Excess body fats are stored in small amounts around the body parts like under the skin (adipose tissue), around
body organs like heart, kidneys, intestines (abdomen) and in blood vessels. These act as energy reserve and release
it when required in future.
3. The layer of fats under the skin (adipose tissue) helps to insulate the body against heat loss and rapid temperature
changes in periods of excess heat or coldness.
4. Fat tissue helps to form a supportive covering around the delicate organs like the heart, kidneys, testes, eye balls,
pancreas, etc. This holds them in position and protects them against mechanical shock.
5. Fats are important carriers of nutrients e.g. fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K, minerals like phosphorous in form of
phospholipids and proteins in form of lipoproteins. This enables them to be easily absorbed and transported across
the cell membranes.
6. Fats help to lubricate the intestinal tract which enables the easy movement of food along the digestive system.
7. Fats are used in the formation of the structure of the plasma membrane of the cells which is made up of bi-layer of
phospholipids.
8. Lipids supply necessary components for the synthesis of many metabolites important in metabolism and tissue
integrity e.g. essential fatty acids, cholesterol esters, prostaglandins and thromboxanes.
9. They form the lipid membrane (myelin sheath) that covers the nerve cells. This protects the nerves and helps in the
transmission of nerve impulses.
Other dietary functions of lipids include;
1. A sufficient amount of lipids and carbohydrates provide sufficient energy. This spares proteins to carry out their
body building functions instead of producing energy. Lipids are therefore protein sparers.
2. Lipids improve the flavour and palatability of many foods. The distinctive flavour of many foods is greatly improved
by the volatile oils produced when fats and oils are used for cooking. This improves appetite and variety in the diet.
3. Fats have a high satiety value. They depress the gastric secretions which delay the emptying of the stomach and
thus retard the feeling of hunger.
Uses of Lipids in Cookery
Since Lipids (fats and oils) improve on the flavour, appearance (texture and colour), palatability, energy and nutritional
value of food, they are used as an ingredient in many dishes during food preparation in the following ways;
 Spreading of fats like butter, margarine on bread and scones to make them more palatable
 Oil, butter and margarine are used to improve the natural flavour of foods like vegetables, fish and meat.
 Fats improve the keeping quality of many baked products like bread, biscuits and cakes. The fat is emulsified with
the moisture, retains it and thus prevent drying up which can lead to staling of the product.
 Fats are used for aerating the mixture in rich cakes. Fats have the ability to hold air if creamed with sugar and this
gives the cake a good texture.
 They form emulsions with water and other liquids which makes them important in preparation of salad dressings
and salad cream like mayonnaise sauce, french dressing.
 Lipids are used as shortening in baked products. They have the ability to break the strong gluten strands when flour
is mixed with fats in the presence of a liquid. This improves flakiness in pastries, biscuits and richness in cakes.
 They are also used for greasing or lubrication of baking tins and trays which prevents food from sticking onto the
containers.
 Fats and oils are used as a cooking medium in the following ways;
(i) Oil acts as a medium for the transfer of heat to the food during deep fat and shallow fat drying. The hot oil
has

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a high smoke point which transfers a great amount of heat to the food within a very short time. This makes frying the
quickest and easiest method of cooking.
(ii) Oil is also used for basting of food being grilled, baked or roasted e.g. meat, poultry or fish. This keeps the
moisture of the food and produces a golden brown appearance.

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 DIGESTION OF LIPIDS
Mouth
 There is no chemical digestion here due to absence of lipid breaking enzymes.
Stomach
 Digestion of lipids begins here. The churning action of the stomach walls which turns the lipids into small particles
and a viscous liquid called chyme. This delays entry of lipids into the intestines.
 The chyme is then pushed to the duodenum.
Duodenum
 When chyme enters the duodenum, cholecystokinin hormone is produced by the intestinal walls so as to trigger
the secretion of bile from the gall bladder.
 Chyme is mixed with bile and pancreatic juice which contains pancreatic lipase.
The bile performs the following functions;
(i) It emulsifies the chyme (fats) into lipid or fat droplets to increase the surface area for action of the fat splitting
enzymes.
(ii) It also provides the alkaline medium favourable for fat digestion.
(iii) Bile lowers the surface tension on the finely dispersed fat droplets.
Small Intestines
 Pancreatic lipase hydrolyses all the minute fat droplets into small triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides and
finally into glycerol and fatty acids.
 Cholesterol esterase combines free cholesterol with fatty acids to form cholesterol esters.
Absorption
 The glycerol and free fatty acids, monoglycerides and diglycerides are absorbed directly into the intestinal mucosa,
blood stream and then taken to the liver.
 The free cholesterol, cholesterol esters, phospholipids and some fatty acids combine with bile and a lipoprotein
carrier to form chylomicrons.
 The chylomicrons are then absorbed into the lymphatic system (lacteal) and finally into the blood stream to be
taken to the liver for the final metabolism.
METABOLISM OF LIPIDS
The liver is the major site for fat metabolism and synthesis of fatty compounds like lipoproteins, cholesterol esters and
phospholipids. Excess lipids aren’t excreted from the body but they are synthesized by the adipose cells (adipocysts) to
be stored as adipose tissue. This occurs as follows;
 The longer chained fatty acids are activated in the presence of ATP and Coenzyme A to form Acetyl CoA. This takes
place in the endoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondrial membranes. The long-chained Acetyl CoA can’t pass
through the mitochondrial membrane, so it combines with carnitine which facilitates their transport across the
membrane into the mitochondria. Carnitine is an amino acid synthesized in the liver and kidney from the essential
amino acids lysine and methionine
 The short chained fatty acids diffuse rapidly into the mitochondria.
 In the mitochondria, beta-oxidation of the long chained and short chained fatty acids begins with the help of enzyme
CoA and pantothenic acid. Beta-oxidation is the process of splitting up the long fatty acid chains into 2 carbon
fragments of acetyl CoA residues or acetates.
 The 2 carbon acetyl CoA residues or fragments are channeled to the Krebs cycle or tri-carboxylic acid (TCA) cycle
and respiratory chain to yield energy, CO2 and water.
 The odd-numbered fatty acids are cleaved until a 3 carbon fragment is left. This is then converted to succinate
(succinyl CoA) which then enters the TCA cycle at that point.
 The glycerol is converted to glucose and utilized as a carbohydrate molecule.
The hormones that control lipid metabolism include the following;
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1. Insulin; This promotes fat synthesis from glucose in the liver, fat storage in adipose tissue and blocks fatty acid
release from adipose tissue. However, insufficient insulin hormone release will increase fat utilization and more fats
will be broken down to release energy instead of glucose.
2. Thyroxine; It increases fat utilization indirectly by increasing the rate of energy metabolism. It thus stimulates
adipose cells to release fatty acids and lowers blood cholesterol levels.
3. Glucagon; This increases release of free fatty acids for metabolism. It has an opposite effect to insulin.
4. Adrenal hormones like cortisone, adrenocorticoids and hydrocortisone. These also release free fatty acids
5. Epinephrine; this stimulates fat breakdown (lipolysis) and hydrolysis of triglycerides.
6. Pituitary hormones like growth hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH);
these increase fatty acid release by increasing energy demands for the body.
Formation of fats in the body
The process of formation or synthesis of fats (fatty acids and glycerol) in the body from small fatty components and
acetyl CoA is known as Lipogenesis. This is controlled by the liver, adipose cells and fatty acid synthetase enzyme.
Body fats are formed through the following routes;
 Fats are produced from carbohydrates after breakdown to pyruvic acid (pyruvate). This is then converted to
acetaldehyde and finally to fatty acids by removal of CO 2. The B group vitamins thiamine and pantothenic acid are
required for this conversion.
 They can also be built from dietary fats entering the blood stream via the lymphatic system. These are absorbed
from the alimentary canal as a fine emulsion (chylomicrons).
 The final route is through assimilation into the portal vein and then to the liver. Fats are then broken down to
acetones or ketone bodies. These are built up in the muscles with the help of coenzyme A to form fats.
The produced fats are stored in the subcutaneous or adipose tissue (50%), intramuscular tissue and blood vessels (5%)
and abdominal cavity or around body organs (45%).

PROPERTIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF LIPIDS

The properties of the lipids are determined by the length of the fatty acid chain within the lipid molecule. The short
chained fatty acids (with less than 6 carbon atoms) are liquids and unsaturated, the medium length (8 – 12 carbon
atoms) are partly solid (waxy) and softer than hard fats and the long chained fatty acids (more than 12 carbon atoms)
are solids, hard and saturated. The properties include the following;
1. Solubility
Lipids are insoluble in water, but dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene, ether, alcohols and chloroform.
When they are forced to mix with water by vigorous shaking the lipid droplets will be dispersed in the water to
form a temporary emulsion. If the mixture is left to stand, the lipids will separate and float on the water but the
emulsion can maintained by the addition of emulsifiers and stabilizers. This process is known as emulsification.
Emulsification is utilized in digestion, absorption and transport of lipid in the body and preparation of sauces like
mayonnaise sauce, salad cream, French dressing.
Examples of permanent food emulsions include milk, cream and ice cream.
2. Hydrolysis
This occurs when lipids react with water in the presence of heat to form glycerol and free fatty acids. The reaction
can be speeded up by fat-splitting enzyme lipases pressure and acids. This reaction occurs during digestion of lipids
and removal of animal fats by heating them under pressure.

Figure 8

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3. Hydrogenation
This is a chemical process whereby unsaturated oils are converted into solids by forcing hydrogen gas through
them. Unsaturated fatty acids have got the ability of taking up hydrogen gas underspecified conditions with the
formation of saturated fats. This leads to the formation of hardened oils to form solid fats.
The process is widely used during the manufacture of margarine and vegetable shortening, artificial lard and
material for making soap and candles.

Figure 9
4. Saponification
Saponification refers to the hydrolysis of lipids with an alkali e.g. sodium hydroxide leading to the formation of a
metallic salt (soap) of the fatty acid and glycerol. This process takes place in the presence of heat
RI–O–O–RII + 3 NaOH 2Na–O–O–RI + RII(OH)3
Lipid alkali soap or sodium stearate glycerol
This process occurs in the small intestines where the free fatty acids combine with mineral ions like calcium, sodium
and magnesium to form insoluble compounds which are excreted in feaces. This leads to poor utilization lipids and
some minerals. It is also utilized in the making of soap, wax and candles.
5. Plasticity
Plasticity is the ability of lipids to respond to pressure and friction and spread out to cover the surface on which it is
applied. This gives them a soft, spreadable, pliable and plastic texture. It is used when spreading of fats like butter,
margarine on food, greasing of baking tins, creaming cakes and pastry making.
6. Rancidity
Rancidity is the development of unpleasant flavour and odour due to the spoilage of fats and oils. When lipids are
exposed to air and water, they become rancid and unpalatable because they don’t keep well.
Rancidity may occur in 2 ways i.e.
(i) Hydrolytic rancidity
This occurs when moisture present in the lipids causes hydrolysis of unsaturated triglycerides to glycerol and
fatty acids. This occurs rapidly in the presence of enzymes and microorganisms like moulds and bacteria. The
strong unpleasant flavour is due to the free fatty acids formed e.g. butter produces butyric acid which has a
very strong flavour.

(ii) Oxidative Rancidity;

This occurs when the unsaturated fatty acids in the triglyceride molecule react with the oxygen atoms rather
than the hydrogen. This leads to the formation of compounds known as oxyns with a characteristic unpleasant
smell and taste of stale fats and oils. The above reaction is speeded up by air, heat, light, enzymes and contact
with metals like copper and iron.

Ways of preventing rancidity

 Use antioxidants to prevent oxidative rancidity e.g. vitamin E, butyrated hydroxyl anisole (BHA), toluene (BHT) and
santoqium. These react with any oxygen radicals present and are oxidized instead of the unsaturated fatty acids.
 Storage of lipids in dry and plastic containers to avoid contact with moisture and catalytic metals like copper and
iron.

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 If cooking oil has been used for deep fat frying, cool and strain in a clean dry container to remove any food particles
and impurities.
 Store oils in containers with tight-fitting lids to avoid entry of air, moisture and microorganisms.
 Fats like butter, margarine should be stored in a refrigerator if possible.
 Avoid mixing new or fresh oil with used cooking oil.
FOOD SOURCES OF LIPIDS
1. Invisible fat sources include meat, poultry, oily and white fish, dairy products, eggs, offal, baked products like cakes,
pastry, biscuits, avocado, pulses and cereals like simsim.
2. Visible fat sources include butter, lard, margarine and vegetable or cooking oils like olive oil, sunflower oil, peanut
oil, fish liver oil, coconut oil, soya bean oil, rape seed oil
EFFECTS OF HEAT ON LIPIDS
 Fats melt when heated to form oils.
 When fats are heated beyond their normal frying temperature (175 – 190 0c), it leads to the decomposition of lipid
into glycerol and fatty acids. This shown by a blue haze given off and this is known as the Smoke point.
Note: Oils have a higher smoke point (2500c) than fats (2000c). Impurities lower the smoke point especially for oils
used many times without straining.
 Frequent overheating causes partial hydrogenation of oils. This leads to thickening of oils.
 Overheating leads to decomposition of lipids as the glycerol further decomposes to acrolien (aldehyde) compounds
with a characteristic irritating smell of burnt fat or oil.
Equation

Figure 10
 When lipids are heated to extremely high temperature, it leads to formation of a vapour that easily ignites or
burns. This is known as the Flash point.
Note: Oils have a higher flash point (3250c) than fats (3100c).
Dietary fat recommendation
There is no RDA for fats. The body easily converts the excess fats into storage as adipose tissue or around body organs
and they may be used to provide energy for the body when required. However the intake should be controlled to avoid
excessive accumulation of fat deposits in the body which can lead to obesity.
People with high energy output may require a larger proportion as well as those in cold climate or weather.
Saturated/animal fats should be limited and more of unsaturated lipids like fish oils, vegetable oils should be taken.
Dietary problems of Lipids
Over intake or excess lipids in the body can lead to the following complications;
 Obesity
 High blood pressure or hypertension
 Heart problems like heart attacks, blocks
 Diabetes (Type II)

DEFICIENCY OF LIPIDS
Fat deficiency alone has no particular symptoms but only occurs if the total energy giving foods are inadequate. It can
lead the following effects;
 Progressive loss of weight
 General body weakness (debility)
 Dry scaly skin (dermatitis)
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 Fat soluble vitamin deficiency diseases may also occur.

LIPIDS WITH SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

1. Phospholipids
These are composed of 1 unit of glycerol connected to 2 fatty acids and the remaining glycerol link is connected to a
phosphate radical and a nitrogenous base. Examples include lecithin and kefalin.
Phospholipids perform the following functions;
 They are important in the maintenance of the structural integrity of the cell membranes. In large concentrations,
they form a bi-layer of phospholipids and proteins. This facilitates the movement of both water-soluble and fat-
soluble material in and out of the cell.
 They act as carriers in the active transport system through the cell membrane.
 They are also useful emulsifiers that increase the surface area for fat digestion and absorption. The best known
natural emulsifier is Lecithin. Lecithin is a yellowish-brown found in animal tissues like liver, eggs, heart and plant
tissues like soya bean and corn.
 Phospholipids also play a role in cholesterol synthesis and act as insulators of nerve fibers in the myelin sheath.
 They act as effective tissue surfactants in the lungs by decreasing the surface tension. This prevents the delicate
membranes from sticking together and thus helps normal breathing.
 The choline portion on lecithin prevents the abnormal accumulation of body fat and lecithin also helps to coat fat
droplets for transport with in the body.
Phospholipids are constantly synthesized in the body but good food sources include egg yolk, liver, heart.
2. Glycolipids
These are compound lipids with 2 fatty acids attached to a glycerol and the third glycerol base attached to a
carbohydrate or nitrogen group e.g. gangliosides and cerebrosides. The glyco-portion of gangliosides is glucose – amino
acid complex and that of cerebrosides is galactose.
Glycolipids are chief components of the brain and nerve tissues and the plasma/cell membrane where they play a role
in lipid transport.
3. Lipoproteins
Lipoproteins are combinations of triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol and a protein molecule. Since lipids are
insoluble in water, to enable their transport, absorption and activity in the blood stream, they are wrapped in water-
soluble protein. This makes it possible to transport fat material in water filled media like plasma.
Thus, the major function of lipoproteins is to transport lipid compounds like cholesterol, phospholipids, free fatty acids,
fat-soluble vitamins and steroid hormones to their target organs.
Classification of Lipoproteins
Lipoproteins are classified according to their density which is determined by the ratio of lipid to the proteins. The
higher the ratio of the lipids, the lower the density and the higher the protein, the higher the density.
This is as follows;
(i) Chylomicrons
These have the highest amount of fat load and least proteins and therefore the lowest density. They are synthesized in
the intestinal mucosa/wall after a meal and enter the lymphatic system to be carried to the liver.
(ii) Very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs)
These also have a large lipid load, but more carrier proteins. They are formed in the liver to deliver triglycerides to
adipose tissue and are then converted to intermediate density lipoproteins (IDLs) which are also converted to low
density lipoproteins (LDLs). VLDLs also partly transport cholesterol.
(iii) Low density lipoproteins (LDLs)
These are formed in the plasma from breakdown of VLDLs. These carry cholesterol from the liver for deposit in tissues
like arteries and are thus related to increased blood cholesterol levels.
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 (iv) High density lipoproteins (HDLs)
These are also known as Alpha proteins and consist of less lipid and more protein carriers and are thus the heaviest or
with the highest density. HDLs are formed in the liver and carry cholesterol from the tissues to the liver for breakdown
and excretion. Therefore, they lower blood cholesterol which prevents cardiovascular diseases.
Relationship between lipoproteins and cardiovascular diseases
There is a relationship between the level of lipoproteins in the circulatory system and the development or reduction of
heart diseases. LDLs transport cholesterol and other steroids or fatty compounds for deposit in tissues like arteries and
abdominal cavity. An increased level of LDLs will then lead to increased blood cholesterol. This increases the risk of
depositing fatty compounds in arteries leading to atherosclerosis. However, HDLs will transport cholesterol and other
fat material from blood circulation to the liver for breakdown. This reduces the risk of developing heart diseases.

4. Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a high molecular weight fat-soluble alcohol found only in animal tissue. It is synthesized and stored in the
liver and gall bladder. Cholesterol travels in the blood stream esterified with free fatty acids or as part of lipoprotein
complex.
Cholesterol and all sterols form hard fats and it’s responsible for the hardening and blockage of coronary arteries which
leads to coronary heart diseases. It’s also the chief component of gallstones in the liver and kidney stones in the kidney.
Functions of cholesterol
 Cholesterol is essential in the formation of bile salts and acids. These are necessary for emulsification and
proper absorption of fats.
 It’s a component of androgens (sex hormones) like oestrogen and progesterone important in development of
secondary sexual characteristics.
 Cholesterol is also a component of adrenal-cortical hormones which control sodium-potassium stores in the
body and the rate of metabolism of carbohydrate and nitrogen compounds. These hormones include
aldosterone, cortisone and cortinosterone.
 Cholesterol in the skin along with other lipids, they form an inert layer which prevents the penetration of acids
and solvents, absorption of water-soluble chemical agents and excessive penetration of water from the body.
 Cholesterol is also an essential structural component of all cell membranes.
 Cholesterol is converted by the intestinal mucosa and skin to 7-dehydrocholesterol (pro-vitamin D). Further
irradiation with u.v. light rays from the sunlight transforms it into the active vitamin D 3 (Cholecalciferol).
Ways of reducing cholesterol or dietary fat intake
 Reduce on the intake of fried foods in the diet.
 Trim off excess fat from joints of meat.
 Avoid spreading a thick layer of butter, margarine, cheese on food.
 Use skimmed milk wherever possible especially in cooked dishes like sauces, custards, pastries instead of whole milk.
 Reduce on the intake of cakes, bread and pastries.
 Take in small helpings or amounts of ice cream, cream and hard cheese, fatty meat.
 Skim off the layer on cooked dishes
Food sources of Cholesterol include egg yolk, offal like liver, kidney, brain and sweet breads, cheese, oysters. It is found
in small amounts in fatty meat, milk and milk products like butter, ice cream.
Foods that lack cholesterol include fruits and vegetables, cereals, fish, very lean meat, egg white, skimmed milk and
baked products.
Structure of Cholesterol Structure of a Phospholipid (Lecithin)

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Stabilizer
These are substances which help to maintain an emulsion once its formed. They improve the stability of the emulsion
by increasing its viscosity. As the viscosity increases, the freedom of movement of the lipid molecules and water or
polar molecules is reduced which lessens the chances of the molecules coming into contact and coalescing (forming a
layer). Examples of stabilizers include pectin, starch, gelatin, gums and many emulsifiers.
Emulsifiers
These are substances with both a hydrophilic (water loving) group and a hydrophobic (water hating) group which lower
the surface tension between the oil and water components in a mixture. Examples include lecithin, caseinogen and
GMS (glycerol monostearate).
The hydrophilic part is polar and is attracted to water as the hydrophobic group is non-polar and is attracted to the fat
or oil. They become adsorbed at the oil-water interface and form a thick film around each droplet. This prevents the
same droplets from coming in contact and coalescing. This, therefore, promotes the stability of the emulsion.
Emulsifiers are added to several food products containing fats such as cooking fats, margarine (caseinogen, GMS), ice
cream (caseinogen, gelatin, GMS), mayonnaise and salad cream (lecithin, mustard), butter (caseinogen).

Review questions

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 VITAMINS
Definition: Vitamins are organic non-calorigenic substances required by the body in small amounts for certain
metabolic functions. Some of them can be manufactured by the body.
Classification of vitamins
Vitamins are classified into the following;
1. Fat soluble vitamins; These are vitamins that dissolve in fats and are transported in fat related compounds.
These include vitamins A, D, E and K.
2. Water soluble vitamins; These are vitamins that dissolve in water and are easily lost from food during food
preparation. Examples include B group vitamins and vitamin C.
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN A (Retinol)
Vitamin A (Retinol) is a primary alcohol and mainly occurs in 2 forms i.e. Retinal or retinoic acid and β-carotene or
pro-vitamin A. Retinal is the most active in humans and found in animal tissues associated with lipids. Β-carotene is
found in all the dark coloured (red and yellow) plant tissues and it’s converted to the active vitamin A in the body (small
intestines).
Characteristics
Vitamin A is a pale yellow fat soluble alcohol; very slightly soluble in water but soluble in lipids; relatively stable to heat
and easily destroyed by oxidation.
Functions of vitamin A
1. Vitamin A is important in the formation of rhodopsin (visual purple) and iodopsin (visual violet) light receptor
pigment. These are important in the normal vision i.e. allow us to see in bright and dark / dim light and sort out the
colours respectively. Retinol combines with opsin protein to form the pigments which are stored in the rods and
cones of the retina.
2. Retinol is necessary in the production of glycoproteins which help in lubricating and keeping the integrity of the
moist and mucus membranes like the gastro-intestinal tract, bronchial tubes, oral cavities, respiratory tract, urinary
tracts, cornea and healthy outer skin covering. This maintains them healthy and in good condition.
3. Vitamin A is required during cell differentiation, stability and growth of bones, nerves, epithelial tissues, cell
membranes and other soft tissues. It facilitates the removal (dissolving) of old bone for new bones with the final
production of strong skeletal bones and tooth enamel.
4. The pro-vitamin A (β-vitamin A) helps to neutralize free radicals in the cells which might lead to cell damage as one
grows older. These free radicals are produced from body metabolites, tobacco smoke, car exhaust fumes, x-rays,
uv-rays, etc. these can damage DNA, cell components or kill the cell.
5. Retinol supports the normal functioning of the reproductive system in both males and females. This helps in sexual
maturation and prevents sterility.
6. Retinoid also play a role in preventing epithelial cancer.
Digestion, Absorption and Storage of vitamin A
Vitamin A (Retinol) enters the body in 2 forms;
 Retinal/ preformed vitamin A from animal sources
 β-carotene / precursor / pro-vitamin A from plant sources
Bile salts, pancreatic lipase and fats aid the splitting of retinol from lipid fatty foods. The bile salts and acids aid in the
absorption of vitamin A as it does for other fat related substances.
Pancreatic lipase helps in the initial hydrolysis of fat emulsion as the fats in the intestines help in the absorption of
retinol. In the intestinal mucosa, some of the β-carotene is converted to retinol.

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All the retinol from the preformed animal sources and plant carotene is re-esterified or combines with the long chained
fatty acids to form retinyl esters. These are incorporated with lipid droplets to form chylomicrons which enter the blood
stream via the lymphatic system.
They are then carried to the liver for storage and distribution as needed by the cells.
In the liver, retinyl esters are hydrolyzed to form free retinol. The free retinol is bound to a carrier protein, retinol-
binding protein (RBP) for delivery to cells.
However, absorption of the retinol is affected by;
1. Age; in new born babies, especially premature babies, absorption is poor, but with advancing age the rate of
absorption increases due to increased growth rate.
2. Chronic use of mineral oil as a laxative hinders retinol absorption.
3. A high level of thyroxine hormone stimulates the conversion of β-carotene to retinol and increases absorption and
storage of retinol.
4. Oral contraceptives elevate the level of retinol binding protein and thus absorption of retinol due to the effect of
oestrogen.
5. Liver disease like hepatitis, cirrhosis will decrease blood level of both retinol and retinol binding protein.
6. Protein and zinc deficiency will lower serum level of retinol and retinol binding protein.
7. High level of vitamin E affects conversion of β-carotene to retinol.
Storage of vitamin A
The liver is the most efficient storage organ of retinol. It contains about 90% of the body’s total quantity of retinol. This
amount is sufficient to supply the body’s needs for 6 – 12 months and some can go as much as 4 years. However, the
liver stores and plasma levels are checked during periods of infectious disease.
Recommended daily intake of vitamin A
Retinol is stored in the liver and so it is not required daily in the diet but the following should be considered
Children 400 – 800 µg
Adults 800 – 1000 µg
Pregnant and Lactating women 1000 – 1200 µg

Effects of vitamin A deficiency

 The skin becomes rough, dry and scaly as the keratinized epithelium blocks the sebaceous glands.
 Goose-pimple like follicles appear on the fore arms and spread to the shoulders, abdomen, back, thighs and
buttocks.
 Photoreceptor pigmented are not produced which reduces vision in dim light and adjustment to bright light. This is
known as Xerosis.
 Poor dark adaptation follows and finally colour and night blindness. This is known as nyctalopia.
 Itching, dryness, burning and inflammation of the eyelids
 The cornea becomes dry, opaque and inflamed leading to xeropthalmia.
 Keratomalacia occurs leading to softening of the cornea with permanent blindness. This can lead to death in infants.
Keratinization of the epithelial membranes occurs. This involves shrinking, hardening and progressive degeneration
of cells. This increases the susceptibility of membranes to severe infections e.g. the eyes, nasal passages, bronchial
tubes, urinary tract and throat deteriorate.
Note: Keratin is an insoluble protein that forms dry, scale-like tissue like nails, hair, skin, teeth enamel and horny tissue.
 Poor teeth enamel which easily break or chip
 Retarded bone growth and development
 Reproductive failure and increased risk of pregnancy complications

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 Toxicity of vitamin A
Excess vitamin A can be stored in the liver and other tissues. This leads to a condition known as Hypervitaminosis A.
Effects of Hypervitaminosis A include;
 Joint and muscular pain  Nausea, headache and irritability
 Enlargement of the liver, spleen  Cessation of menstruation
 Dry itching skin  Abnormal births in pregnant women
 Coarse sparse hair and thinning  Anorexia
 Skin turns yellow with patches – jaundice  Anaemia
Food sources of vitamin A
Retinal (Animal vitamin A) β-carotene (Plant vitamin A)
 Egg yolk  All the dark and brightly coloured (orange, green,
 Liver yellow, red) fruits and vegetables e.g. carrots, red
 Milk and milk products (cream, butter, cheese) chillies, tomatoes, chilli, green pepper
 Fish and fish liver oils  Pulses
 Fortified margarine  Cereals
Note: Our bodies are unable to convert all the β-carotene to retinal. For this reason animal sources are much more
efficient in the diet.
VITAMIN D (Cholecalciferol)
The naturally occurring vitamin D is called Cholecalciferol and it’s formed in the tissues of mammals from pro-vitamin
D-7-dehydrocholesterol with the help of the sun’s uv light rays. It is a pro-hormone activated to its full form in the body
to help utilize calcium and build strong bones and teeth.
Chemical and physical properties
Vitamin D is of 2 forms;
1. Cholecalciferol (D3) formed by irradiation of 7-dehydrocholesterol under the skin with the help of the sun’s u.v. light
rays. It is also found in fish liver oils.
2. Ergocalciferol (D2) is produced by irradiating ergosterol (plant sterol) by u.v. rays.
Vitamin D forms white yellowish powder; insoluble in fat solvents, very stable to heat, light, oxidation and alkalis;
affected by acids and metals.
Absorption, transport and storage of vitamin D
The ingested vitamin D3 is absorbed with the lipids from the small intestines. Since it’s a fat soluble, this absorption is
facilitated by the presence of bile salts.
It mixes with intestinal micelles and is absorbed in these lipid packets through the lymphatic system and finally into the
blood stream.
The vitamin D3 synthesized in the skin is transported by its special globulin protein carrier to the liver.
In the liver, an intermediate product known as hydroxyl-cholecalciferol is formed and finally transported to the kidney.
In the kidney, a renal enzyme alpha-hydroxylase forms the physiologically active vitamin D 3, calciferol. It is then stored
in the liver, skin, brain, bones and other tissues.
Vitamin D3 malabsorption diseases like coeliac syndrome, spruce and colitis, indigestion due to diarrhoea, abnormal gas
accumulation and discomfort hinder absorption of vitamin D.
Functions of vitamin D
1. Vitamin D (Calciferol) regulates the level of enzyme alkaline phosphatase in blood concerned with the deposition of
calcium phosphates in the bones and teeth. It thus promotes the formation of strong bones and teeth
(mineralization).

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2. It is required for the proper absorption of calcium and phosphorous in the small intestines and its distribution in the
body. It initiates the synthesis of calcium and phosphorous binding proteins which increase the absorption of the
ions.
3. Vitamin D increases the reabsorption of phosphorous and calcium by the kidneys and thus prevent their excretion
in urine. This helps to maintain the calcium-phosphorous level in blood.
4. It also promotes quicker healing of fractures, prevents teeth infections and osteoporosis.
Food sources of vitamin D
Vitamin D is exclusively found in animal foods like;
 Dairy products like milk, butter, cheese, cream
 Eggs especially the egg yolk
 Organ meat like liver, chicken skin, kidneys, brain
 Oily fish, fish liver oil, cod liver oil
 Fortified margarine
Recommended daily requirements (RDA) for vitamin D
Group of people Daily intake
Children / infants 5 – 10 µg
Pregnant and lactating mothers 5 – 10 µg
Adults (Below 25 years) 0 – 5 µg
Adults (Above 25 years) 0 – 10 µg
Note: Demands increase for growth in childhood, pregnancy and lactation and for people who stay indoors for long
like the elderly or those in winter seasons.
Deficiency of vitamin D
Lack of vitamin D leads to inadequate absorption of calcium and phosphorous from the gastro-intestinal tract which in
turn faulty mineralization of bone and teeth structures. This leads to inability to withstand the stress of the weight
resulting into the following skeletal malformations;
1. Rickets; This mainly occurs in children especially premature infants. It results from failure of calcification of the
growing portion of the bone. The bones involved will be deformed.
It presents the following characteristics;
 Soft, fragile bones leading to widening of the long bones, bow legs, narrowing of the pelvis, projection of the
sternum (as in the pigeon chest/breast)
 Enlargement of the wrists, ankle joints, knees (knock knees)
 Softening of the skull (craniostanes) leads to bulging / bossing of the forehead giving the head a box-like
appearance, delayed closing of the fontanel leading to enlargement of the head.
 Stunted growth and delayed learning to sit, crawl and walk
 Poorly developed muscles which results in weakness of the abdominal muscles forming a pot belly and delayed
walking
 Restlessness and nervous irritability
 Excess sweating
 Alteration of the teeth structure and formation
2. Osteomalacia; This is frequently referred to as Adult Rickets due to failure in calcification to keep up with the
rest of the metabolic processes. The following effects take place;
 General weakness with difficulty in walking especially climbing stairs
 Pain in the bones of the legs and lower part of the back
 Spontaneous multiple fractures even after minor falls

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  Softening of the bones which may be so severe that the bones of the legs, spine, and thorax bend into
deformities
3. Dental caries leading to delayed dentition, slow eruption malformation and poor development of the teeth.
4. Tetany; This results from insufficient absorption of dietary vitamin D, calcium and phosphorous ions or
disturbance of the parathyroid hormone. It leads to;
 Muscular twitching, cramps and pain
 Sharp flexion of the wrists and ankle joints
 Convulsions
Toxicity of vitamin D
Vitamin D builds up easily in the body because it is stored in the body and is slowly released. This mainly develops from
large doses of vitamin D supplementation and excessive intake of fortified foods.
Toxicity shows the following effects;
 Progressive body weakness
 Bone and joint pain in adults
 Vomiting and thirst in children
 Hypercalcaemia
 Weight loss
 Loss of appetite (anorexia)
 Irritability and nausea
 Deposition of calcium and phosphorous ions in the skin (adipose tissue) and kidneys
 Failure to grow or thrive in children
VITAMIN E (Tocopherol)
Characteristics
 Tocopherols naturally occur as pale yellow oils in plants like cotton seed, wheat germ
 It’s a powerful antioxidant i.e. it oxidizes very slowly
 Vitamin E is insoluble in water i.e. doesn’t leach but dissolves in fat solvents
 Its stable with heat, acids but unstable in alkaline and to uv light rays and metals like iron and copper
Absorption, transport and storage of vitamin E
Vitamin E as with other fat-soluble vitamins and fats is absorbed with the aid of pancreatic secretions like lipase and
bile salts.
It is transported with other lipids in micelles into the intestinal walls, repackaged in the chylomicrons and carried by
way of the lymphatic system into the portal circulation for transport to the liver and circulation to the cells in plasma
lipoproteins.
Accumulated intake is stored in the liver and/or in adipose tissue.
In the adipose tissue or cells, vitamin E is held mainly in bulk lipid droplets and mobilization of α-tocopherol from these
is slow.
Functions of vitamin E
1. Vitamin E acts as nature’s most potent fat-soluble antioxidant which delays the rancidity, bioxidation and
deterioration of fats and oils.
2. It also protects the fat-rich cellular organelles, polyunsaturated fatty acids in the cell membranes from oxidative
damage. Together with vitamin A and C, vitamin E neutralizes and disrupts the oxidation process of free radicals
from cellular metabolism. It takes up much of the oxygen which renders the free radicals harmless. This helps to
preserve the tissues integrity and longevity.
3. Vitamin E combines with selenium to form an enzyme gluthione-peroxidase which helps to destroy peroxides
before they damage cell membranes.
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4. Its reaction with free radicals helps to slow the ageing process and protects against cancer and cardiovascular
diseases.
5. It is also important in fertility enhancement, reproduction and prevention of sterility. It is also known as the Anti-
sterility hormone/vitamin.
Recommended daily intake
Since vitamin E protects cells and hence tissue health, it is an important nutrient in the diet of pregnant and lactating
women, new born infants especially premature infants. Older people also require more vitamin E.
Adults need a daily supply of 10 mg for men and 8 mg for women
Children need 3 – 8 mg daily.
Deficiency of vitamin E
1. Oxidative reactions will lead to oxidative damage of the cell membrane and the contents. This leads to destruction
and loss of red blood cells which results into haemolytic anaemia especially in premature infants who missed the
last 1 or 2 months when stores for vitamins are normally built-up.
2. Pigment degeneration of the retinal pigments of the rods and cones in both children and adults; this is known as
pigmentary retinopathy and it leads to blurred vision and finally blindness.
3. Disrupts the making of the protective covering of nerves (myelin sheath); this affects the main nerves, spinal cords
and those connecting to the retina. This affects physical activity like walking and vision.
Toxicity of vitamin E
It is the only fat-soluble vitamin with no toxic effects in humans but has been shown to cause sterility in male rats.
Food sources of vitamin E
 Vegetable oils e.g. corn seed oil, wheat germ oil, soya bean oil, cotton seed oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil, palm oil,
rapeseed oil
 Milk and milk products like cheese, butter
 Beef, liver, fish, eggs
 Legumes, almonds
 Whole grain and breakfast cereals
VITAMIN K (Quinones)
Vitamin K was discovered as a fat-soluble blood clotting vitamin and this group is known as Koagulations vitamins. These
include;
1. Phyllo-quinones (K1) mainly found in green leafy vegetables.
2. Mena-quinone (K2) synthesized by intestinal bacteria
3. Mena-dione (K3) synthesized commercially
Characteristics
Vitamin K is stable in the presence of heat, acids and during storage.
It is also soluble in fat and not affected by irradiation.
Absorption, transport and storage of vitamin K
The natural fat-soluble vitamin K1 and K2 require bile salts for absorption and then enter the metabolic system in the
small intestines. They are absorbed with other fat related products in form of chylomicrons and then travel through the
lymphatic system to the liver.
They are mostly stored as very low density lipoproteins in the liver though in small amounts.
Unlike other fat-soluble vitamins, blood levels of vitamin change rapidly with dietary intake. A moderate restriction of
vegetable intake reduces plasma concentration within 10 days. The body thus needs a daily supply to maintain its
various activities.

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 Functions of vitamin K
1. Vitamin K catalyzes the synthesis of blood clotting factors like serum prothrombin and plasma thromboplastin by the
liver. These are in an inactive form and when they are combined with calcium ions, they form fibrinogen and
thromboplastin which are finally converted to fibrin and thrombin to enable blood to clot properly after an injury.
2. Bone proteins osteocalcins as well as the bone matrix are synthesized by vitamin K and calcium ions. These bone
proteins bind with calcium to form bone crystals.
Recommended daily allowance of vitamin K
It is quite difficult to determine the daily requirements of vitamin K mainly because;
 Bacterial synthesis in the intestines supplies some of the amount.
 The vitamin is widespread in many sources and thus a normal diet can provide enough.
 The body reserves are small and turnover is rapid.
However the following standard can be followed daily;
Infants (0 – 6 months) 5 µg
Infants (6 – 12 months) 10 µg
Women 65 µg
Men 80 µg
Note: Older adults with chronic infections and persons taking antibiotics need more.
New born infants require vitamin K injections shortly after birth.
Deficiency of vitamin K
In mild deficiency, blood takes long to clot.
In severe cases, blood fails to clot leading to haemorrhagic anaemia and death.
Haemorrhagic disease of the new bone baby can occur as the sterile intestinal tract has no bacteria to synthesize
vitamin K in the first few days and breast milk or milk has little amounts. A preventive injection or dose of vitamin K is
given to the infants after birth.
Excess vitamin K has no health problem to humans.
Food sources of vitamin K
 Fresh green leafy vegetables
 Liver especially pigs liver, eggs
 Cereals like rice, wheat
 It is also synthesized by bacteria in the intestines
 Low amounts are found in dairy products

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 WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS
VITAMIN C (Ascorbic Acid)
Characteristics
Of all the water soluble vitamins, vitamin C is the most unstable easily destroyed by heat, light, acids, oxygen and
alkalis. Care must thus be taken during food preparation to preserve vitamin C. These include;
 Vitamin C forms white crystals with a sweet sour taste
 It readily dissolves in water
 It readily reacts with metallic ions like copper and iron
 Ascorbic acid is a strong reducing agent i.e. easily oxidized to a useless form
 It is sensitive to alkalis but fairly stable in acidic solution. In this way alkalis like bread soda should be avoided when
preparing vegetables.
 Vitamin C is easily destroyed by heat
 In the presence of light, vitamin C is oxidized by oxidase enzyme
Vitamin C can’t be stored within the body and any excess is slowly excreted in urine. Hence both adults and children
need daily supplies. It is also easily lost when food is cooked; all the vitamin C can be destroyed by overcooking or
keeping food in a hot place.
Functions of vitamin C
1. Ascorbic acid is particularly required for the synthesis, building and maintenance of bone matrix, cartilage, dentine,
collagen and connective tissue. This helps to keep body structures like skin, bones, teeth muscles, tendons and
cornea in a healthy condition.
2. Vitamin C is required during growth of infants, pregnancy and lactation to supply demands for foetal growth and
maintenance of maternal tissues.
3. It assists in the maintenance of the elasticity of vascular tissues enabling them to easily contract and relax. Vascular
tissue is weakened without sufficient vitamin C supply.
4. Ascorbic acid helps to maintain resistance against infections like colds, influenza, bleeding of gums, skin infections
and fever.
5. It is important in the release of stress relieving hormones like adrenaline and norepinephrine from the adrenal
glands. This prevents the body from fatigue and stress especially that brought by injury, general illness,
overworking or shock.
6. It enhances the absorption of iron from the small intestines by converting it from the ferric (Fe 3+) state to the
ferrous (Fe2+) state which is more soluble.
7. Vitamin C also influences the removal of iron from ferritin, the protein-iron-phosphorous complex in which iron is
stored in the liver, spleen and bone matrix. This makes iron easily available for synthesis of haemoglobin and red
blood cells and thus prevent anaemia.
8. Along with vitamin A and E, vitamin C acts as an antioxidant. It is a scavenger / takes up free oxygen radicals from
cellular metabolism. This protects low density lipoproteins (LDLPs) and other polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in
plasma, cell membranes and the whole cell against oxidative damage.
9. Vitamin C is important in tissue regeneration and wound healing especially after cuts, bruises and surgery.
10. It is also involved in a variety of metabolic reactions which take place in the active tissues like the liver, brain,
spleen, kidneys, adrenal glands and pancreas where vitamin C is found in large amount. Some of them include;
 Hydroxylation of the aminoacids proline and lysine to the stable forms of hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine
 Synthesis of carnithine which transports long-chained fatty acids to the mitochondria for energy production
 Synthesis of peptide hormones like norepinephrine
 Conversion of folic acid to the more active folinic acid in the liver
 Metabolism of phenylalanine, tyrosine aminoacids and their metabolites
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Food sources of vitamin C
1. Fresh fruits like oranges, mangoes, grapes, tomatoes, melons, lemons, strawberries, blackcurrants
2. Fresh vegetables e.g. green pepper, spinach, amaranthus, lettuce, cabbage, onions, peas, parsley
Note: It is not widely distributed in foods i.e. found only plant foods and can be easily lost from food during food
preparation. Therefore, a daily supply is thus important in our diet.
Recommended daily allowances of vitamin C
Body stores of ascorbic acid vary directly with intake and when the intake isn’t continuous, the amount taken is poorly
held in the liver. There are variable losses in food handling, processing, preparation and storage.
The current RDI is as follows;
Infants (below 6 months) 30 mg/day
Adults 60 mg/day
Pregnant and Lactating mothers 70 mg/day
Note: Beyond 6 months, the RDI of infants is gradually increased t the adult level.
Cigarette smoking reduces the desired level of vitamin C and thus regular smokers should take in an additional 100
mg/day to maintain the level.
Deficiency of vitamin C
The following effects are shown after several months of ascorbic acid deprivation to the body;
 Poor wound healing because collagen synthesis doesn’t take place especially after surgery.
 Irritability
 Growth retardation
 Malabsorption of iron leading to mild anaemia
 Teeth become loose
 Swelling of gums
 Increased susceptibility to infections like colds, flu
 Pin-point haemorrhage of the skin from slight bleeding of the hair follicles
Long term shortage will result into Scurvy in adults. It has the following signs and symptoms;
 Swelling of the legs, thighs and hands leading to tenderness
 Bleeding and swelling of the gums (gingivitis)
 Breakdown of blood tissue leading to anaemia
 Pain in the limbs
 General body tiredness (fatigue)
 Teeth become loose and eventually fallout
 Skin becomes thick, dry, rough and scaly
 As the disease progresses, the slightest injury produces excessive bleeding
 Weak and painful muscles
 Blood escapes from the weak walls of the blood vessels and appears as small red spots under the skin
In infants;
 Pain, tenderness and swelling if limbs
 Loss of weight
 Diarrhoea and frequent vomiting
 The child is pale, irritable and cries a lot when handled
 If teeth are present, the gums are likely to swell become tender and bleed
Vitamin C losses
Vitamin C is easily oxidized and it is very unstable and can be lost through the following ways;
 All plant cells contain oxidase enzyme released during chopping of fruits and vegetables.

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  Reheated or warmed food loses more of the vitamin content.
 Storage of fruits and vegetables in a warm temperature of about 45 0C and above leads to loss of about 90% of
the vitamin.
 Storage of vitamin C containing foods in copper cans will render it inactive.
 Excessive of alkalis like salt, bread soda during food preparation
Ways to reduce vitamin C losses
 Use fresh fruits and vegetables as wilted ones contain little vitamin C.
 Wash fruits and vegetables under running water and avoid soaking as it results into leaching/dissolving of vitamin C
in the water.
 Store vitamin C containing foods in a cool and dark place to avoid oxidation.
 Prepare (sort, chop or cut) fruits and vegetables just before cooking in order to minimize action of oxidase enzyme.
 Use minimum amount of water when cooking as these nutrients are highly water soluble.
 The liquid used for cooking should be used for making other dishes like soup, gravy and sauces instead of being
poured away.
 Wash fruits and vegetables before chopping or cutting to avoid leaching.
 Cut or chop fruits and vegetables with a sharp knife to avoid excessive cell damage which can expose cells to
oxidase enzyme.
 Crushing, chopping and grated should be limited to reduce exposure of oxidase enzyme to the cells.
 Blanch vegetables and fruits before use. The high temperature (850c) will destroy oxidase enzyme and conserve
vitamin C. bring the water to the boil before adding the foods. Boiling water has no oxygen and this will reduce
oxidation.
 Cover all the cut, chopped and cooked food immediately.
 Cook foods as quickly as possible in a saucepan with a tight fitting lid to avoid the escape of volatile nutrients.
 Avoid the use of alkalis like bread soda to soften food and maintain colour as it reduces vitamin C.
 Avoid overcooking and reheating of vegetable dishes as this will destroy any remaining vitamin C.
 Food should be served and eaten immediately.
 Peel a thin layer of fruits and vegetables as most of the vitamins and minerals are beneath the skin. If possible
avoid peeling.
 Use methods of cooking which minimize loss of water soluble nutrients such as steaming
 If possible eat foods especially fruits and vegetables when raw in order to increase vitamin C intake.
 Store fruits and vegetables in plastic or stainless steel containers; avoid storing in containers made from catalytic
metals like copper, lead or iron which reduce vitamin C.
 Use opaque and airtight containers or those with tight fitting lids.
Toxicity of vitamin C
This mainly develops due to intake of a lot of supplements or tablets of vitamin C. It shows the following;
 Diarrhoea
 Haemolytic anaemia
 Increase in the kidney and bladder stores leads to their failure
 Gout development (gout is a form of arthritis: smaller bones of feet, episodes of acute pain, red & tender
joints)

VITAMIN B COMPLEX
The B group of vitamins contains 8 different water-soluble vitamins each one unique and having significant metabolic
functions in health and general human nutrition. They (together with vitamin C) share 4 characteristics significant in
human nutrition. These are;

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  All are water soluble
 All are synthesized by plants and are therefore provided in the diet by plant foods (and some animal foods)
 All have no stable storage form in the body and must thus be provided daily in the diet
 They all serve as essential coenzyme factors in many cell enzyme reactions like energy release and utilization.
The important members include vitamin B 1 (thiamine), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B3 (niacin or nicotinic acid or
nicotinamide), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin B12 (cyano-cobalamin), vitamin H (biotin), pantothenic acid and folic acid
or folacin / folate. Other unpopular ones include choline, inositol, bioflavonoids and lipoic acid.

VITAMIN B1 (Thiamine)
Characteristics
 It contains a thiazole ring, sulphur molecule and amino group in its structure.
 It forms white crystalline solids which occur as thiamine hydrochloride.
 Thiamine is very soluble in water but acidic solutions promote its stability
 Vitamin B1 is unstable to dry heat, oxygen and rapidly destroyed in neutral and alkaline solutions
 It is easily oxidized by metals, reducing agents and use of sulphur dioxide as a preservative
Functions of vitamin B1
1. Thiamine combines with phosphorous to form co-enzyme thiamine pyro-phosphatase (TPP). This is required in the
decarboxylation of pyruvate to form acetyl CoA in glucose metabolism and removal of keto-acids after fatty acid
metabolism.
2. It forms thiamine triphosphates important in neuromuscular activity and building healthy nervous system (brain
and nerves). This prevents the nervous disease beriberi.
3. Due to its role in energy metabolism, thiamine will thus promote a normal and good appetite.
4. It also required in maintenance of normal muscle tone (strength) of the gastro-intestinal tract and vascular tissue.
This enables normal peristaltic movements which aid digestion and prevent constipation. If the smooth muscles
don’t receive enough glucose due to insufficient supply of thiamine, there will be lack of muscle tone / strength.
Recommended dietary allowances
This depends on the amount of carbohydrate metabolism and total calorie intake. However, a minimum of 1.0 mg/day
is required especially for adults.
The following conditions will require an increase in thiamine supply to the body;
 Alcoholism
 Presences of infections like fever which increase energy requirements especially in elderly people with chronic
illnesses
 Periods of normal growth and development like in infancy or childhood and adolescence. As the body grows, there
is an increase in tissue volume or cells which needs more energy thus an increase in thiamine requirements.
 Pregnancy and lactation to cater for the increased needs of the foetus, increased metabolic rate and larger body
during pregnancy and also milk production.
Deficiency of vitamin B1
Deficiency may occur due to any of the following
 Chronic alcoholism; an individual who drinks a lot of alcohol
 High carbohydrate intake
 Inadequate supply of foods rich in thiamine; this leads to primary thiamine defieciency
 Indigestion leads to gastro intestinal disturbances like diarrhoea and vomiting
 Pregnancy and lactation due to the increased demand for the rapid foetal development and milk production
Mild effects of deficiency include;
 Fatigue (feeling of tiredness)
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  Loss of appetite
 Indigestion leading to diarrhoea and constipation
 Depression, anger and anorexia
 Insomnia (lack of sleep)
 Forgetfulness (defective memory)
 Cramping of the calf muscle, heaviness or weakness in legs
 Breathlessness and cardiac failure
 Burning sensations in the feet
Severe cases can lead to beriberi.
Beriberi is the disease of the peripheral nerves characterized by the following signs and symptoms;
 Gastro-intestinal disturbances
 Pain and prickly sensations in the muscles
 Weakness in the muscles of the legs, feet, calf and thighs
 Growth failure in children
 Oedema leading to swelling of the feet and knees
 Emanciation or thinness of the body
 Neuritis (pain and swelling of the nerves)
 The heart becomes enlarged leading to acute cardiac failure and even death.
The different signs and symptoms lead to the 2 types of beriberi i.e.
Wet beriberi is characterized by;
1. Swelling of the legs due to fluid retention in the tissues (oedema)
2. Enlargement of the cardiac and vascular tissue; this is followed by dilation of blood vessels, chest pain, rapid
heartbeat, cardiac failure and death.
3. Neuritis (pain and inflammation of the nerves)
4. The patient looks reasonably healthy (not thin)
Dry beriberi which shows;
1. Muscular wasting and extreme thinness
2. Loss of the sensation of the skin which leads to paralysis of the limbs
3. Neuritis also occurs
4. Difficulty in walking, running and squatting
5. Bed sores and wounds which don’t heal also occur
6. There is no oedema or swelling of limbs
Toxicity of vitamin B1
Any excess or unused thiamine is constantly excreted in the urine but if it’s over retained in the metabolically active
organs it can lead to constant headache, delayed responses, irritability of the nerves and muscles
Food sources of vitamin B1
 Milk and milk products
 Fruits especially mangoes, raisins and avocado
 Vegetables especially potatoes, lentils, asparagus
 Whole and enriched cereals, bread, breakfast cereals, whole meal flour, oatmeal
 Legumes like green peas, soya beans, groundnuts, peanuts cashew nuts
 Pork, bacon, liver, beef and chicken also provide some amounts
Ways to reduce vitamin B1 (thiamine) losses

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The vitamin is very soluble in water, easily leached and destroyed at high temperature and exposure to alkaline
solution for example in food processing, baking and milling will lead to 70% loss. Due to the great loss in food
processing synthetic vitamins are usually added. Consider the following to prevent vitamin B 1 losses;
 Avoid soaking / steeping food in water for a long time.
 Use dry heat methods of cooking to avoid contact with moisture
 Use little water when cooking
 Avoid overcooking, reheating and warming of leftover food.
 Boil potatoes and other vegetables with their skin.
 Use whole meal flour and enriched cereal products instead of milled flour.
 If possible eat fruits and vegetables when raw.

VITAMIN B2 (Riboflavin)
This is one of the most heat stable B group vitamins and it has several names like vitamin G, lactoflavin, ovalflavine,
hyperflavine and yellow flavine but it’s presently called Riboflavin. It gets its name from the yellowish brown crystals
(flavins) it forms and presence of the D-ribose sugar in its structure.
Absorption occurs in the small intestines. Its phosphorylated and then transported to the liver
Characteristics
 It forms yellowish-brown, orange yellow needle shaped bitter tasting fluorescent crystals.
 It is sparingly soluble and will leach in cooking water so losses may occur in food preparation.
 Vitamin B2 is easily destroyed by uv light rays, visible light and alkalis. In this why care must be taken to avoid
standing of milk and other foods in sunlight.
 It’s relatively stable to heat, oxidation and acids
Functions of vitamin B2
1. Riboflavin is an important constituent of flavor-protein co-enzymes like flavine mononucleotide (FMN) and flavine
adenine dinucleotide (FAD) required in the deamination of aminoacids and oxidation of fatty acids with the
subsequent release of energy in the TCA cycle or chain.
2. Flavo-protein coenzymes act as one of the carrier molecules in H+ transfer after cellular oxidation. They accept H
ions from the electron transport system and combine them with oxygen to form water as the end product.
3. It promotes normal tissue maintenance of the mucus membranes like linings of the mouth, lips, tongue, skin, nasal
linings and digestive system.
4. They are also essential components of all living cells as it forms material that bind cells together in conjunction with
vitamin C. it is thus essential for cellular growth especially in children.
Recommended dietary allowances of vitamin B2
The body’s riboflavin requirement is related to the total needs, body size, metabolic rate and rate of growth. All these
are also related to protein intake and other B group vitamins. The lower their intake (protein and B group vitamins), the
higher riboflavin is excreted or lost since they act in combination.
Increased requirements occur during;
 Pregnancy and lactation due to the increased metabolic rate and total needs
 Growth periods
 Presence of fever and other chronic illnesses
 Stress of injury or illness
 Gastrointestinal disorder which lead to indigestion, diarrhoea, vomiting and poor appetite
 Poor feeding habits
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 Deficiency of vitamin B2
Lack of riboflavin leads to a condition known as Ariboflavinosis with the following signs and symptoms;
 Lips become swollen and crack easily especially in the corners of the mouth a condition known as cheilosis.
 Cracks and irritations develop in the nasal cavity with swelling of the nose.
 The tongue becomes red and swollen a condition known as glossitis
 Skin becomes scaly and greasy especially in the skin folds
 Eyes become sensitive to light, easily fatigued (sleepy) leading to blurred vision. This is known as photophobia.
 Extra blood vessels (capillaries) develop in the cornea and eyes become blood shot red, burn, itch and also teary.
This is known as corneal vascularization.
 The membranes lining the eyes harden and crack. This is called conjunctivitis.
 Minor injuries easily become aggravated and may not heal quickly.

Food sources of vitamin B2

 Fresh, canned or dried milk is the best source of riboflavin
 Whole and enriched cereal grains
 Organ meat like kidney, liver and the heart are good sources.
 Some riboflavin is manufacture by bacteria in the intestines.
VITAMIN B3 (Niacin / Nicotinic acid / Nicotinamide)

This is also known as the Anti-pellagra vitamin and is one of the few vitamins which can be manufactured from the amino
acid tryptophan in the small intestines. It is found in both animal and plant tissue and both are of equal biological
activity.
Characteristics
 Forms white needle like bitter or sour tasting crystals
 It is moderately soluble in hot water but slightly soluble in cold water
 Niacin is very stable to heat, alkalis, light, acids and oxidation. It is thus the most stable of all the B group
vitamins and can’t be destroyed by normal cooking temperatures.
Functions of vitamin B3 (Niacin)
1. Niacin is a component of 2 co-enzyme i.e. nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate (NADP). These are responsible for the utilization of energy from glucose, synthesis of fats and other
oxidation reduction reactions in the cell respiratory chain.
2. Sufficient amounts of niacin lower elevated levels of cholesterol and thus combat cases of cardiovascular diseases.
3. It can also act as a vasodilator to increase blood flow in pharmacologic (clinical) use.
4. Vitamin B3 is also important in the normal functioning and maintenance of nerves, membranes, skin and the brain.
Recommended dietary allowances of niacin
As with other B group vitamins, niacin requirements increase whenever the rate of metabolism is accelerated during
i.e. growth and increased physical activity, pregnancy and lactation, presence of infections, stress from injury, surgery
and work or tissue trauma, hyperthyroidism (disturbance of the thyroid gland) leading to excess secretion of thyroxine
hormone which controls metabolism. The following RDI can be considered;
Children (Below 9 years) 6 – 14 mg
Children (Above 10 years) 15 – 22 mg
Adults 13 – 20 mg
Pregnancy and lactation 20 mg

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 Deficiency of vitamin B3
General or mild deficiency can lead to;
 Body weakness  Inflammation (pain and swelling) of the tongue
 Indigestion leading to diarrhoea  Dizziness and mental confusion
 Painful skin eruptions develop especially on the  Anorexia
neck and hands  Apathy, disorientation and neuritis develop
Severe cases lead to a deficiency disease known as pellagra
Pellagra is a disease common in areas where maize and other cereals are the staple foods. These lack the essential
amino acid tryptophan required for niacin formation. The disease can also develop due lack of thiamine, riboflavin and
pyridoxine and sufficient protein (aminoacids) important in niacin formation.
Pellagra mainly affects the gastrointestinal tract, skin and nervous system characterized by the 4D’s i.e. diarrhoea,
dermatitis, dementia and death. Effects include;
 Early signs include fatigue, headache, backache, loss of weight, poor appetite and poor health
 Sore tongue, mouth and throat extending to the gastrointestinal tract
 Tongue and lips become abnormally red and swollen. This is known as glossitis.
 Nausea and vomiting occur followed by diarrhoea.
 The skin covering the hands, fore arms, elbows, feet, legs, knees and neck become swollen, red, tender resembling
mild burns.
 They become rough, cracked, scaly and ulcerated. This condition is known as dermatitis.
 Neurological symptoms include mental confusion, dizziness, poor memory, anxiety, irritability, muscle weakness,
delusion of perception and other nervous disorders because there is no energy for the nervous system. This
condition is known as dementia
 Loss of weight (emaciation)
 Loss of the normal menstrual cycle (amenorrhoea)
 If untreated, it can lead to death.
Food sources of niacin
 Meat, fish and poultry are the major sources
 Yeast, peanuts, peanut butter, beans, peas, groundnuts are the richest sources
 Egg and dairy products are good sources
Note: Whole grain cereals are fair sources but milling leads to 80% loss. Enriching and fortification would increase the
content.
VITAMIN B6 (Pyridoxine)

In nature vitaminB6 mainly occurs in 3 forms i.e. pyridoxine, pyridoxamin and pyridoxol.
Characteristics
 It forms white, crystalline, odourless, bitter-tasting solids.
 Its water soluble, fairly heat stable and sensitive to uv light rays and alkalis.
Pyridoxine is absorbed in the upper part of the small intestines and is found throughout the body tissues which shows
its essentiality in metabolic activities especially protein metabolism.
Functions of vitamin B6
1. Pyridoxine forms a potent coenzyme pyridoxal phosphatase (PLP) which is important in the synthesis, breakdown and
interconversion of amino acids such as active transport of amino acids, haemoglobin synthesis, conversion of
tryptophan to niacin, deamination, transamination, decarboxylation of glutamic acid and histidine, trans-
sulphuration, formation of pyruvate from alanine, etc. It is thus important in protein metabolism.
2. PLP also participates in the conversion of linoleic acid to arachidonic acid.
Recommended dietary allowances
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Deficiency is unlikely because the amounts present in the general diet are large. The need also varies with dietary
protein need and intake since vitamin B6 is involved in protein metabolism. However the RDI standard is as follows;
Children (Below 1 year) 0.5 mg
Children (Between 1 – 10 years) 1.5 mg
Adults – Men 1.5 – 2.0 mg
– Women 1.6 – 2.0 mg
Pregnant and lactating mothers 2.5 – 3.0 mg
Deficiency of vitamin B6
The effects of vitamin B6 deficiency are mainly observed during the following conditions;
 Infants with impaired growth
 Hypochromic anaemia (low heamoglobin)
 Low intake of vitamin B6
 Pregnancy (due to the foetal growth and increased maternal metabolic activity)
 Convulsions and brain tumors or damages
 Large urinary excretion of vitamins due to kidney failure and infections
 Women on contraceptives; there will be an increased need for amino acid tryptophan and less will be used for
niacin synthesis
 Tuberculosis treatment, the drug for TB, Isoniazid has an antagonist / inhibiting role to pyridoxine and will inhibit
the formation of glutamic acid the only amino acid used by the brain. This will lead to neuritis.
The signs and symptoms include;
 Loss of appetite
 Nausea and vomiting
 Soreness of the lips, tongue, hands and feet
 Dermatitis and neuritis occur
 Hypochromic anaemia occurs even in the presence of high level of iron
 Central nervous system (CNS) disturbances like irritability, convulsions and neuritis.
Toxicity of vitamin B6
Toxic effects are rare; however, when taken in large doses like as therapy for pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) and
increased supplementation, the following effects can take place;
 Lack of muscular coordination
 Severe nervous damage
 Irritability
Food sources of vitamin B6
 Good sources include whole grain cereals especially wheat germ
 Liver, kidney and meat
 Milk and milk products, eggs and green leafy vegetables provide small amounts
VITAMIN B9 (Folic Acid / Folacin / Folates)

Folic acid is made up of 3 acids i.e. pteroic acid, glutamic acid and para-amino benzoic acid. Animals are unable to
synthesize any of these folic acid producing compounds/acids and the vitamin can only be extracted from plants and
synthesized by some bacteria in the gut. Leafy vegetable are the main food sources of folic acid.
Characteristics
Forms bright yellow crystals, slightly soluble in water but stable in acidic solutions and sunlight
Functions of folic acid

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1. Activated folic acid is important in the formation of the haeme portion (iron containing non-protein portion) of
haemoglobin and thus it is important in the formation of red blood cells.
2. Folates participate in the synthesis of nitrogen containing compounds like purines, pyrimidine and nucleoproteins
used in the production of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA).
3. Since nucleoproteins, purine and pyrimidine are important in rapid cellular growth and reproduction especially in
infants and adolescents, folates are, therefore, essential in normal cellular growth.
4. They are also important in the metabolism of amino acids tyrosine, glutamic acid and phenyl amine with the final
release of energy.
Deficiency of folic acid
Early effects of deficiency include;
 Growth failure
 Gastrointestinal disturbances like diarrhoea, intestinal lesions (ulcers). Malabsorption defects
Serious defects include;
1. Spina bifida
This occurs due to lack of folic acid in early pregnancy leading to permanent disability of a new born child. It defects
the closing of the neural tube (spinal code) in the foetus leaving it open and exposed to damages. So, pregnant and
lactating mothers are advised to take at least 400µg of folic acid daily.
2. Megalo-blastic anaemia;
This is characterized by faulty production of abnormally large immature red blood cells which can’t give up oxygen
properly to the body cells. This leads to;
 Extreme tiredness
 Diffuse bleeding
 Malabsorption syndrome like diarrhoea,
 Glossitis (red sore tongue and bleeding of the gum)
 Pale skin
Note: Since tissue growth requires an additional folic acid intake, this deficiency is a risk factor in pregnant women,
infants, young children and adolescents.
Toxicity hasn’t been detected as excess dietary levels are excreted in both urine and feaces.
Food sources of folic acid
Good sources include liver, yeast, green leafy vegetables, whole grain cereals, legumes, green leafy vegetables.
Few amounts are found in fruits, lean beef and pork.
VITAMIN B12 (Cobalamine / Cyano-cobalamine)

Vitamin B12 occurs as a protein complex in food, so it’s found in animal tissues except for small amounts synthesized by
soil microorganisms and intestinal bacteria.
Characteristics
 This occurs as a large deep red complex crystalline solid
 It is a high molecular weight compound with a single cobalt atom at the centre of its structure.
 It’s soluble in water, stable at 1000c but affected by strong acids, alkalis and u.v. light rays.
Absorption and transport
The intestinal absorption of vitamin B 12 takes place in the colon. Cobalamine is split is split from its protein complex by
gastric acid (hydrochloric acid) and then bound to a specific glycoprotein intrinsic factor secreted by the gastric mucosal
cells. This cobalamine-intrinsic factor complex moves to the intestines where it is absorbed by special receptors. The
intrinsic factor is then released and the vitamin is then picked up by another protein binding carrier trans-cobalamine
for its transport to the receptive cells. Vitamin B 12 is then stored in the active body organs like the liver, kidney, heart,
spleen, muscles, testes, brain and bone marrow.
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 Functions of vitamin B12
1. It is essential for the proper formation and maturation of red blood cells (heamotopoiesis) in the bone marrow by
providing an activated form of folic acid.
2. Vitamin B12 is important in the formation of methyl groups and their transfer in various metabolic reactions
(methylation) like in the synthesis of amino acid methionine from cysteine, energy release, genetic makeup of cells,
etc.
3. It is also involved in purine metabolism, synthesis of nucleic acids and nucleoproteins.
Recommended dietary allowances
The amount of dietary vitamin B 12 needed for normal metabolism i.e. maintenance of normal blood level and body
storage is likely small. Daily intake varies with increasing body size. However, adults need 2.0 µg daily and people with
pernicious aneamia need a daily dose of 0.5 – 5 µg of vitamin B12.
Deficiency of vitamin B12
Serious cases of deficiency lead to insufficient red blood cells which can lead to pernicious anaemia because inadequate
heamoglobin is produced.
Pernicious aneamia is a macrocytic (abnormally large red blood cells) anaemia occurring mostly after the age of 40 years
due to absence of intrinsic factor in gastric juice for absorption of vitamin B12
Signs and symptoms of pernicious aneamia include;
 Degeneration of the nervous system leading to nervous disorders
 Sore mouth and tongue
 Loss of normal menstrual cycle
 Burning and prickly sensation in the feet and palms
 Adult coeliac disease due to malabsorption which leads to diarrhoea and other abdominal problems
 Pale skin complexion
Toxicity of vitamin B12 has not been observed even in oral intake of up to 100 µg

Food sources of vitamin B12

Dietary cobalamine is supplied by animal food products like liver, eggs, kidney, lean meat, milk and milk products like
cheese.
Note: Vitamin B12 isn’t present in plant foods for this case deficiency can occur in strict vegetarians
PANTOTHENIC ACID
This vitamin is found in all forms of living tissue which accounts for it’s as an essential component of the widespread co-
enzyme Acetyl Co-A.
Characteristics
 It is yellow viscous oil that is widely distributed in food.
 Occurs in the body as calcium pantothenate which is a white crystalline, slightly bitter tasting, odourless compound
 Water soluble and rapidly destroyed by treatment with dry heat, alkalis and acids
 Stable in only in neutral solution
 Non-toxic – neither deficiency nor toxicity of pantothenic acid have been observed.
Functions of pantothenic acid
Pantothenic acid is an essential constituent of Acetyl Coenzyme A involved in many metabolic processes involving
acetylation (addition or removal of an acetyl group [–CO–CH2]) such as synthesis of haemoglobin, phospholipids and
steroid hormones, oxidation of pyruvic acid, fatty acid breakdown, ketogenic and glycogenic reactions.
It is also important in the excretion of antibiotics (sulfonamides) from the blood circulation.

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Deficiency and toxicity have not been observed in natural diets, so the RDA hasn’t been established. There is also
widespread occurrence of pantothenic acid in the body and plant tissues so deficiency is unlikely. However, intake
needs to be increased during severe illnesses, injury and stress and after antibiotics intake
Food sources of pantothenic acid
Rich sources include liver, kidney and other animal tissues
Smaller amounts are found in milk, fruits and vegetables
BIOTIN (Vitamin H / Coenzyme R)
Biotin is an essential sulphur containing vitamin that can be synthesized by intestinal bacteria. However, this can be
interfered by antibiotics and avidin – a glycoprotein found in raw eggs that prevents its absorption.
Characteristic
Biotin is soluble in water, stable to heat, susceptible to oxidation by alkalis and strong acids.

Functions of biotin
Biotin is an important co-enzyme in cell enzymes involved in the process of carboxylation. It partners with acetyl CoA in
carbondioxide fixation reactions like synthesis of fatty acids, formation of purines and pyruvate metabolism.
Food sources of biotin
Biotin is widely distributed in liver, kidney, milk, egg yolk, yeast, soya flour, cereals and bananas

MINERAL ELEMENTS IN HUMAN NUTRITION

Definition: Minerals are inorganic compounds which appear as ash when all the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen in food is burnt.
Minerals in the body may be found as simple inorganic salts (sulphates, carbonates or chlorides) or as part of complex
organic molecules like heamoglobin, chlorophyll and melanin.
About 4% of the total body weight is made up mineral matter
Characteristics
All minerals are; - Non-calorigenic or don’t provide energy
- Water soluble so very little should be used during cooking
- Not affected by heat and poisoning
General functions of minerals
1. Minerals take part in the structural framework of many parts of the body e.g. bones and teeth contain large
amounts of calcium and phosphorous, all body cells have a large concentration of phosphorous and sulphur.
2. Minerals like sodium and potassium are present in the body as soluble salts. This influences the movement of water
as well as composition and stability of body fluids.
3. Mineral ions are important in the maintainance of acid-base balance. A particular mixture of mineral ions in any
region in the body helps to maintain the normal pH level (7.35 – 7.45) of body fluids. The major acid forming ions
include chlorine, sulphur and phosphorous. Alkali forming ions include sodium, calcium, potassium and magnesium.
Buffers include carbonates and phosphates.
4. Many mineral ions act as catalyst in biological reactions. They bind to specific enzymes and form key parts the
active sites of enzymes. These speed up the reaction rates and they are known as Cofactors e.g. zinc, iron and
copper.
5. A variety of mineral ions bind to some nutrients to assist their absorption from the gastrointestinal tract and
transport across the cell membrane e.g. sodium and calcium enable the absorption of carbohydrates, calcium
facilitates the absorption the absorption of vitamin B 12, chloride ions in gastric acid activate digestive enzymes in
the gastrointestinal tract.

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6. Minerals assist in the regulation of muscular movement. A particular concentration of mineral ions along the
muscle fibres will stimulate the movement of the muscle. Calcium ions encourage contractions while sodium,
potassium and magnesium ions stimulate muscle contraction.
7. They are important in transmission of nerve impulses. A nerve impulse is a wave of mineral ion movement across
the nerve cell membrane. This is made of sodium, potassium and calcium ions.
Classification
Minerals in human nutrition are grouped into 2 main categories on the basis of 2 factors i.e.
The amount of the mineral required by the body
Its essentiality for human life
These include;
1. Major / macro minerals; These are needed by the body in large amounts. They contribute 60 – 80% of all the
inorganic matter in the body and their intake over 100 mg/day. These include calcium,
phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorine and sulphur.
2. Trace / micro minerals; These are needed by the body in much smaller amounts and their intake is under 100
mg/day. Examples include iron, iodine, copper, zinc, manganese, fluorine, cobalt,
chromium.
MAJOR MINERALS
CALCIUM
Of all the minerals in the human body, calcium is present in the largest amounts consisting 2% of the total body weight.
Most of the body calcium (99%) is found in the bones and teeth and the remaining (1%) is found in plasma and body
fluids.
Absorption of calcium
About 10 – 30% of the calcium in an average diet is absorbed. The calcium containing foods are broken down to release
calcium before it is absorbed. Absorption takes place in the duodenum where the pH is lower than in the small
intestines. Vitamin D hormone stimulates a complex series of active transport mechanism involving calcium-binding
proteins, calcium channels and pumps. These carry the dietary calcium from the intestinal lumen, through the cells and
into the blood circulation. A number of factors may either increase or decrease calcium absorption.
Factors that increase calcium absorption
1. In general, during periods of greater body need or demand such as during growth, pregnancy and lactation or in old
age, more calcium is absorbed to meet the body requirements.
2. A greater percentage of calcium is absorbed when the diet is high in proteins. Proteins form aminoacids which
combine with calcium to form soluble salts.
3. Dietary carbohydrates (lactose) increase the solubility of calcium through hydrolysis of milk sugar to form calcium
lactate which is more soluble. Lactose also enhances calcium absorption in the ileum through the action of
lactobacilli to produce lactic acid which lowers the pH.
4. Lower pH (increased acidity) favours the solubility of calcium and consequently its absorption. Calcium is soluble in
acidic medium which is provided by gastric acid and acid forming foods like proteins and cereals.
5. Absorption of calcium is maximized when the amount of ionized calcium and phosphorous are present in equal
concentrations.
6. Presence of vitamin D promotes the production of calcium-binding proteins needed for absorption of calcium.
Factors hindering calcium absorption
1. Since vitamin D hormone along with parathyroid hormone is essential for calcium absorption, calcium can’t be
absorbed when vitamin D is deficient.

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2. Excess dietary fat or poor absorption of fat will result in excess free fatty acids in the intestines which inhibit
calcium absorption through formation of insoluble calcium soap complexes. These are excreted with the
consequent loss of incorporated calcium.
3. Excess dietary fibers bind with calcium and hinder its absorption
4. Oxalic acid combines with calcium to calcium oxalate which is insoluble. Oxalic acid is found in green leafy
vegetables like spinach and rhubarb leaves.
5. Phytic acid forms insoluble calcium phytate with dietary calcium. It is found in the outer layers of cereals especially
wheat.
6. Calcium is insoluble in alkaline medium and hence it is poorly absorbed.
7. Presence of infections that lead to diarrhoea increase intestinal motility and give less time for calcium absorption.
8. Calcium-phosphorous balance; the optimum dietary calcium-phosphorous balance or ratio is 1.0:1.5 for children
and women; and 1:1 for other adults. If either of the ions is taken in excess, the absorption of both is hindered. For
example in excess phosphorous intake, more calcium phosphate will be formed, binding more calcium and makes it
unavailable for absorption.

Functions of calcium
1. Calcium is required for the building, maintenance and development of skeletal tissue (bones). New bone matrix and
cartilage is continuously formed from deposits of a complex salt of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. The
salt is known as hydroxyapatite and the process is known as calcification.
2. Calcium is required in the formation of strong teeth. Teeth forming organs in the gum deposit calcium as well as
phosphorous, magnesium and fluoride to form teeth. This occurs in the dentine. They also help in the formation of
hard tooth enamel.
3. Calcium ions are required for stabilizing cross-links of fibrin threads during blood clotting to form a blood clot.
4. Calcium is required for normal transmission of nerve impulses. A current of calcium ions triggers the flow of signals
from one nerve cell to another and onto a waiting target muscle. This excites the muscle fiber hence its movement.
5. Free calcium ions together with potassium and magnesium activate the chemical reaction between myosin and
actin filaments that release a large amount of energy from ATP causing a contraction in the muscle fiber. The ions
are then immediately brought back causing relaxation. All this occur when the signals for contraction come.
6. Ionized calcium controls the passage of fluids through the cell membranes by affecting cell membrane permeability.
7. Calcium ions are important activators of enzymes such as ATPase in energy release for muscle contraction, lipase
and some protein splitting enzymes.
8. Calcium and magnesium combine with intrinsic factor to form vitamin B 12-intrinmsic factor complex required for
absorption of vitamin B12. On absorption, the complex is dissociated and vitsminB12 is absorbed further.
9. The catalyzing action of calcium ions in the sliding contraction of muscle protein filaments is vital in contraction and
relaxation cycle of the heart muscle. This maintains the normal rhyme heartbeat.
Recommended dietary allowance
Children (0 – 1 year) 600 mg/day
Children (1 – 10 years) 800 mg/day
Children (11 – 24 years ) 1200 mg/day
Adults – (Men and Women irrespective of age) 800 mg/day
Pregnancy and Lactation 1200 mg/day
Note: Peak bone mass is attained by about 25 years of age.
Deficiency of calcium
The effects of calcium deficiency include;

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1. Tooth decay in both children and adults
2. Tetany and convulsions; this is characterized by severe intermittent contractions, stiff muscles and muscular pain
3. Rickets in children as bones and teeth aren’t properly mineralized
4. Osteomalacia in adults (Adults rickets) occurs. This is shown by brittle bones, joint pain and backache.
5. Osteoporosis occurs characterized by the
6. progressive loss of bone material (demineralization). This occurs in post-menopausal women due to negative
calcium balance. It leads to fragile bones and increased risk of fractures.
Osteoporosis is caused by the following;
 Hormonal changes after menopause lead to decrease in oestrogen hormone
 Low calcium intake for many years, starting in childhood and progressing to adulthood
 Impaired calcium absorption syndrome like spruce and steatorrhoea
Prevention of Osteoporosis
 Increase dietary intake of calcium and vitamin D especially during pregnancy and lactation
 Moderate exercise like daily walking
 Stimulate new bone growth through hormonal therapy with vitamin D hormone and oestrogen
Toxicity of calcium
Too much calcium in the body is dangerous as it is deposited in the kidneys (gallstones), may lead to intestinal problems
like constipation, urinary stones and interfere with absorption of other essential minerals
Food sources
 Milk and milk products like cheese, butter  Eggs
 Tinned fish like sardines, salmon, tuna  Green leafy vegetables
especially the bones  Legumes like soya beans, almonds, figs

PHOSPHOROUS
Phosphorous is closely associated with calcium in human nutrition. Both minerals occur in the same major food
sources, are regulated by the same hormones i.e. vitamin D and parathyroid hormones and function in the major task
of bone building and development. It is the metabolic twin of calcium.
Phosphorous makes up 1% of the total body weight. Of this 80 – 90% is in the skeleton (combined with calcium) and
the remaining is found in the structure of all living cells as part of nucleic acid molecules, cytoplasm and muscles.
Functions of Phosphorous
1. Phosphorous is a component of calcium phosphate which is constantly being deposited in the mineralization of
bones and teeth.
2. Phosphorous is involved in the overall human metabolism processes. It’s presence in every living cell reflects its
vital metabolic role.
3. It’s important in the transport and metabolism of aminoacids. Phosphorous combines with vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
to produce the activated co-enzyme pyridoxal phosphatase (PLP). In this active co-enzyme form of vitamin,
phosphorous facilitates the absorption of aminoacids and their many functions in cell metabolism.
4. By combining with fats as phospholipids, phosphorous helps provide a transport form of fats (lipids). These
phospholipids with their fatty acid chains form the important central matrix in the bi-layer structure of cell
membrane.
5. Phosphorous controls the release of energy within the body. The body stores energy as ATP molecules which can
be converted to ADP with the release of energy. This process requires phosphorous molecules.
ATP ADP + Energy
6. The phosphate buffer system of phosphoric acid and phosphate salts contributes additional control of the stable pH
of 7.4 in blood. This prevents acidosis and alkalosis states in blood.

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7. Phosphorous is required to form ATP from ADP for the Na+-K+-ATPase complex required to transport glucose into
blood. The glucose is then phosphorylated in tissues to for its metabolism.
8. Phosphorous forms the structural parts of nucleotides, phosphatides which make up nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
responsible for protein synthesis.
Recommended dietary allowances
Infants (0 – 6 months) 300 mg/day
Infants (6 – 12 months) 500 mg/day
infants (1 – 10 years ) 800 mg/day
Adults (11 – 24 years) 1200 mg/day
Adults ( Above 25 years) 800 mg/day
Pregnancy and Lactation 1200 mg/day
Dietary deficiency of phosphorous isn’t yet known to occur in human as its found in almost all foods.
An excess of phosphorous is unlikely in regular diets.

Food sources
 Milk and milk products  Lean meat, liver, kidney
 Fish  Legumes like peas, almonds
 Eggs and poultry
SODIUM
Sodium is the major cation of the extracellular fluid. The adult body contains 120g. This is largely distributed in plasma,
nerve, muscle tissue and skeletal surface.
Sodium is readily absorbed from the intestines and little is excreted in feaces (5%). However, large amounts are lost in
abnormal states such as diarrhoea. The major route of excretion is through the kidney regulated by aldosterone
hormone. Aldosterone hormone is produced from the adrenal glands in response to low blood sodium, reduced blood
volume or increased extracellular potassium. In the kidney, aldosterone increases reabsorption of sodium to a greater
concentration to raise blood sodium level. If there is a high sodium level in blood, aldosterone hormone secretion is
stopped and the excess is excreted by the kidney in urine.
Functions of sodium
1. Sodium ions protect the volume of the ECF (extra cellular fluid) compartment. Variations in the concentration of
sodium ions largely determine the shift of water by osmosis from one body area to another.
2. Sodium ions are important in regulation of the acid –base balance in the body through its association with chloride
and bicarbonate ions.
3. Sodium facilitates the active transport and passage of essential metabolic materials across the cell membrane. This
is through the sodium pump (Na+-K+-ATPase complex) which assists glucose absorption and metabolism in
exchange for sodium ions.
4. Sodium ions along with along with potassium ions play a major part in transmitting electrochemical impulses along
nerve and muscle membranes. The travel of nerve impulses to muscles results into contraction of muscle fibres.
RDA of sodium
There is no specific stated requirement but the RDA standard estimates a safe intake of 500 mg/day of sodium for all
persons over the age of 18 years. This covers the individual patterns of physical activity and climate which influence
losses in perspiration.
Note: There is about 2g of sodium in 5 g (1 teaspoon) of table salt.
Deficiency of sodium
Effects include;
 Muscular cramps and convulsion

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  Hamstring pain (pins and needles pricking)
 Nausea and vomiting
 Giddiness (light headache, unstable and dizzy)
 Extreme cases can lead to circulatory failure
Toxicity of sodium can lead to accumulation of body fluids and plasma thus increasing blood volume. This leads to
hypertension (high blood pressure).
Food sources
All foods and beverages containing salt (NaCl), smoked fish bacon, cheese, butter, table salt and processed foods
MAGNESIUM
Magnesium has widespread metabolic functions and thus is present in all body cells. It is distributed in bone salts
combined with calcium and phosphorus, soft tissues and body fluids.
Functions
Some of the metabolic activities involving magnesium include the following;
1. Magnesium ions activate many enzymes in glycolysis i.e. oxidative phosphorylation.
2. Magnesium acts as the co-enzyme factor in the protein synthesis in cell ribosomes.
3. Increased magnesium ion concentration suppresses or reduces parathyroid hormone (PTH) release. This in turn
helps to regulate calcium and phosphorous level.
4. Magnesium ions assist vasoconstriction which enables smooth muscle action and neuromuscular activity alongside
calcium, sodium and potassium ions.
5. It acts as a catalyst in conversion of high energy molecules ATP to ADP with the release of energy.
RDA of magnesium
Infants 200 mg/day
Adults – Men 350 mg/day
– Women 280 mg/day
– Pregnancy 300 mg/day
– Lactation 350 mg/day
Deficiency of magnesium
Primary magnesium deficiency is rare, it may be induced by prolonged clinical problems like malabsorption (diarrhoea
or vomiting) or excessive loss through the kidney (secondary deficiency).
Signs and symptoms include;
 Contraction and nervous tetany
 Disorientation and confusion
 Neuromuscular irritability (tremors and spasm)
Toxicity is also rare except where renal failure prevents clinical excretion.
Food sources
 Green leafy vegetables  Nuts and legumes especially soya beans
 Whole grain cereals  Sea foods especially oysters, fish

POTASSIUM
Potassium is the major cation of the intracellular fluid and it’s about twice as plentiful as sodium in the body. The body
contains 270 g; the larger portion is found inside the cells and the rest in muscles especially the heart muscle.
Functions
1. In its role as the major cation of the intracellular fluid, potassium ions function in balance with calcium ions in the
ECF to maintain normal osmotic pressure and water balance that guard the integrity of the cellular fluid.

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2. Potassium ions also exert an influence on the acid base balance through its operation with sodium ions and
hydrogen ions.
3. Potassium ions play a significant role in the activity of striated and cardiac muscles. It functions with sodium and
calcium ions to regulate neuromuscular excitability and stimulation, transmission of impulses and contraction of
muscle fibers.
4. Potassium is required during the conversion of glucose to glycogen a process known as glycogenesis.
5. It is also required for the storage of nitrogen in muscle protein and general cell protein. When tissue protein is
broken down, potassium is lost together with nitrogen.
RDA of potassium
As with sodium, no specific dietary requirement is specified for potassium, however, a minimum safe intake of 2000
mg/day is recommended.
Hyperkalemia; This refers to an elevated level of blood potassium beyond 50 mg/dl of blood. It is caused by renal
failure and rapid intravenous administration of potassium. This prevents the normal adjustment and clearance, causing
blood potassium to rise to toxic levels. Effects include;
 Muscle irritability
 Erratic heart action
 Mental confusion
 Poor respiration
 Numbness of extremities
However, a high potassium intake lowers blood pressure (hypertension) as sodium ions will be excreted in response to
the high potassium level.
Hypokalemia; This refers to decreased blood potassium to as low as 5 mg/dl of blood. It mainly occurs due to;
 Prolonged wasting disease with tissue destruction
 Prolonged gastrointestinal loss through diarrhoea and vomiting
 Malnutrition
 Continuous use of diuretic drugs (promote excretion of urine)
It leads to the following;
 Nausea and vomiting
 Muscle weakness
 Rapid heartbeat (tachycardia) which leads to heart or cardiac failure
 Hypertension occurs as more sodium ions accumulate raising blood volume
Relationship between potassium and hypertension
 Potassium ions block the uptake of sodium ions in the ECF preventing its ability to raise blood volume.
Increased potassium chloride leads to increased excretion of sodium ions in urine and decrease rennin and
aldosterone secretion.
 Excess potassium ions tend to dilate blood vessel thus reducing blood pressure.
Food sources
 Unprocessed foods especially fresh fruits and vegetables, fresh meat
 Whole grain cereals
 Avocado, figs, raisins, soya beans, nuts and potatoes
CHLORINE
Chlorine occurs in the body as chloride ions (Cl-). It accounts for about 3% of the body’s total mineral content. It is the
major anion of the extracellular fluid and its highest concentration is found in the spinal fluid and gastrointestinal
secretion especially as a component of gastric (HCl) acid.
Functions
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1. Chloride ions together with sodium are important in maintenance of water balance in the extracellular fluid and
regulate osmotic pressure.
2. Chloride ions play a special role in maintaining a constant pH in blood by participating in the chloride-bicarbonate
shift. Chloride ions shift into the red blood cells in exchange for bicarbonate ions (HCO 3-) from carbondioxide. This
provides a constant buffering for the rapidly formed carbonic acid (H 2CO3) from water and CO2. CO2 is then expired
in the lungs.
3. Chloride secreted by the stomach mucosa in gastric acid provides the necessary acidic medium for digestion of
dietary protein and vitamin B12 (Cobalamine)
4. In gastric (HCl) acid, chlorine helps to activate enzymes like amylase for starch hydrolysis, pepsinogen to pepsin and
renin for caseinogen
5. It also maintain the flow and composition of body fluids
6. Chlorine acts as disinfectant in the body.

RDA of chlorine
Infants (1 – 5 years) 180 – 300 mg/day
Children (6 – 15 years) 350 – 750 mg/day
Adults 750 mg/day
Note: Excess intake of chlorine as common salt has been associated with increased blood pressure (hypertension)
Food sources
Dietary chlorine comes from table salt (NaCl) and processed foods that contain salt.
SULPHUR
Sulphur is found in all body cells chiefly as a component of aminoacids methionine and cysteine found in Acetyl CoA,
cartilage, tendons, insulin, keratin, water soluble vitamins (thiamine and biotin), anticoagulants, heparin and enzymes.
Functions
1. Disulphide linkages (–S–S–) form an important structure between parallel peptide chains to maintain the structural
stability of proteins
2. Sulphur participates in tissue respiration through provision of a free sulphur-hydryl group (–SH) for their activity.
3. Sulphur forms high energy sulphur bonds similar to those of the high energy phosphate bonds. This helps in energy
release.
4. Sulphur participates in several important detoxification reactions by which toxic materials are conjugated with
active sulphate groups and converted to a non-toxic form for excretion in urine.
Food sources
Eggs, milk, meat, cheese, nuts and legumes
TRACE MINERALS
IRON
Iron is a micro element but is very vital in the body. The human body contains about 45 mg/kg (0.004%).
Iron is distributed in the body in these forms;
Forms of iron Storage organ Amount (%)
Haeme Red blood cells 70
Ferritin Liver, Spleen, Bone marrow 20
Myoglobin Muscles (muscle protein) 5
Plasma Blood stream 5
Absorption and transport
Iron enters the body in 2 main forms i.e. non haeme and haeme iron.
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Non haeme iron; is the largest portion of dietary iron found in plant (vegetables and cereals) and animal (meat, poultry,
fish and eggs) sources. It is slowly absorbed because it is tightly bound to organic molecules in the form of ferric (Fe 3+)
iron. In the acidic medium of the small intestines, it is reduced to the more soluble ferrous (Fe 2+) state of iron.
Haeme iron; is the smaller portion of dietary iron from only animal foods like meat, fish, poultry and eggs. It is
rapidly transported and absorbed intact into the mucosal cells of the small intestines.
After iron is split from its different food sources, it is bound to amino acid and carried to the mucosal cells of the small
intestines mainly the duodenum. The larger iron content of non haeme iron is now reduced to the more soluble ferrous
(Fe2+) form so that it enters the cell metabolism. Only about 10 – 30% of the ingested iron is absorbed and this mostly
occurs in the duodenum. The remaining 70 – 90% is eliminated in the feaces.
Note: The slower absorption rate of non haeme iron is a nutritional concern because of its greater amounts in the
diet, but this absorption may vary widely depending on the presence of binders such as excess dietary fiber or
enhancers such as vitamin C.
Factors favouring iron absorption
1. Body / physiological need
The amount of iron reserve (ferritin) relates to the body’s needs for iron. The lower the reserves, the greater need
for iron. In deficiency states or in periods of extra demand like growth, pregnancy, lactation or haemorrhage more
iron is absorbed. When tissue reserves are ample/enough, iron is rejected or excreted to prevent excess storage
which can lead to toxicity.
2. Acidity
Increased acidity of foods, gastric (HCl) acid in the stomach and presence of acid forming foods like meat, poultry
and eggs provide the optimal acid medium for the preparation of iron for absorption and utilization. The amount of
iron absorbed from the stomach and duodenum which have a low pH is greater than in the small intestines.
3. Nature of dietary iron
Absorption of non haeme is less than 5% well as haeme iron absorption can go up to 30%. This is because haeme
iron passes directly into the mucosal cells but the absorption of non haeme iron is controlled by receptors
(Intracellular carrier molecules - ICM) found on the mucosal cells. This makes absorption of non haeme iron more
complex than that of haeme iron.
4. Calcium
An adequate amount of calcium helps to bind and remove agents such as phosphates and phytates which would
inhibit iron absorption.
5. Vitamin C
Presence of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) increases the absorption of iron by enhancing the conversion of the ferric
(Fe3+) state of iron to the more soluble ferrous (Fe2+) state of iron.

Factors hindering iron absorption

1. Binding agents
Presence of binding agents like phosphates, phytates and oxalates combine with iron to form insoluble complexes
making iron indigestible. Therefore, a diet rich in these leads to a decrease in iron absorption. Tea, coffee, excessive
phosphorous in the diet also have inhibitory effects on non haeme iron absorption.
2. Reduced gastric acid secretion
Surgical remove of the portion of the stomach and presence of gastric ulcers reduces the amount of gastric acids
secretion and the acidic medium necessary for iron reduction and absorption is therefore not provided.
3. Gastrointestinal diseases
Presence of malabsorption diseases or any disturbances that cause diarrhoea, coeliac, spruce, ulcers all hinder iron
absorption.
4. Presence of infections of severe infections hinder iron absorption

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5. High dietary fiber intake tends to move food very quickly through the intestines before iron absorption takes place. It
also entangles iron together with the rest of the waste thus hindering its absorption.
Functions of iron
1. Iron is an essential component of haemoglobin in the red blood cells and myoglobin in the muscle tissue. These
carry oxygen to the cells for respiration and metabolism. Haemoglobin also transports carbondioxide a by-product
of cellular oxidation to the lungs for exhalation.
2. Iron acts as a co-enzyme in the energy release from glucose. It’s a component of cytochrome enzyme in the
electron transport system (ETS) e.g. catalase and xanthine oxidase involved in the catabolism of purines, aconitase
required for conversion of citric acid to iso-citric acid.
3. Iron is needed for the continued growth right from infancy (breast-fed and bottled-fed infants) and build up
reserves for the physiological stress of adolescence especially the onset of menses in girls and also during
pregnancy.
4. Oxidized iron form the enzyme myclo-peroxidase required for the intercellular killing of bacteria.
Recommended dietary allowances
Children (0 – 1 year) 6 – 10 mg/day
Children (1 -10 years) 10 – 12 mg/day
Adults – Men 10 mg/day
Adults – Women 15 mg/day
Pregnancy 30 mg/day
Lactation 15 mg/day
Note: Additions for women are based on the monthly menstrual loss. During pregnancy, the total allowances
increase, but no addition is necessary during lactation because the menses are absent during this period.
Deficiency of iron
Iron deficiency results into nutritional or iron deficiency anaemia. This deficiency will result from several causes like;
 Inadequate dietary iron supply
 Excessive blood loss or abnormal bleeding (haemorrhage)
 Decreased iron absorption due to presence of infections, iron inhibitors or lack of sufficient gastric acid.
 Chronic or increased susceptibility to infections like liver disease (cirrhosis), arthritis, HIV, malaria,
haemorrhoids, arthritis and presence of intestinal parasites like hookworms, tapeworms
 General malnutrition e.g. lack of proteins, vitamin B12, folic acid and other minerals
 Excessive blood donations
The effects of iron deficiency anaemia include;
 Chronic fatigue and body weakness  Blurred vision
 Dizziness  Increased risk to infections
 Pale skin complexion  Weight loss
 Nails become brittle and white  Nausea and vomiting
 Sores on the tongue and mouth  Diarrhoea and palpitations
 Constant headache  Insomnia (lack of sleep)
 Loss of appetite
VULNERABLE LIFE CYCLE PERIODS
High risk groups susceptible to the development of iron deficiency anaemia are 5 periods. They present particular
needs for iron and potential problems of iron deficiency anaemia. These include;
1. Infancy and early childhood

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 One of the first foods of childhood is milk which is very low in iron. However, babies are born with enough iron to
last 3 – 6 months, but from 6 months, when the child begins to drink regular milk, the iron intake is often
insufficient to meet the demands of rapid growth to sustain the iron reserves. Infant milk formulas are fortified
with iron and iron supplements may be given from the age of 3 months to increase iron supply.
2. Adolescence
The rapid growth of early adolescence with its expanding blood volume, growing muscle mass requires increased
demand of iron for haemoglobin and myoglobin synthesis. And with the beginning of the menses, each growing girl
requires more iron to replace the monthly losses.
3. Menstruating women (From menses to menopause)
Throughout the reproductive years of a woman’s life, she must offset monthly iron losses with a good continuous
supply of dietary iron to maintain the positive iron balance.
4. Pregnancy
During pregnancy the mother requires an increased iron supply (double her non pregnancy needs) to meet the
demands of her expanding blood volume, needs of the foetus and placenta and also to keep a reserve for the blood
to be lost during child birth. Iron supplements are prescribed for pregnant women to prevent iron deficiency.
Pregnant women are also advised to allow 2 – 3 years between pregnancy in order to regain and produce new and
more blood.
5. Elderly people
Normally after menopause in women and after 50 years in men, body iron stores begin to increase. Iron deficiency
will occurs when chronic diseases like cancers, ulcers, arthritis, tumors or medication causes low grade
gastrointestinal bleeding or hinders iron absorption.
Toxicity of iron
Large quantities of iron can be harmful to the body because iron stores may be overloaded. Iron is stored as ferritin but
if too much is stored, it becomes conglomerated (collected in a mass) to form trans-ferritin (haemosiderin). This substance
is not easily reutilized and results into a condition known as Haemosiderosis. This leads to cell destruction and even
death because excess iron distorts the cell structure and tissues.
Food sources of iron
 Organ meat especially liver, kidney  Green leafy vegetables especially spinach,
 Legumes like soya beans clams lentils
 Whole grain cereals and fortified cereal  Avocado, potatoes
products  Eggs
IODINE
Iodine is well known for its unique association with iodized salt and the unsightly iodine deficiency disease condition
known as goiter. The greatest iodine concentration is found in the thyroid gland (75%) and the rest (25%) is distributed
in the body tissues like the skeletal muscles, plasma, skin, endocrine tissue and the central nervous system (CNS).
Absorption, Transport and Excretion
Dietary iodine is absorbed in the small intestines in form of iodides like potassium iodide and sodium iodide. These are
loosely bound with proteins which convey them to the blood stream by active transport and finally to the thyroid gland.
About 1/3 of the iodides in the blood circulation is absorbed by the thyroid gland. The remaining 2/3 is excreted by the
kidneys in urine within 2 – 3 days of ingestion.
Absorption by the thyroid cells is stimulated by a pituitary hormone known as thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in
response to the plasma levels of the hormone. The thyroid cells transfer iodine to the thyroid gland tissue where iodine
is concentrated 25 times and activated to form tyrosine.
Tyrosine is interconverted through mono-, di-, tri- and tetra-iodotyrosine. It is then returned to the thyroid cells for the
final synthesis of the thyroid hormone – thyroxine. These (the free thyroxine) are secreted in blood and bound to
plasma proteins for transport to the body cells as needed.
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After stimulation of cellular oxidation the hormone is degraded in the liver and the iodide is excreted in bile as
inorganic iodine.
Functions of iodine
1. Iodine participates in the synthesis of thyroid hormones – thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3). These stimulate
cellular oxidation, regulate the BMR, increases oxygen uptake and reaction rates of enzymes handling glucose.
Iodine therefore participates in basal metabolism.
2. Iodine is essential for the proper functioning of the thyroid gland which is responsible for compensating low dietary
iodine by expanding thereby maximizing the use of the iodine supply.
3. In the foetus, iodine is needed for the development of the nervous system during the first trimester of pregnancy.
Recommended dietary allowances
Infants (0 – 1 year) 40 – 50 µg/day
Infants (1 -10 years) 70 – 150 µg/day
Adolescents 100 – 150 µg/day
Adults 150 µg/day
Pregnancy 150 – 175 µg/day
Lactation 200 µg/day
Deficiency of iodine
Iodine deficiency produces 2 common diseases goiter and cretinism
1. Goiter; Goiter is the enlargement / swelling of the thyroid gland due to lack of sufficient iodine supply to
produce thyroid hormone – thyroxine. The gland enlarges in order to maximize the low iodine supply.
The signs and symptoms include;
 Enlargement of the thyroid gland
 Lack of energy due to low BMR
 Low body temperature
 Sluggish movement
 Increase in body weight
2. Cretinism; Cretinism is a congenital disease in infants cause by deficiency of iodine or absence of normal thyroid
secretion. It may occur in infants whose mothers were severely iodine deficient. It is characterized by;
 Mental retardation
 Physical deformities
 Dwarfism (stunted growth)
 Enlarged tongue which hangs out the mouth
 Thick dry skin and lips
 Poor appetite
Toxicity of iodine
Excessive iodine intake from dairy products, food colouring and iodine supplements in animal feeds may occasionally
lead to nervousness, high BMR, profuse sweating and weight loss.
THYROIDISM
Thyroidism is the abnormal functioning of the thyroid gland. This affects the rate of iodine uptake and subsequently
influencing the body’s overall metabolic rate. The thyroid gland produces thyroxine hormone that regulates body BMR
and controls the heart rate, body weight, muscle strength, skin condition, menstrual regularity, energy level and mental
development. All cells in the body will respond to increase in thyroxine production by an increase in rate of activity and
metabolism.
Thyroidism can either be hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism;

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1. Hypothyroidism
This occurs when the thyroid gland fails to produce enough thyroxine hormones leading to low thyroxine in blood. It
occurs due to inflammation of the thyroid gland which leaves a large percentage of thyroid cells damaged. It is also due
to insufficient dietary supply of iodine and failure of the pituitary gland to produce enough TSH which signals the
thyroid gland to produce enough thyroxine hormones.
Hypothyroidism is characterized by;
 Dry coarse hair leading to hair loss  Constipation
 Decreased tolerance to coldness  Decreased libido
 Fatigue and body weakness  Forgetfulness and mood swings
 Weight gain  Muscle and joint pain
 Abnormal menstrual cycle  Trouble sleeping
 Low blood pressure
2. Hyperthyroidism
It is the over activity of the thyroid gland leading to excess production of thyroxine hormone in the body tissues. Signs
and symptoms include;
 Gradual loss of weight  Irritable and easily upset
 Irregular heart beat (palpitations)  Muscle weakness, tremors (trembling of hands)
 Heat intolerance (feels hotter than those  Blurred vision
around them)  Voracious appetite but no weight gain
ZINC
The zinc content of an adult body ranges from 1.5 – 2.5 g and is distributed in many body tissues including the
pancreas, liver, lungs, kidney, prostate secretions, sperms and eyes.
Absorption and transport
Zinc is absorbed in the small intestines. A zinc binding ligand from the pancreas serves as a transport carrier into the
mucosal cells. It is then transported by albumin molecules to the liver for storage, processing and distribution. As with
other mineral ions, transport of zinc is influenced by the following factors;
 Binding agents; zinc is bound in complexes with several dietary factors that hinder its absorption. These include
excess iron, calcium and phosphorous ions, excess dietary fiber, phytic acid.
 Competition for carrier binding sites; other elements like copper, calcium and phosphorous also compete for
binding site on the albumin molecule seeking transport into the blood circulation. Thus, excess of any will affect
absorption of the other.
 Gastrointestinal diseases
Other factors include;
 Body needs
 Extensive use of alcohol
 Eating of non-food material like clay practiced by children and pregnant women
 Clinical conditions like cystic fibrosis, cirrhosis (liver disease)
Functions of zinc
1. Zinc is a cofactor of carboxypeptidase, a protein splitting enzyme that removes amino acids from the polypeptide
chain. Zinc therefore plays a key role in protein digestion
2. Zinc is an integral part of carbonic anhydrase enzyme that acts as a carrier of CO 2. It takes up CO2 from red blood
cells, combines it with water to form carbonic acid (H 2CO3) and then releases it from the capillaries into the lungs
for exhalation.
Qn: Differentiate between cofactors and prosthetic groups giving examples.

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3. As part of lactate dehydrogenase enzyme, zinc is essential for the inter-conversion of pyruvate and lactate in
glycolysis for glucose oxidation. Therefore, zinc also plays a part in anaerobic carbohydrate metabolism.
4. Zinc is important in synthesis of collagen used to replace damaged tissue / wounds. It is therefore essential in
wound healing.
5. Zinc is required in the activation of conjugase enzyme associated with absorption of polyglutamate form of folic
acid and mobilization of vitamin A.
6. Zinc is a component of insulin hormone. It also increases the duration of insulin action after injections in diabetics.
Recommended dietary allowances
Infants (Below 1 year) 5 mg/day
Infants (1 -10 years) 10 mg/day
Adults – Men 10 mg/day
Adults – Women 15 mg/day
Pregnancy and lactation 15 – 20 mg/day

Deficiency of zinc
The effects of zinc deficiency include;
 Impaired taste and smell  Growth retardation
 Delayed wound healing  Dry, rough patches on the skin leading to
 Delayed sexual maturation especially in males severe acne and wounds
 Malabsorption diseases leading to ulcers and  Reduced body immunity
diarrhoea  Poor appetite and hair loss in elderly people
Toxicity of zinc
This can occur after ingestion of 2 g or more of zinc as zinc sulphate and zinc supplements. The excess zinc competes for
absorbing receptor sites with other elements such as copper and iron and induces their deficiency.
Food sources of zinc
 Richest sources are sea foods especially shell fish like oysters, lobsters
 Meat, liver, eggs and poultry
 Whole grain cereals, pumpkin especially the seeds, simsim
 Legumes like soya beans, lentils, g.nuts and almonds
Note: Strict vegetarians are at a risk as binding agents like dietary fiber in bran, phytates, phosphorous in grains and
legumes limit zinc absorption.
COPPER
The body of an adult contains about 100 – 150 mg of copper. All body tissues contain some copper but the largest
concentrations are found in the liver, brain, kidneys, heart and plasma. Copper is absorbed in the small intestines
because of the highly insoluble nature of the cupric (Cu2+) ion complexes formed with salivary and gastric secretions
They are taken up into the intestinal mucosa /walls by copper binding proteins to the portal / blood stream. In the
plasma, it’s bound to amino acid histidine and to blood protein albumin and taken to the liver. In the liver, copper is
bound by α-globulin to form ceruloplasmin.
Some remaining dietary copper which is not absorbed is excreted in feaces and traces in the urine.
Functions
1. Copper, together with iron, are essential in the formation and incorporation of haemoglobin in red blood cells.

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2. Copper containing enzymes play various roles in oxidation and reduction reactions in many cells e.g. energy and
fatty acid metabolism. Some of the enzymes include tyrosinase, amino oxidase, cytochrome oxidase, superoxide
dismutase.
3. Ceruloplasmin is a copper-protein complex found in plasma and is involved in conversion of ferrous iron to ferric
iron which is important in various stages of iron metabolism.
4. It also stimulates the conversion of iron from its stores in the liver and other tissues.
Recommended dietary allowances
Children below 2 years 0.3 – 0.7 mg/day
Children above 2 years 0.7 – 2.5 mg/day
Adults 1.5 – 3.0 mg/day
Deficiency of copper
Copper deficiency is rare in regular diets and has been observed in genetic disease conditions like Menke’s steely hair
syndrome, Wilson’s disease and severely malnourished children.
Effects of deficiency include;
 Mental retardation
 Abnormal bone formation
 Temperature instability (abnormal body temperature)
 Susceptibility to infections
 Wounds on the heart (cardiovascular lesions)
 Degeneration of the nervous system
 Anaemia
 Loss of taste
 Bone demineralization leading to osteoporosis, frequent fractures
 Rough steely textured hair
Food sources
 Organ meat especially liver, kidney, heart
 Seafood especially oysters
 Legumes and nuts
 Whole grain cereals
MANGANESE
An adult has a total manganese content of about 20 mg, chiefly found in the liver, bone, pancreas and pituitary glands.
Function of manganese
1. Manganese enzymes activate many amino acids inter-conversions with specific enzymes such as arginase,
prolinase, dipeptidases and amino peptidases.
2. Manganese activates several conversion reactions during glycolysis and Krebs cycle during glucose metabolism,
incorporation of xylose and galactose into glyco-proteins and also participates in the synthesis of oligosaccharides.
3. Manganese also activates the serum fat-clearing factor lipoprotein lipase and operates as a factor in the synthesis
of long chained fatty acids and cholesterol.
RDA for manganese
Infants (Below 2 years) 0.3 – 1.0 mg/day
Infants (Above 2 years) 1.0 – 5.0 mg/day
Adults 2.0 – 5.0 mg/day
Food sources
Whole grain cereals, green leafy vegetables, legumes, nuts, tea, coffee

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 FLUORINE
Fluorine occurs in the body as fluoride ions mostly bones and teeth. Fluoride has a clear affinity for hard tissues and
accumulates in all tissues in the body with calcification.
Functions
Fluoride enhances the ability of the tooth structure to withstand the corrosive effect of bacterial acid. The principal
cause of dental caries is acidic dissolution of tooth enamel. The acid is produced by microorganisms feeding on
fermentable carbohydrates especially sucrose, that adheres to the teeth after meal or snacks.
Deficiency of fluoride
 Dental caries occur especially in children. These can be reduced by use of fluoridated toothpaste, drinking
water and improved dental hygiene habits.
 Osteoporosis
 Delayed wound healing
 Anaemia
Toxicity of fluoride
Excess intake can produce potential toxic effects as the amount in the bones is retained. Toxicity can occur in persons
living in high fluoride soils leading to a condition known as Fluorosis.
Fluorosis produces the following effects;
 Mental depression
 Dense (heavy) bones
 Mottling (darkening/browning) of the teeth
Recommended daily intake (RDA)
Infants (Below 2 years) 0.1 – 0.5 mg/day
Infants (Above 2 years) 0.5 – 2.5 mg/day
Adults 1.5 – 4.0 mg/day
Food sources
 Fish and fish products
 Tea
 Fluoridated drinking water
 Dairy products

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 WATER AND ELECTROLYTES
We live on a water planet which means our lives and those of other life forms on this planet are sustained by the cycle
of the nourishing water. Water is one of the nutrients vital to human existence. We can survive for longer without food
than without water. Therefore, we should meet our continuous need to supply the life-giving water and maintain our
body water composition.
Body water balance is achieved in a state of dynamic equilibrium by the process of homeostasis. Homeostasis comes
from the words “stasis” which means a stable, unchanging equilibrium. It is state of dynamic equilibrium within the
body’s internal environment. The balance is achieved through the operation of various interrelated physiological
mechanisms.
Body water distribution
A woman’s body weight is about 50 – 55% water and a man’s body weight is 55 – 65% water. The higher amount (in
most men) is due to the greater body/muscle mass compared to the smaller muscle mass and larger fat deposits in
women. The remaining 40% of a man’s weight is 18% protein, 15% fat and 7% mineral. The remaining body content is
about the same in women.
The total body water is divided into 2 quantities known as Compartments. These are;
1. Extracellular fluid (ECF) Compartment.
This is the water found outside the cells and it makes up 20% of the total body weight and 40% of the total body
water. It consists of 4 main parts these are;
(i) transvascular fluid (blood plasma) which accounts for 20% of the ECF. It is found in the arteries, veins,
capillaries and heart.
(ii) Trans cellular fluid (secretory fluids) accounts for water in transit and various secretions like saliva, bile, lymph
and digestive juices.
(iii) Tissue fluid accounts for water in dense connective tissues, cartilage and bones.
2. Intracellular fluid (ICF) Compartment.
This is the water inside the body cells and makes up 40 – 45% of the total body weight and 60% of the total body
water. This is about 2 times the ECF because most of the metabolic activities take place inside the cells.
Transvascular fluid (20% of ECF)
Intracellular fluid
ECF (40%) 80% of ECF
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 Transcellular fluid
Total body water Tissue fluid

ICF (60%)

Properties of water
 Pure water is colourless, odourless and tasteless
 Pure water is neutral
 Freezes at 00c and boils at 1000c
 It exists in 3 physical states i.e. solid is ice, gas is steam and liquid is water. This is also known as the triple point.
 Has a high specific heat capacity, high latent heat of fusion and high latent heat of vaporization
 Water has a high density, 1000kg/m3
 It has a high surface tension (high adhesive and cohesive properties)
 Has a low viscosity – high fluidity
 It is a good solvent
 It also a good conductor of electricity
Functions of water in the body
1. Transportation of substances; Water provides a medium for transporting substances throughout the body like O 2,
CO2, nutrients, blood cells, hormones and enzymes.
2. Turgidity of body cells; Cell water and its contents in solution provide the normal turgor/fullness to the tissues.
Turgor is the natural distension/rigidity of cells resulting from the fluid pressure of the cell contents. This gives form
and shape to the body cells and tissues. Just as a balloon requires air pressure for its form or shape, the human
body requires water for its essential form and life functions.
3. Chemical or universal solvent; As a solvent, water provides the necessary chemical environment essential for
several/multitude of cellular chemical reactions. These include fluid circulation, secretions, digestion, hydrolysis
and absorption of nutrients.
4. Regulation of body temperature ; Water provides a means for maintaining a stable body temperature. This is done
by distribution of heat generated by metabolic processes evenly throughout the body.
5. Cooling of the body; The body is cooled by perspiration/sweating which takes heat from the skin. The rate of
perspiration is increased as the body temperature rises. In warmer climate, fever or with increased body exercise,
more water is eliminated by skin perspiration; the evaporation in turn removes excess body heat.
6. Removal of wastes; Water dissolves and transports waste away from body cells to the excretory organs e.g. CO 2,
urea in sweat and urine.
7. Lubrication; Water lubricates and keeps body parts moist so as to maintain their integrity. These include the
synovial fluid (joints), digestive system, nasal cavity, bronchial/respiratory tubes, cornea of the eye, alveoli.
8. Water is the chief constituent of all body fluids like blood, saliva, mucus, reproductive fluids, and all secretions
distributed throughout the body.
9. Water regulates the degree of fluidity of all body fluids so that they flow satisfactorily.
10. Water quenches thirst
OVERALL WATER BALANCE (Water Intake and Water Output)
Water intake
Water in the body comes from liquids and foods we eat and internal metabolic processes.
1. Drinking water and other beverages; these are the main sources of ingested fluid and they provide about 1200 –
1500 ml of liquid daily.

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2. Solid foods; all foods (fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, milk and milk products) ingested contribute about 700 – 1000
ml of water daily. Foods vary in their water content e.g. fleshy fruits will provide about 90% water.
3. Oxidation or metabolic water; when nutrients are oxidized in the body, one of the end products is water. The
amount of metabolic water produced varies with different nutrients i.e. proteins yield 0.45 ml/g, carbohydrates
produce 0.6 ml/g and fats give 1.08 ml/g on complete oxidation. About 200 – 300 ml of water is provided daily from
the body’s metabolic activities.
This brings the daily water intake to about 2100 – 2800 ml, approximately 2600 ml of water daily.
Water output
Water leaves the body normally by 4 routes i.e. kidneys (urine), skin (sweat), lungs (exhalation) and intestines (feaces).
1. Kidneys; Normal adult kidneys excrete about 1 – 2 litres of urine daily. Urine contains excess salts, urea and
other waste products dissolved in water.
2. Skin; About 450 – 700ml of water is lost daily through the skin by diffusion (insensible water loss / sweating
even when the body is at rest - about 350 – 500ml) and sweating / perspiration about 100 – 200ml.
heavier sweating / perspiration caused by too much heat (hot climate), loss of skin e.g. extensive burns
or increased activity increases the water output.
3. Lungs; An insensible water loss of about 250ml occurs daily through normal respiration vapour. This amount
varies with climate being least when the weather is hot and humid and greatest when it’s cold,
straineous exercise and high altitudes. When you can see your breath as the water vapour crystallizes.
4. Intestines; About 150 – 200ml of water is lost through intestinal elimination in form of feaces. Abnormal
conditions such as diarrhoea, dysentery, high fibre diet produce greater losses.
Forces that control and influence the distribution of water in the body
The forces that influence and control the distribution of water in the body resolve around 2 factors which are the
solutes particles and membranes that separate the water compartments.
1. Solutes;
There 3 major types of solutes particles that control body water distribution by varying their concentration in body
fluids. These are specific electrolytes, plasma proteins and small organic compounds. The concentration and
distribution of these solute particles determines the internal shifts and balances in body water. These include;
(i) Electrolytes;
These are molecules / ions that carry electric charges. They can be cations (positively charged ions like Na+, K+, Mg2+,
Ca2+) or anions (negatively charged ions like Cl-, HPO 4-, SO42-, PO42-, HCO3-). These control fluid balance within the
body through their concentration in different compartment and their shift from one place to another to restore
balance.
(ii) Plasma proteins;
These include albumin and globulin proteins which have a large molecular size. Due to this, they form gelatinous
particles/molecules which don’t readily pass through the separating membranes. Therefore, they remain in the
blood vessels where they form colloids which exert a colloidal osmotic pressure (COP) that maintains the blood
volume in the vascular compartment.
COP is the pressure produced by protein molecules in the plasma and the cell.
(iii) Small organic compounds;
These include glucose, urea and amino acids. Because of their relatively small size, they diffuse freely and therefore
affect water balance only if they occur in large amount e.g. large amounts of glucose in urine causes excess water
output.
2. Separating membranes;
The 2 basic types of membranes involved in the movement of water and solutes within the body are;
(i) Capillary membranes that are relatively ‘free’ and allow rapid passage of substances.

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 (ii) Cell membranes are more complex, semi-permeable and allow substances to pass through. Also, some
metabolic process within the cell also govern the passage of electrolytes and therefore, water across this
barrier.
Mechanisms / Processes that move water and solutes across membranes
According to the type of membranes and the number of particles / solutes in the involved solution, water and solutes
move across membranes by 1 or more of the following mechanisms i.e. osmosis, diffusion, active transport, pinocytosis,
filtration or hydrostatic pressure.
1. Osmosis / osmotic pressure
This occurs across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration (higher water
concentration) to a region of higher solute concentration (lower water concentration). This equalizes the
concentration of the solute and fluid pressure on either side of the membrane and so controls the movement of
water from place to place in the body.
2. Diffusion
This occurs when solute particles move from the place of highest solute concentration to all spaces of low solute
concentration through a permeable membrane.
3. Active transport
This involves the movement of solutes in solution across a membrane against a concentration gradient or the usual
opposing forces. This requires energy supplied by the cells and transporting substances like sodium, glucose, amino
acids and fatty acids.
4. Colloidal osmotic pressure (COP)
This is produced by the protein molecules in the plasma and the cell. Because proteins are large molecules, they
don’t pass through the separating membranes of capillary cells. They, thus, remain in the compartment exerting a
constant osmotic pull that protects and cell fluid volume in these compartments.
5. Hydrostatic or filtration pressure
This is developed by the beating of the heart and offers the greatest opportunity for exchange of fluid material
through the capillary membrane. This is the passage of fluid through a semi-permeable as a result of the difference
in pressures (hydrostatic/blood pressure - COP) on the 2 sides of the membranes. Filtration will occur when the
hydrostatic/blood pressure within the capillary is greater than that in the surrounding interstitial fluid area. The
small molecules pass with the fluid out of the capillary, but the large molecules of plasma proteins remain to exert
the counter balancing COP.
Hormonal regulation of water and electrolyte balance
There are 2 main hormones that act on the nephrons to guard the body’s water and electrolytes to maintain their state
of equilibrium and thus protect the normal blood volume. These are vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone – ADH) and
aldosterone.
1. Vasopressin/Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
This is secreted by the pituitary gland and causes water resorption by the kidney nephrons according to the body
need. Secretions of the hormone are triggered by loss of body water which engages the ADH mechanism that
increases reabsorption to save water.
2. Aldosterone
It is produced from the adrenal glands which causes sodium reabsorption by the kidney and thus control water loss
to restore the volume of the ECF. This is done through the aldosterone mechanism actually renin-angiotension-
aldosterone mechanism
Renin-Angiotension-Aldosterone mechanism
 Renin enzyme is secreted by the adrenal cortex into blood via the renal vein in response to decreased sodium
intake, sodium/blood loss and decreased blood volume.
 Renin acts on its specific substrate from the liver, angiotensinogen, to form angiotension.
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 Angiotension triggers the release of aldosterone hormone from the adrenal glands.
 Aldosterone hormone causes reabsorption and retention of sodium and therefore water. This action improves
renal fluid volume, restores adequate blood volume and also increases potassium ion loss in exchange for sodium.
Inadequate production of ADH (vasopressin) leads to excretion of large quantities of dilute urine of up to 5 – 30 litres
daily. This condition is known as diabetes insipidus. It is caused by lesions in the hypothalamus or pituitary stalk which
ceases/stops ADH production. It can be controlled by injection of posterior hormone extract.

DIETARY FIBER

MEAL PLANNING AND DIFFERENT DIETARY NEEDS

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Meal planning is the scientific selection and organization of dishes before they are served to the people
considering a number of factors discussed below;
 The needs of individual members of the family e.g. sex age, work and health
 The nutritional aspect i.e. some food from each of the three food groups
 The occasion for which the meal is required e.g. special occasions or family meal
 The number of people being catered for to avoid shortage or leftovers
 The amount of money available
 The time available for preparation and cooking
 Equipment available e.g. the type of cooker or fuel
 Capabilities of the cook
 Individual tastes and reasons
 Season of the year, using foods which are cheap and best e.g. use of home based produce.
TYPES OF MEALS
A meal is a collection of different dishes that are meant to be eaten at a particular time. The variations in the
different types of meals depend on any of the following:
 Religion
 Time
 Appetite
 Money
 Health condition of the society
 Heaviness of a meal
Breakfast
This is correctly called the morning meal taken after a period of long fasting during the night or when asleep.
It starts with:
 Fruit/fruit drink e.g. ripe bananas, pawpaw, mango, orange juice, mixed fruit juice, passion fruit
 Cereal e.g. maize/millet/rice porridge, corn flakes, roasted cereals
 Proteins e.g. boiled egg, toasted bread, bread and butter
 Drink e.g. tea, coffee or cocoa with milk

Brunch
Refers to a late heavy breakfast or an early lunch prepared quickly, and often replacing lunch altogether.
Lunch
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This is the large mid-day meal. It can be in three courses i.e.
a) First/Appetizer/Starter Course
This mainly contains soup and bread rolls, boiled potatoes, mayonnaise sauce.
b) Second/Main meal Course
It usually contains a good protein source, carbohydrate and vegetable for example beef stew, roasted
potatoes, steamed vegetables.
c) Third/Last Course/Dessert
This is a sweet dish served at the end of the meal to seal off the meal. It can include lemon pudding, rice
pudding, mixed fruit salad, butter pudding.
Tea
This is truly an afternoon snack served between the mid-day and evening meal. It may vary e.g. a cup of a hot
beverage only or accompanied with 1, 2 or many eatables.
EVENING MEALS
High tea
This refers to an early supper with hot tea as a beverage, eatables and a cake or other desserts.
Dinner
The evening meal is called dinner if it is the heaviest meal of the day i.e. larger than the mi-day meal (lunch)
Supper
This is the evening meal that is smaller or lighter than the mid-day meal.
Snack
This precisely refers to a light meal taken at any time of the day.
SPECIAL MEALS/ DIETARY NEEDS OF DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PEOPLE
1) BABIES
BREAST FEEDING
Breast feeding is the natural and best way of feeding a baby. The mother is referred to as a lactating and
nursing mother. She needs to feed properly and rest adequately. Food eaten should be nutritious and
balanced e.g. a lot of milk, drinks like porridge made from millet flour is necessary.
When breast feeding the baby, the mother should ensure that the nipples of breasts are cleaned with a cloth
from clean warm water.
ADVANTAGES OF BREASTFEEDING
It is advisable for the mother to breast feed her baby for as long as possible for the following reasons:
 Breast milk contains nearly all the nutrients required by the baby in the right proportion.

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  The yellow substance called colostrums which forms the first milk is very useful to the baby’s digestive
system. It also contains some antibodies which provide natural immunity to most diseases and
allergies that might attack the baby.
 It is convenient as it does not require preparation before time.
 It is always at the right temperature for the baby.
 Breast fed babies are unlikely to be overweight.
 It is sterile and hygienic and therefore, gastro enteritis (common food poisoning) is less common than
among bottle fed babies.
 Breast feeding mothers regain their body shape/figure faster than mothers who feed their babies
artificially.
 Breast feeding incurs no additional cost while bottle feeding is costly.
 Breast feeding strengthens the bond of love between the mother and the baby.
 Breast feeding mothers lose weight during lactation due to the energy demands of milk production. In
this way the store of fats laid down in pregnancy is used up hence reducing the possibility of obesity.
ARTIFICIAL FEEDING (BOTTLE FEEDING)
Bottle feeding are moments when it may not be possible for the mother to breast feed her baby.
REASONS
 When the mother cannot produce enough breast milk for her baby, so she has to supplement with
other milk.
 It may not be possible for working mothers to breast feed regularly because of the nature of work and
distance.
 When the mother is sick, dead or when the nipples have sores or wounds.
The mother may use cow, goat, or camel milk depending on what is available locally and affordable. The milk
must be diluted properly in order to avoid upsetting the baby’s digestive system.
DISADVANTAGES OF BOTTLE FEEDING
 It can be very expensive especially if the milk has to be bought.
 The feeding equipment takes time to clean.
 It is easier to pick infection either through careless preparation of the feed or dirty feeding bottles and
equipment.
 The milk takes time to prepare and it is therefore not convenient.
 Some babies take time to adjust to the new feed.
 The proportions of nutrients in the milk are not in the right proportions as the mother’s milk.
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  It requires special attention to maintain the correct temperature of the milk. In artificial feeding, the
instructions on the tin or packet of the milk being used must be carefully followed.
TYPES OF MILK
a) Full cream
b) Half cream
Half cream is good for small babies especially after the first few weeks of birth. One should change to full
cream as the baby grows bigger. For whatever type of milk is used a given instructions must be followed
strictly.
Most tins contain a measure in size that can be used according to the instructions given. Many mothers for
artificial feeding also commonly use fresh cow milk. When used it must be boiled and stored in a well covered
container. If used in early stages it requires diluting to reduce the strength of the milk.
USING CUP/SPOON FOR FEEDING
It is safer to use cup/spoons for feeding than use of the bottles, because it is much easier to clean the cup and
spoon than the bottle especially the teats.
 Wash them thoroughly with hot soapy water.
 Rinse well with hot water until all traces of soap are removed.
 Leave on a very clean rack where the water can drain off.
 Store in a clean covered container/refrigerator if available

SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING (WEANING)

This is giving the baby other foods a part from the breast milk or it refers to the gradual introduction of solid
food to a breast fed baby. It is normally introduced when the baby is between four to six months (4 to 6). This
is important because as the babies grow they would require additional nutrients especially those not
abundant or lacking in cows/mother’s milk e.g. vitamin C, and iron.
SUITABLE FOODS
 Soups e.g. from strained liver, vegetables.
 Enriched porridge.
 Mashed ripe bananas, pawpaw etc.
 Mashed matooke, potatoes enriched with milk and egg.
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  Steamed fish (white fish) etc.
POINTS TO REMEMBER WHEN INTRODUCING NEW FOODS
 Introduce one food at a time and allow the baby to be familiar with it before trying to give another.
 Use thin consistency when starting solid foods, gradually making more solid as the baby learns to use the
tongue.
 Never force a baby to eat more of a food he/she takes willingly.
 After trying several times, if it is clear that the baby has a strong dislike for a particular food, it is advisable
to stop for a while e.g. a week or two then try again, but if the dislike continues, forget that the food for
some time.
 Vary the food chosen for the baby.
 Egg white cannot be digested by babies under 7-8 months and should not be included in the diet before
that period.
 Use food of smooth consistency at first e.g. fruit juice (sieved) when the baby is able to chew gradually
introduce chopped or minced fruit, vegetables and meat.
 Avoid refined sugar.
 Avoid squashes (sodas, quenchers).
 When the baby begins teething, foods for biting should be given for example carrots, apples, etc.
SMALL CHILDREN/PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN/TODDLERS (1 to 5 years)
Meals for children are important;
 For building strong healthy bodies.
 Part of their education i.e. teaching them to enjoy well balanced meals.
 To help them acquire good food habits and table manners e.g. the meals should be enjoyable, the
children should be calm and happy.
 Food should taste good, look attractive and should be easy for the child to eat.

HOW TO MAKE MEALS ATTRACTIVE

 Use bright colours of tomatoes, carrots, well cooked green vegetables and brightly coloured fruits.
 It should be served in fancy individual shapes, moulds, and free from skins, bones, gristles, and surplus
fats.
 The helping should be small enough for the child to eat willing because children have small appetites, but
the small helping should be balanced.
 Food should not be over sweetened or over flavoured, children enjoy natural flavours of food.
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 Children should be encouraged gradually to feed themselves.

GUIDELINES FOR SERVING MEALS FOR CHILDREN (TODDLERS)

i) Have plenty of fresh air and exercise to build appetite.
ii) Children should be trained to observe good habits such as washing hands before eating, using good table
manners and praying before eating.
iii) Meals should be served punctually, making them wait for food makes them loose appetite and bored.
iv) All food eaten should be concentrated sources of nutrients e.g. body building materials.
v) Foods should require plenty of chewing in order to form strong teeth, well shaped jaw bones etc.
vi) Avoid snacks in between meals; give milk or fresh fruit instead because they take a child’s appetite for a
balanced diet.
vii) The atmosphere at meal times should be relaxed and enjoyable. It is better most times to ignore a child’s
refusal to eat instead of a fuss.
viii)Adults should set a good example by eating all foods. They should not show their dislike of a food in front
of children.
SUITABLE FOODS INCLUDE:
 Plenty of animal proteins e.g. meat, fish, eggs as they grow rapidly.
 Milk should be taken rather than tea, coffee etc.
 Give bread and butter, soya, and millet. Potatoes to supply energy.
 Milk foods and cheese supply, calcium for bone and teeth formation.
 Give vegetables, raw fruits daily to supply minerals, vitamin A, C and roughage.
FOOD TO AVOID
 Highly seasoned foods
 Fried foods as they become indigestible
 Tea or coffee
 Salty foods
 Very sweet foods
 Foods with bones
SCHOOL CHILDREN (6-12) YEARS
School children grow fast, they are active and they expend a lot of energy. Their food requirements are
higher than those of adults.
 Ensure a balanced diet at all times.
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  Discourage them from eating snacks and drinking fizzy sweet drinks in between meals.
 They require plenty of body building and protective foods.
 Too many bulky carbohydrate foods like yams, cassava, potatoes make them over weight.
 Ensure that there are fats in the diet as they are a concentrated source of energy and less bulky than
carbohydrates.
 Breakfast is a very important meal, should never be skipped even when time is limited. Remember the
blood glucose level is low if breakfast is neglected and hence the work of the nervous system is
reduced.
ADOLESCENTS (13-19 YEARS)
These are undergoing physical changes at puberty. Puberty is a period or stage where one is capable of sexual
reproduction. Adolescence is a period of rapid growth and development, great activity and big appetite.
REQUIREMENTS
 Proteins for growth, repair and for hormone and enzyme synthesis.
 The meal should be balanced as usual but larger quantities are required due to great appetite and
physical activities e.g. high calorie content may be eaten.
 Liver, kidney, green vegetables are good sources of iron, which is required by both boys and girls but girls
require it more because of menstruation.
 Too many fried foods, pastry and rich foods should be avoided as they lead to obesity and may increase
teenage acne.
How to avoid acne;
 Exercising regularly
 Eat less fat and carbohydrate foods
 Take a lot of water and fluids
 Eat a variety of fruits and vegetables
 Boys require larger amount of all foods as they are growing very quickly at this time.
 Adolescents also get pimples at this time therefore; they need plenty of fruits and vegetables, water to
clear the skin.
 Girls get slimming disease known as Anorexia Nervosa i.e. a loss of the general desire to eat leading to
gross weight loss therefore, girls should be discouraged from this habit as it may lead to nutritional
disorders.
 Vitamin C is needed for absorption of iron, formation of intercellular cement and connective tissue.

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ADULTS (SEDENTARY AND MANUAL WORKERS)
A normal balanced diet is necessary for adults but their work, activity and health status greatly affect their
dietary needs.
a) SEDENTARY WORKERS
These are workers who live less active life and therefore expend less energy e.g. secretaries/office Clarks,
teachers, doctors, etc.
 Food with a high percentage of roughages/dietary fibre are necessary to prevent constipation
 Bulky foods should be avoided to avoid obesity
 Salads, cheese and yoghurt are better than fried foods.
 Fresh fruits should be eaten in between meals rather than cakes, biscuits, doughnuts etc.
 Plenty of fresh air and exercises are necessary to keep the sedentary worker healthy.

b) MANUAL WORKERS
They live a very active life.
 They can eat high kilocalorie (energy giving) foods without putting on weight.
 High energy foods such as fatty meat, oily fish, fried foods, starchy foods are very good in the diet of a
manual worker.
 Foods generally should be balanced, should contain proteins, fats, carbohydrates etc.
 Extra vitamin B group is required to assist in the digestion and metabolism of carbohydrates.
 More fluids and salt is needed as they lose a lot of water and salt in form of sweat.
PREGNANT AND LACTATING MOTHERS
The pregnant and lactating mother requires a slight increase of intake of certain nutrients as she is feeding
herself and the baby.

DIETARY REQUIREMENTS
1) PROTEINS:
The protein needs will be largely met by giving milk, however both animal and plant proteins should be
increased for growth of the foetus and repair the worn out tissues for the mother.
2) ENERGY:
Pregnancy leads to increased metabolic rate which will increase up to 20% at full term. Appetite may
increase to meet this demand, but it is important that a pregnant mother does not put on too much
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 weight. A weight gain of about 22 pounds or 10kgs is acceptable and normal. An extra weight gained may
be difficult to loss at the end of it. Breast feeding mothers should maintain the same diet as in pregnancy
but with a slight increase in protein, vitamins and mineral salts.
3) CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS:
The extra needs for calcium and phosphorus to meet the bones and teeth of the foetus are best met by
increasing the milk intake to at least half liter per day. It should be increased in the latter months of
pregnancy. If milk is not available, liberal amounts of vegetables rich in calcim should be given and if
necessary calcium lactates be given orally. Calcium and phosphorus should be supplied in conjunction
with vitamin D which facilitates their absorption and utilization.

4) IRON:
This is important to avoid anaemia which is very common in pregnant women because of increased
demands for iron by mother and foetus as the blood cells form. The supply of iron food should be
sufficient to allow for storage of iron in the baby’s body for six months.
5) VITAMINS:
Vitamins of B group are required for the release of energy. Vitamin C is required for general health and in
particular for the absorption of iron. Vitamin D for absorption and utilization of calcium
WHAT AN EXPECTANT MOTHER SHOULD AVOID;
 Smoking
 Alcohol
 Bulky foods which will lead to constipation
 Should be active
 Should avoid foods which slow down her digestion
 Should avoid highly seasoned or spiced foods.
SUITABLE FOODS
Boiled eggs, lightly buttered bread, boiled milk, juice (fruit), lean meat, fish, irish potatoes, matooke, rice,
macaroni, chapatti, green vegetables.
ELDERLY AND OLD
Elderly persons are about 60 years, whereas the old are from about 75 years of age.
SOME OF THE CHANGES THAT OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE GET OLD

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1. SOCIAL
 Decrease in income
 Staying alone
 Dependant
2. PHYSICAL CHANGES
 Changes in digestive system i.e. as the teeth are not efficient.
 Metabolism is not the same.
 Cholesterol may be higher, thus fatty foods have to be avoided.
 Glucose level may fluctuate thus sweet foods which may cause the level to increase suddenly should
be avoided.
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
 Energy foods should be reduced.
 Body building and protective foods should be increased. Examples of suitable foods include;
i) Fish e.g. white if they have digestive problems.
ii) Eggs but they should not be too many to raise the cholesterol level.
iii) Meat or cheese at least five times in a week.
iv) Vegetable to provide vitamin C and iron.
v) Raw fruits daily to supply vitamins.
vi) Brown bread and rice daily as a source of energy, vitamin E and cellulose.
vii) Milk to supply calcium and protein.
POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING THEIR MEALS
 Avoid foods which may prevent digestion e.g. fried foods.
 Serve heavy meals at lunch time but not in the evening as they may suffer from lack of sleep.
 Because of digestive problems, difficulty in chewing due to loss of teeth and other problems steamed,
stewed, braised and poached foods are most suitable.
INVALIDS AND CONVALESCENTS MEALS
An invalid is a person who is sick or ill.
A convalescent is a person who is recovering from an illness.
During illness and convalescence it is important that food should make good the damage which the body has
suffered and should also protect the body from further infection.
SUITABLE DISHES

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Fruit juice, strained soup e.g. from vegetables or liver, poached eggs, steamed fish, green vegetables to
prevent constipation.
DISHES TO AVOID
During illness, digestion is impaired, indigestible foods such as pastry, oil fish, fatty meat, fried foods, cheese
and highly seasoned foods should be avoided.
IMPORTANT RULES WHEN PLANNING INVALID’S MEALS
 Meals must be balanced and must contain plenty of body building and protective foods i.e. include
protein foods and serve a variety of fruits and vegetables.
 Follow the doctor’s orders/instructions
 Observe strict hygiene in preparation, cooking and serving e.g. cover the food to prevent flies and other
insects feeding on it.
 Serve foods punctually and easy to manage, and also regularly.
 Use best quality fresh foods e.g. fruits.
 Serve food attractively i.e. different shapes of food, different shapes of plates etc. to stimulate their
appetite.
 Avoid fatty and greasy foods.
 Avoid seasoning and flavouring.
 Choose foods suitable for the illness i.e. easily digestible foods.
 No left over foods.
 Remove all food from the sick room when the meal is finished, because the unpleasant scraps may attract
flies.
DIET DURING FEVER
During fever, the temperature is high and so much water is lost from the body, therefore:
 The diet should include plenty of liquid foods with little solid foods.
 Proteins inform of meat soup/broth, milk drinks and eggs (egg flips).
 Some energy foods so that the body does not get so weak inform of breakfast cereals, sugar, glucose, etc.
 Fat can be got from milk, eggs and meat eaten, eliminate fried foods.
 Vitamins from fruits taken.
AFTER FEVER
 Light diet can be followed.
 All foods should be lightly cooked and easy to digest.
 Plenty of liquid should still be taken.
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DISHES
 Eggs poached or scrambled
 Chicken breast
 White fish steamed/poached
 Milk pudding and milk drinks
 Raw fruits
 Vitamin C drinks
DIET DURING CONVALESCENCE
The patient should be able to eat small portions of most foods except fried foods. The energy intake should
still be low.
DISHES
 Eggs- slightly boiled or poached
 Meat- lean, minced, stewed, chicken or liver.
 Milk and milk dishes
 Bread lightly buttered
 Fruits
 Vegetables e.g. carrots, boiled or creamed potatoes.
 Drinks- plenty of drinks.
WEIGHT/SLIMMING DIET
The aim of a slimming diet is to reduce energy intake to less than that the body requires. The excess weight is
caused by fats and carbohydrates eaten in surplus thus remain in the body as fat. When less energy foods are
eaten, the body then begins to use what has been stored.
POINTS TO REMEMBER WHEN PLANNING SLIMMING DIETS
 It is advisable to consult a doctor before beginning a strict weight reducing diet.
 Reduce energy intake i.e. carbohydrate foods especially sugar, cakes, biscuits etc.
 Eat more fruits and vegetables which are poor in energy.
 Eat more protein foods e.g. cheese, skimmed milk, eggs etc.
 Eat smaller meals more frequently but do not over eat.
 Have no snacks in between meals, but if you must, take water or eat fruits.
 Have a good breakfast and heavy meals during the day.
 Have regular exercises to increase energy output.
 All diets must be well balanced.
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FOODS THAT CAN BE EATEN IN PLENTY
 Skimmed milk
 Lean meat
 Cottage cheese
 White fish
 Liver
 Mushroom, green vegetables (not fried)
 Lettuce and salad vegetables
FOODS TO BE RESTRICTED
 Starchy foods
 Fatty foods
 Fruits especially grapes and bananas
 Breakfast cereals
 Rice pasta
 Butter/margarine with bread
FOODS TO AVOID COMPLETELY
 Deep fried foods, coated foods with flour, eggs or bread crumbs.
 Thickened soups with flour.
 Convenience foods especially jam.
 Biscuits, sweets, chocolate, cakes, pastries etc.
 Wine, beer, spirits (alcohol has high energy content).
 Mayonnaise.
OVERWEIGHT MAY COME AS A RESULT OF: (CAUSES OF OBESITY)
 Family food habits i.e. food preparation habits and food selection habits.
 Poverty i.e. eating cheap starchy foods.
 Over indulgence in sweet things like cakes, biscuits, sweets etc.
 Active entertainment i.e. rich meals, drinking and eating.
 Leisure activities that have no physical exercises.
 Pregnancy.
 Changes in living patterns for girls at the end of adolescence when maybe they have been active then
stop.
 Occupation if sedentary.
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 Childhood obesity i.e. if the person is fat from childhood, it may cause problems later as adipose tissues
are already blown up thus take up energy very easily as they are ready.
 Heredity (debatable as obesity may not be inherited).
 Over eating or eating too much starch
NUTRITIONAL ANAEMIA/IRON DEFICIENCY ANAEMIA
Nutritional anaemia unlike other types of anaemia is caused by lack of either iron due to inadequate intake of
iron or failure of the body to absorb iron present in the food due to lack of vitamin C or loss of iron in the
body through bleeding or severe infestation with some worms or malaria parasites.
Red blood cells are manufactured by bone marrows. Proteins, iron, and vitamin B 12 are necessary for the
manufacture of red blood cells.
Definition:
Iron deficiency anaemia/nutritional anaemia occurs when there is reduction of the total number of red blood
cells or low levels of haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
CAUSES
 Low consumption of iron in the diet or protein foods which is necessary in building haemoglobin.
 Lack of vitamin C in the diet, responsible for the absorption of iron.
 Infestation from parasites e.g. malaria, worms, etc.
 Frequent or heavy blood loss e.g. in accidents, women with heavy periods.
 Increased requirements during pregnancy, rapid growth as in childhood and adolescence.
SYMPTOMS
 Constant headache
 Paleness of the skin, tongue, inner part of eye lids and nail bed.
 Giddiness
 Sometimes the patient complains of pronounced heart beat
 Dizziness and feel like fainting
 Poor appetite
 Dim vision
MANAGEMENT OF IRON DEFICIENCY ANAEMIA/NUTRITIONAL ANAEMIA
 An anaemic person should be taken to hospital to find out the main cause of anaemia.
 If iron deficiency, give a diet rich in iron e.g. liver. Kidney, eggs, etc.
 In addition give foods rich in proteins, vitamin B and C.
 Severe cases, iron tablets should be administered.
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 Mothers should take adequate amount of iron during pregnancies and lactation periods.
 Infants should be given supplementary food of high iron content e.g. yolk, liver.
ULCERS
An ulcer is a raw area in the lining of the digestive tract, usually the stomach or duodenum. They are caused
by action of pepsin on an inflamed section of the stomach and result in discomfort and pain.
CAUSES
 Stress
 Over work, sometimes no time to eat
 Skipping meals
TREATMENT OF ULCERS
 Take life easy and have plenty of rest.
 Take regular meals.
DIET (FOODS THAT CURE ULCERS):
 Boiled milk
 Cheese
 Cream
 Ripe bananas
 Boiled eggs
FOODS TO AVOID
 Highly seasoned foods
 Avoid alcohol and smoking
 Coffee
 Greasy foods
 Carbonated drinks.

VEGETARIAN MEALS
Vegetarianism is the practice of living on vegetable foods. Animal flesh, fowl and fish are not eaten.
TYPES OF VEGETARIANISM
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There are two types of vegetarians:
i) LACTO VEGETARIAN:
These are people who eat animal products like milk, cheese, eggs but not animal flesh or fish. It is
therefore, easy to supply the essential amino acids.
ii) VEGAN OR STRICT VEGETARIAN:
A vegan eats no animal flesh or product i.e. he/she does not eat all animal foods. The diet is limited in
choice, bulky and monotonous.
 Protein sources are: pulses, peas, lentils, soya, and ground nuts.
 Fat: vegetable oils and fats especially nuts only.
 Vitamin A: carotene from vegetables in orange-red, dark green vegetables and fruits.
 Vitamin D- only found in margarine and sunshine
 Vitamin C- fruits and vegetables
 Vitamin B- vegetables, dried fruits, cereals, yeast and yeast extract.
 Minerals – as for vitamins
MENU FOR VEGETARIAN
Breakfast - Fruit drink
- Millet + soya porridge
- Toasted bread + margarine
- Tea + soya milk
Lunch
First course ; Tomato soup + bread roll with butter
Second course; Steamed matooke/yams/cassava
Ground nut + simsim sauce
Stir-fried cabbage/nakati/spinach
Fruit drink
Third course; Steamed pudding + custard/cherries

REASONS FOR VEGETARIANISM

i) Religious belief e.g. Hinduism
ii) Allergy
iii) Health reasons i.e. belief that vegetables are good for health
iv) Economic reasons/poverty
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v) Ethical reasons i.e. feelings that killing animals is wrong
vi) Family i.e. child born by vegetarians
vii) Ecology
GUIDELINES TO PLANNING VEGETARIAN MEALS
i) Consider the type of vegetarian being catered for.
ii) Vary the texture of the food especially the protein foods, this can be done with eggs and bread
crumbs, baking or frying etc.
iii) Vary the flavor e.g. onions, herbs, yeast, vegetable extracts, celery, spices e.g. garlic etc.
iv) Any vegetable soup may be used but animal stock and meat-based stock cube should be avoided.
v) Basic knowledge of nutrition is necessary to ensure that it is well balanced.
vi) Use vegetable fats.
vii) Pasta dishes and cereal dishes based on wheat, maize, barley, rice, and millet are necessary and
nourishing.
viii) Nuts are good source of protein and fat. They may be sprinkled over dishes such as salads and
used as the major ingredients of a dish.
ix) Whole cereals or ground whole cereals are preferable to processed or milled cereals, because of
the vitamin B they provide.
x) Cheese, milk and eggs if taken, should be included often as they are well balanced and nutritious
foods.
xi) Pulse vegetables should be included for their high protein content e.g. peas, beans, haricot beans
xii) Use soya flour for thickening as it has a high nutritive value.
SOME SUITABLE DISHES FOR VEGETARIANS
 Lacto vegetarian: cheese and onion pastries, cheese croquettes, cheese pudding, macaroni cheese,
omelettes, cauliflour cheese, curried eggs, stuffed marrow etc.
 Vegetarian: salads, vegetable soup, fried rice, nut cutlets, spaghetti, Bolognese, stuffed vegetables, etc.

HIGH FIBRE DIET

This is a diet containing large amounts of cellulose or roughage. Most modern foods are highly refined and
refining removes the outer husk which contains large amounts of cellulose and vitamin B 1.
This causes the diseases of the colon such as:
 Constipation: This is associated with infrequent defecation, small stools and a hard stool consistency.

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 Haemorrhoids (piles): is a condition in which there is a downward prolapsed and swelling of the cushions
of blood vessels found in the upper end of the anal canal. It can be painful and bleed, depending on how
severe they are.
 Cancer of the colon
NB: These diseases are most common in developed countries. Diets containing large amounts of roughage
prevent one from suffering from the disease above.
DIET
Eat plenty of whole meal bread, porridge, foods containing fruits, nuts, vegetables, oatmeal, brown rice,
wheat germ.
FOODS TO AVOID
White rice, white bread, white sugar, convenience foods, etc
NB: It is important that bowel should be emptied regularly, failure to do so causes the faeces to harden so
that they become difficult to pass resulting haemorrhoids, and constipation.
GLUTEN FREE DIET
Gluten is a protein found in wheat flour. It is thought that if the body lacks the enzyme that breaks down the
gluten, the gluten molecules will be absorbed without being fully broken down. This damages the sensitive
lining of the small intestine and much of the foods eaten is thus passed through the body unabsorbed
resulting in loss of weight and failure to benefit from nutrients required by the body.
Gluten free diets are used in the treatment of patients with gluten sensitivity most usually in the form of
coelic disease and a skin condition called dermatitis herpatifomis.
Coelic disease occurs most frequently in early childhood and is also being diagnosed quite frequently in
adults. It mainly starts at the time when the child is weaned on to wheat containing foods.

FOODS TO AVOID
Bread, biscuits, cakes, many convenience foods based on wheat flour, fish coated in butter, or bread crumbs,
e.g. fish fingers, soups, sauces, and gravies made with wheat flour, meat products containing cereals e.g.
samosas, meat pies etc.
DIET REQUIREMENTS
 Special gluten free flour is available.
 Eat other cereals e.g. maize, soya etc.
 Protein foods should be given in good amounts to ensure good protein intake.

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 All baked foods must be made from special gluten free flour.
 All wheat, rye, oats, barley must be excluded along with foods made from or containing them.
GASTROENTERITIS DIET
Gastroenteritis is a general name given to the various forms of food poisoning and infections of the gastro-
intestinal tract.
The symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, headache, fever.
DIET REQUIREMENTS
 Take fluids only 12 to 14 hours e.g. glucose drinks, water, skimmed milk, carbonated drinks.
 Gradually include digestible foods e.g. poached eggs, milk puddings, steamed white fish, mashed
potatoes.
 Drinks with salty water (ORS) can be added if there is diarrhea.
LOW SALT DIET
Salt is made up of 2 elements sodium and chlorine (NaCl). In a low salt diet it’s the sodium to be restricted. All
foods contain some sodium as its found is extra- cellular fluids. Under normal circumstances, any excess
sodium is excreted by the kidneys in the urine.
The sodium content of foods or in the diet is expressed in milligrams or millimoles:
1g of salt (NaCl) contains 1.7 millimoles of Na
A low salt diet is used in the management of high blood pressure, oedema and maintenance osmotic pressure
of body fluids.
DIETARY REQUIREMENTS
 The diet should use very little salt in cooking.
 No salt should be added in cooked food at table.
 Salty foods should be avoided e.g. bacon, salty biscuits, packet soup, tinned meat and fish, salted butter,
salted bread.
 The salt can be put out of the diet completely.
A low salt diet is unpalatable, unappetizing, unimaginative, monotonous and low in energy.
GASTRIC DIET
These are used in the treatment of gastric (stomach) and duodenal ulcers. The aim of the diet is to relieve
pain, assist in healing ulcers and maintain good nutrition.
Ulcers are raw areas in the lining of the digestive tract usually the stomach or duodenum. They develop due
to the action of pepsin on an inflammable section of the gut resulting into pain, discomfort and wounds.

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Ulcers can be caused by stress, over working, erratic diets e.g. skipping of meals. The patient has to learn to
deal with stress, avoid worry and also eat at regular intervals.
The symptoms include sharp pain in the abdomen leading to a abdominal cramps.
GENERAL RULES
 Take small frequent meals every 2 to 3 hours so that the gut never becomes empty.
 Eat under relaxed conditions and chew food thoroughly.
 Milk and milky foods help to neutralize the gastric acid and should be taken in fairly large amounts
especially if a meal has to be missed.
 Avoid foods known to cause discomfort. These include; citrus fruits, hot spices, pickles, vinegar, fatty and
fried foods e.g. cheese, pastries, suet.
 Avoid alcohol and smoking.
 Increase intake of foods rich in vitamin C and Zinc to assist in the healing of the inflamed areas (wounds).
RECOMMENDED FOODS INCLUDE;
 Tender lean meat (chicken, minced non-fatty beef)
 White fish (baked, steamed, grilled)
 Eggs (poached, boiled, scrambled)
 Cheese (cottage, mild, creamed cheese)
 Toasted bread, cream soups
 Soft fresh fruits and vegetables
Well cooked mashed or creamed potatoes
DIABETIC DIET
The diet and insulin play an important part in the treatment of all diabetics. The amount of carbohydrate
foods eaten must balance the amount of insulin in the body. When a patient has to take insulin injections, it
is very important that he eats regular meals.
If a meal is missed the patient begins to feel like fainting and dizzy. At a time like this, the patient must take a
little sugar or glucose to help him recover. Too much would cause excretion of glucose in urine which can
lead to body dehydration.
REQUIREMENTS
 Low carbohydrate foods like matooke, fruits, irish potatoes are suitable.
 Sugar is completely cut out and replaced with saccharin.
 Reduce the intake of bread, cereals, biscuits, cakes, cookies.
 Include fibre in the diet. Fibre helps to keep blood glucose level at constant level.
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  Fibre also helps to prevent constipation and reduce feeling of hunger by adding bulk to the diet.

LOW CHOLESTEROL DIET

Cholesterol is a steroid (solid fat) found in animal tissue particularly the nervous tissue. It is present in food
and it is also synthesized by the liver and occurs in the bile. Excess bile salts cause the accumulation of
gallstones in the kidney.
Cholesterol helps to convey fats through the blood. When too much accumulates in the blood, it is deposited
on the walls of the arteries especially the coronary arteries causing them to narrow. This is known
arteriosclerosis. A small clot can easily block the narrow artery increasing the risk of a heart attack known as
coronary thrombosis.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids are thought to reduce cholesterol in blood and heart attacks.
SOURCES OF CHOLESTEROL IN THE DIET INCLUDE:
 Offal (liver, kidney)
 Egg yolk
 Shell fish (prawns, cockles, mussels)
 Milk and milk products (cheese, cream, butter)
 Fat in meat (lard, suet, dripping)

MACROBIOTIC DIET
This is the diet made up of healthy foods. These are natural foods mainly of vegetable origin grown
organically (without use of artificial fertilizers or pesticides). The diet was common among ancient Japanese.
People living on this diet are said to be among the longest living and healthiest people in the world.
 Refined foods, preservatives and use of chemicals are avoided.
 Fruits and vegetables are used in season or dried naturally.
 Grains make the main foods e.g. whole wheat flour, oatmeal, barley, millet and unpolished rice.
 The diet is generally a vegetarian one although meat isn’t forbidden.
 Sugar is rarely used, honey can be taken instead.
 The diet has a high content of fibre.

PACKED MEALS
This is a meal that is prepared to be eaten away from home e.g. when one is going to work, school or
travelling on a long journey.
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POINTS TO REMEMBER WHEN PREPARING PACKED MEALS
i.It should be balanced including all the food groups in adequate amounts.
ii.They should be satisfying and not very bulky.
iii.Pack sufficient amounts so as to avoid too much waste or the trouble of carrying it back.
iv.It should be easy to carry in a food pack of any kind.
v.Dry foods are more favorable because they do not spill.
vi.They should be easy to eat, requiring minimum use of cutlery.
vii.Foods to be eaten first should be on top. It is better to pack in big pieces. Pack carefully to avoid
distorting of the food shape.
viii.Foods chosen should be able to keep well.
ix.A beverage should always be packed to accompany the dry foods.
x.The meal should suit both the personal taste and occasion.
xi.Consider the climate e.g. pack warm dishes like porridge during cold season and fresh fruit salads during
hot seasons.
xii.Allow enough time for cooked food to cool before packing or else it will be spoilt.
xiii.Remember to pack small accompaniments to meals e.g. salt, seasonings etc.
CONVENIENCE FOODS
Convenience foods are basically foods prepared by manufacturers ready to be eaten or prepared in a few
minutes. They are usually sold in packets, cans or bottles.
Convenience foods are categorized into the following;
 Dry ingredients; These are usually partly prepared and are ready to mix and cook. They include
self-raising wheat flour, maize flour, millet flour, pasta (macaroni, spaghetti,
noodles), custard powder, instant soup and sauces, pounded g.nuts, mixtures
for cakes, scones and pastry.
 Dehydrated foods;These are foods from which water has been removed during processing for
preservation purposes. They can be quickly rehydrated with milk and cold or
hot water. These include instant potato, instant porridge, instant coffee or tea,
drinking chocolate or cocoa, instant pudding, powdered or dried milk and dried
soup (mushroom, onion chicken or oxtail).
 Frozen foods; Some of the frozen foods can be eaten as soon as they have thawed e.g. yoghurt, ice
cream, pasteurized milk and others need to be cooked e.g. sausages, dressed chicken,
fish fillets,
 Canned foods; These can be used without cooking e.g. tinned fruit, meat and fish, and some drinks.
Others may need to be heated e.g. soup, vegetables and snack meals.
 Ready to eat food; These include biscuits, cakes, pastries, sweets, fresh cream, crisps, cooked
meat, meat pies.
Why most people use convenience foods
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These are the reasons why the choice and use of convenience foods is on the rise;
 Many house wives today go out to work and they do not have time to prepare foods which take a long
time.
 Families rarely sit down to eat family meals together due to work demand, educational and economic
activities. Most of the family members therefore eat packed meals or take-away.
 Cooks or family members who do not have variety of skills to prepare attractive meals can easily prepare
quick meals using convenience foods.
 Food technology has also greatly developed. This has led to;
(i) Improvement in the quality colour, texture, flavour and nutrient content of convenience foods.
Therefore, people are attracted to using them more often.
(ii) Increase in the range of products (variety) from one food item.
 Advertisement that promote the food products. This is mainly through the mass media (radio, T.V.,
newspapers and magazines), sales promotion programs and activities.
Advantages of convenience foods
 They are readily available in shops and supermarkets.
 There is a wide variety of food products from which to choose. This increases variety in the diet.
 They can be easily stored at home and prepared from a limited space.
 The preserved form of convenience food can be kept for a longer period without getting spoilt.
 Easy to prepare even for elderly and physically handicapped people. Some have instructions on the cover
of how to use or prepare them.
 Labour, energy or fuel and time saving.
 A variety of flavour, texture, colour and nutrients can be added during the processing.
 They are light, easy to carry and require small storage place. They are therefore useful when packing food
for travelling, picnic and camping.
 They can be used even when the important food preparation equipment like cookers, ovens are not
available.
Disadvantages of convenience foods
 Nutritionally, some foods may have lost the nutrients during the processing or storage period
 They are usually expensive because of the processing and technology used during the production.
 Most cereal-based convenience foods are prepared from refined cereals and lack dietary fibre.
 Many of the ready to eat foods are rich in saturated or animal fat and refined sugar whose intake should
be low due to their long term effects.
 Artificial colourinigs, flavouring and preservatives are used in production of convenience foods. These can
lead to body disorders if they accumulate.
Points to consider when buying convenience foods
 Compare the prices by window shopping. Some shops may have lower prices for the same item.
 Check on the labels for the manufacture and expiry date to avoid intake of expired foods that may be
harmful to health.
 Go in for food products with a long shelf life.
 The standard of hygiene must be high. This can be seen from the cleanliness of the place where you are
buying.

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 There must be good shopping conditions i.e. enough space within the shop for movement, proper display
of food items on the shelves with labels and price tags, proper ventilation or air conditioning and lighting.
 Check on the freshness of the food products.
 Avoid dented, rusty and bulging tins.
Using convenience foods
 Always read the label to check on the contents or ingredients used and the instructions.
 Once you open and rehydrate the dried foods, use them quickly.
 Use the thawed frozen foods immediately. Thawed foods should not be refrozen because this
encourages the growth of bacteria.
 Store any convenience food leftover in a clean covered container. Store in cool place and use within 48
hours.
 Store tins and bottles in a cool place.
 Tin openers must be sharp so that metal shavings do not get into the foods.

BEVERAGES
A beverage is any drink which can be served either hot or cold. Examples include milk, coffee, fruit drinks,
sodas, etc.
Beverages are taken because of various reasons which include;
 To cool the body on hot days and warm it on cold days.
 They act as stimulants.
 To maintain the water level of the body. This is needed for the proper functioning of the cells.
 Help in digestion especially if taken after a meal.
 To improve on the nutrient intake e.g. proteins in milk, vitamin C in fresh fruit juice.
Beverages are divided into three (3) main groups. These are;
1. Refreshing beverages
These are usually cool and they quench thirst. They include all the types of fruit and vegetable juices,
flavoured and coloured water and all fizzy drinks. All the refreshing beverages or drinks contain
carbohydrates in form of sugar or sucrose. Fresh fruit and vegetable juices are nutritious and contain a lot
of vitamin C and minerals.
2. Stimulating beverages or stimulants e.g. tea, coffee and cocoa.
3. Nourishing beverages e.g. milk

General points to consider when preparing a fresh fruit drink.

 Always make syrup.
 Wash all the fruits before using or peeling them.
 For some fruits like lemon, orange or pineapple, infuse the peel (rind) in the syrup to extract its flavour.
 Citrous fruits can be cut into half and squeezed on a juicer or squeezer. The others can be sliced and
pureed (pulped and softened) on a strainer, strain whenever necessary.
 Add the cooled and strained syrup to the extracted juice, stir well.

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 Taste and add sugar if necessary.
 Chill because cold drinks should be served cold and not warm.

METHODS OF COOKING
Cooking refers to the application of heat to food which leads to change or altering of the texture, flavour and
nutritive value of the food. The major aim of cooking food is to produce nutritious, attractive and appetizing
food and retain maximum nutrient content.
In most cultures, throughout the world, food must be cooked to make it palatable except for some few like
fruits and vegetables that are eaten raw for nutritional and medical reasons. Why then do we cook food?
Reasons for cooking food
1. Food is cooked to make it safe for eating. Cooking destroys the harmful microorganisms like bacteria,
moulds, fungi and yeast that may cause illnesses.
2. It improves the keeping quality of the food. The bacteria and enzymes that cause deterioration in raw
food are destroyed by the heat. Cooking thus has a preservative effect.
3. Cooking softens food making it easier for digestion and absorption to take place e.g. meat fibres are
tenderized, cellulose in fruits and vegetables is also softened.
4. It reduces bulk of food and increases the intake. The volume of some foods is reduced which enables to
supply more nutrients to the body.
5. Cooking improves the flavour and new flavours are added. This stimulates appetite and flow of digestive
juices.
6. Cooking also improves the texture, colour and general appearance of the food. This makes food attractive
and more appealing or delicious to eat.
7. It gives variety in the diet. This increase the ways of eating a particular food e.g. chicken can be roasted,
baked, deep fried, stewed or grilled.
8. Cooking enables provision of hot food in cold weather.
9. It also increases the nutritive value of a particular food as other nutrients are added during preparation.
10. Volatile substances (extractives) are released from food during cooking and these stimulate the flow of
gastric juices and appetite.
Good quality nutritious food can easily be spoilt by poor cooking. Overcooking is undesirable because it leads
to loss of nutrients, texture, colour and flavour of the food, vegetables may become soggy and lose their
fresh colour and flavour. So to avoid spoiling of the food by poor cooking, it is important to understand what
happens when food is cooked.
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Cooking depends on heat being transmitted to the food and then through the food as in the following ways;
1. CONDUCTION

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Conduction involves the transfer of heat in solids. The heat is transferred from one molecule to the next by
contact. Some materials like metals are better conductors than others e.g. wood. Heat is conducted from the
flame to the container holding the food. The food should be in direct contact with the metallic cooking
vessels. Heat is then conducted to the food on the surface and is transferred through the food by conduction
e.g. sautéing, frying
2. CONVECTION
Convection involves the transfer of heat in fluids i.e. liquids and gases. When the molecules are heated, they
expand, become less dense and rise. The cooler, dense molecules sink to take their place.
These are then heated and rise. This movement of molecules is known as convectional currents. It is a
continuous process and the heat reaches the food by convectional currents and food is finally cooked by
conduction e.g. in baking, boiling and stewing.
3. RADIATION
This involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves such as infrared waves, visible red rays or
microwaves. These are transmitted through space and don’t require any medium i.e. gas, liquid or solid for
transmission. When they fall on the food, they are absorbed and cause vibration of the water molecules in
the food. This generates heat in the food which cooks the food particles. It is applied in grilling, microwave
ovens, infrared cookers, etc.
CHOICE OF METHODS OF COOKING
The choice of any type of cooking method depends on the following;
 The results you hope to obtain or desired products i.e. crispy, brown, soft, etc.
 The reaction of the particular food to either moist or dry heat
 Equipment available for a particular method e.g. cooker, oven for baking
 Skills of the cook
 Quantity desired
 Ingredients to be used
 Whether the food is soft, hard, fresh or processed
CLASSIFICATION OF THE METHODS OF COOKING
These are classified according to how heat is applied to the food or cooking medium but they all depend on 1
or more of the 3 principles of heat transfer. These include;
1. Dry heat methods of cooking involve the use of air as the cooking medium. Heat is transferred to the
surface of the food by radiation and convectional currents. The interior of the food is cooked by heat
conducted through the food e.g. baking, grilling, roasting, barbecuing, microwave cooking
2. Moist heat methods of cooking include the use of water or steam (or any source of moisture) as the
cooking medium. Heat is transferred to the food by convectional currents in the cooking liquid. The liquid
or steam penetrates the food and the food cooks by conduction and convection e.g. boiling, steaming,
stewing, poaching.
3. Frying methods of cooking involve the use of hot fat or oil as the cooking medium. They are quick
methods with very high temperature e.g. sautéing, shallow and deep fat frying.
4. Combination methods of cooking include the use of either dry heat, moist heat or frying methods e.g.
braising, pot roasting, etc. The heat is transferred to the food first by convection in hot fat, convection in
the added liquid and finally by convection and conduction as the heat penetrates the food.

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The methods are discussed below;
DRY HEAT METHODS OF COOKING
BAKING
Baking is the cooking of food in dry heat in an oven. The food is cooked by convectional currents of hot dry air
and by conduction of heat through the food as it comes in direct heat contact with the baking tins or
containers e.g. metal cake tins/trays. The surface of baked food becomes crispy and golden brown with a
good flavour.
Suitable foods for baking include cakes, biscuits, pastries, bread, custards, potatoes, fish, meat, puddings,
flans, pies, tarts and other pastry dishes.
Principles of baking
 The oven should be pre-heated. This allows good rising for best results.
 Items should be evenly spaced to allow air to circulate for good even cooking.
 Food should be placed on greased and/or lined tins/trays. This avoids food from sticking and allows easy
removal of cooked food from the utensils.
 Food that requires long cooking time must be placed in a well lined tin in a moderate oven on the lower
shelf. This prevents drying/burning of the outer surface of the food and allows heat to penetrate up to
the centre of the food.
Advantages of baking
1. Produces crispy golden brown and attractive foods
2. Requires little attention after timing
3. Improves the keeping quality of some foods since less moisture is used
Disadvantages of baking
1. Baking requires special pots or oven
2. A lot of moisture is lost hence food may shrink which reduces servings especially meat and vegetables
GRILLING / BROILING
In this method food is directly exposed to the flame cooked under a grill or over glowing charcoal or coal. The
source of heat could be electricity, gas, charcoal or open fire. Here, no cooking liquid is used, but lean meat
should be brushed with cooking oil (basted) to protect it from the intense heat.
Heat is transferred to the food by radiation and through the food by conduction. Heat is also partially
transferred to the food by conduction from the hot grill bars or trays.
Methods of grilling
1. Heat from below; food is cooked on a grill or bar over the heat source
2. Heat source from above; food is cooked on greased grill bars, trays or racks under the heat source. A
salamander which is similar to a domestic grill can also be used
3. Heat source from the sides; food is cooked between electrically heated grill bars e.g. in bread toasters
Suitable foods for grilling include small tender cuts of meat such as fillet, steak, chops and cutlets of lamb and
pork, bacon, kidneys, sausages, whole fish and fillet, wings and chicken breast, vegetables (tomatoes,
mushrooms, courgettes, stuffed potatoes, stuffed green pepper), bread for toast
Principles of grilling
 Use only small sized and even portions of food for even cooking. Large items become burnt on the outside
before the inside is cooked.
 Fresh, high quality cuts/foods and soft foods which don’t need long cooking time should be used
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 Grilled foods should be served immediately as they become dry, tough and cold
 Grill bars and plates must be very hot, clean and lightly oiled to prevent food from sticking to the grill
 Grills should be pre-heated. When the food is placed in, the heat will seal the surface protein and form a
brown crust. If not pre-heated, it will result in escape of juices and loss of food value and flavour.
 Never turn or prod food with a pointed implement like fork which can pierce and release food juices. Use
tongs as food is not pierced and food juices would not escape and dry out the food.
 Fish should be coated in seasoned flour. This holds the fish in shape and gives it a good colour.
 Fish should be cooked separately from other types of meat as it has a strong flavour and smell.
 Transfer cooked grilled foods to a warm plate or container and cover with a lid or foil to keep it warm.
Leaving food under a grill dries and toughens it causing it to shrink further.
 Scrape down grill bars or plates and remove fat from the drip tray after cooking. This prevents fat from
burning, smoking and drying of food particles onto the grill.
 After browning the surface of the meat, reduce heat until the inside is cooked. This gives a tenderer,
moist, juicy product with less shrinkage.
 Thaw frozen food in time before cooking. Very cold foods reduce the temperature of the grilling and
prevent good browning.
 Season meat with pepper only; salt causes food juices to escape from the food.
 When using solid fuel, add new fuel to the edges, pushing the outer ones to the centre. This prevents
delay in cooking due to temperature variations.
 Foods to be grilled have to be marinated. This improves flavour and tenderness.
Marinating; This involves soaking meat, poultry or fish in a mixture of oil, some form of acid (vinegar,
lemon juice, wine), herbs, seasoning and some vegetables for flavouring e.g. chopped onions, garlic, carrots,
celery. The meat is left to stand in the (marinade) marinated mixture for a few hours and stirred often.
It serves the following purposes;
 Improves flavour of the food as some flavourings are added
 Tenderizes the meat as the acid present softens the meat fibres
 Improves moisture content of the food
 Add nutritive value of the food
Advantages of grilling
1. Grilling is a quick and easy method
2. Little loss of nutrients since no liquid is used
3. Grilled foods are tasty and easy to digest
4. There is very little fat present in grilled foods as the fat drips away during cooking
5. A variety of fuels can be used for grilling
6. It improves the appearance of some foods especially meat and fish
7. It doesn’t require much preparation
Disadvantages of grilling
1. It requires constant attention to prevent burning of the food
2. It is only suitable for small tender cuts of meat which are generally more expensive
3. Needs special racks, bars or skewers
4. Grilled foods can’t be successfully reheated and are difficult to keep warm without drying and toughening.
5. Food juices, flavour and nutritive value is lost from the dripping
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 ROASTING
Traditionally, roasting referred to the cooking of food over a source of radiant heat such as a roasting spit or
over an open fire as in a barbecue.
Now it refers to the cooking of food (meat, fish, vegetable, cereals) in an oven or on a revolving spit fitted
with grill bars. The food is cooked in little oil/fat and should be basted to keep it moist.
Basting refers to the pouring of hot oil or liquid from a spoon over food that is being roasted. This keeps the
food moist, avoids burning and helps in development of flavour and an attractive appearance.
Radiant heat will provide a certain internal temperature for cooking of the meat. Heat will also reach the food
in form of convectional currents and conduction from the fat/oil present. There will be some weight loss due
to evaporation of moisture and meat juices dripping.
Methods of roasting
1. Oven roasting
Roasted foods can be cooked in an oven using circulating convection currents of air and radiant heat from the
sides of the oven. Conducted heat from the fat/oil in the base of the cooking tray is responsible for the
browning of the food. The heat should be regulated or reduced to avoid ‘frying’ of the food in the pan and
form a dry hard surface.
Oven roasting is of 2 forms;
(i) Quick roasting is done for tender joints of meat and poultry. Meat is cooked at a high temperature
0
(230 c) for 20 minutes to seal the juices and then heat is reduced to finish the cooking. This method gives a
crisp roasted and well flavoured product.
(ii) Slow roasting; here meat is cooked at 1750c for about 50 – 60 minutes. The meat becomes tenderer
and shrinks less but it lacks a good roasted flavour and appearance.
2. Spit roasting
Meat (usually large meat joint or bird) is roasted on a rotating spit over or near a heat source. As the food
slowly rotates it is cooked by the direct radiated heat and circulating hot air (convection currents). The fat
melts over the roast, basting it. Spit roasting produces its own distinct quality of colour, flavour and texture.
Oven roasting is more preferable to spit roasting due to the following;
(i) Heat is easier to regulate and maintain in an oven
(ii) There is less risk of fire as the fat drips into the tray
(iii) The food juices can be retained more easily and used to make a sauce or gravy
3. Pot roasting
This is used for cooking small roast (pieces of meat) or chicken in a heavy saucepan or stew pan with a tight-
fitting lid. The prepared meat is first browned / fried in hot dripping or butter. Heat is then reduced,
vegetables added and meat is cooked. It should be turned more often to avoid burning.
Just before it is cooked, the lid is removed to allow steam to escape and develop a brown colour to the food.
The juices and vegetables are used to make the accompanying sauce.
However, pot roasting is not a true roast – it’s a combination method. It uses fat/oil for browning and moist
heat i.e. steam trapped under the lid of the cooking utensil.
Roasting is suitable for preparing large tender cuts of beef, pork (whole or cuts), lamb, veal, poultry (whole
or large cuts), fat-covered meat.
Advantages of roasting
1. Roasting is a quick and easy method

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2. Little attention is required except for basting the joints
3. Improves the appearance of some foods as it develops an attractive colour and texture
4. Various fuels can be used
5. Fuel can be saved if other items are baked in the oven
Disadvantages of roasting
1. A lot of moisture is lost by evaporation and meat may dry out
2. Meat may shrink and lose weight due to moisture loss and dripping of meat juices
3. Excessive heating may result in toughening of the protein leading to indigestibility
4. Requires special equipment like skewers, rotating spits
5. The fat from the meat may spatter at a high temperature causing fire and markings in the oven
Principles of roasting
 Preheat oven to correct temperature and reduce to allow cooking. This enables production of a juicy, well
flavoured roast and avoids shrinkage.
 Meat should be at room temperature before roasting for even roasting.
 Tender, soft, high quality cuts of meat should be used as dry heat is used.
 Place roast with fat side up and poultry on its side. This allows melting fat to baste the food during
cooking.
 Joints should be tied up or trussed to retain shape.
 Meat should be placed in a hot oven and then reduced to finish cooking. A high temperature for the first
15 – 20 minutes seals the outer surface and reduces moisture loss and shrinkage during cooking.
 Food must be regularly basted with hot fat. This keeps the meat moist, improves flavour and prevents
excessive shrinkage and charring.
 Lean meat can be protected from rapid browning and drying by barding or larding it before roasting.
Barding is wrapping the roast in slices of pork or bacon fat.
Larding is the threading the roast with long thin strips (lardens) of pork or bacon fat using a larding needle.
 After removing the roast from the oven, allow it to stand (set) for 15 – 20 minutes in a warm place before
carving and serving. This allows meat juices to settle, makes carving easier and allows time for making the
gravy.
 The meat juices from the roast in the pan should be used to make the accompanying gravy. The flavours
from the meat juices help to produce a sauce/gravy of distinct flavour that complements the roast.
 Meat must be raised off the bottom of the roasting tray by placing it in a spit, trivet rack or in a roasting
dish with bones or bed of root vegetables. This is because large food items require longer cooking time
and are best cooked by convected heat (not conduction from the roasting tray).
 Remove large pieces of meat from the oven before it’s completely done. This is because the meat
continues to cook as it cools. This is called Carryover cooking.
Principles of spit roasting
 The joint is mounted onto a spit bar or rack and slowly rotated over an open fire.
 The meat should be thawed completely before it is cooked. If not, the outside will brown and cook leaving
the centre raw because it hasn’t had sufficient heat to thaw completely.
 The spit should rotate evenly so that the joint cooks evenly.
 Skewer the meat onto the spit so that it is secure, tie with a string if necessary so that it doesn’t slip while
rotating.
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 Baste frequently during cooking. This prevents the joint from drying out due to the intense heat and loss
of juices.
 Protect the cooked parts with foil to prevent them from overcooking.
 Carve the cooked roast on a cutting board, cutting it across the grain.
 The thickest parts of the meat should be given more time to cook.
 Accompany or serve the roast with accompaniments and garnishes like;
 Sauce (apple sauce, pineapple sauce, mint sauce, mustard sauce)
 Slices of fruits like lemon, pineapple
 Gravy made from the juice or dripping
 Roasted vegetables like potatoes, onions, shallots, turnips
 Vegetable or fruit salads
 Fruit juices
MICROWAVE COOKING
This involves cooking of food in a microwave oven with the aid of microwave radiations in form of
electromagnetic waves.
Draw a well labeled diagram of a microwave oven and state the function of each part.
Cross-sectional diagram of a microwave oven
Microprocessor Waveguide
Timer
(On/Off switch)
Magnetron
Safety device
Mode stirrer

Door Cavity
Turntable

Power supply

Air filter
Principle and operation of a microwave oven
Microwave ovens cook food by generating electromagnetic waves. Electricity is converted to microwaves by
the magnetron. A mode stirrer / turntable ensures the even distribution of heat energy in the cavity.
The waves are channeled into the oven space/cavity by the wave guide. These waves have a longer
wavelength and penetrate the food to a depth of about 5cm. The waves are attracted to the tiny water
molecules in the food and when they are absorbed, the water molecules vibrate at a high speed by
microwave energy. This causes friction which generates heat in the food. The interior of the food is then
cooked by conduction of this heat through the food.
The metal-lined casing and door seal prevent leakage of microwaves to the outside which can be dangerous
to the user. Steam escapes through the oven vent. The air filters (cooling fan) permit cool air to pass into the
oven.
Microwave cooking doesn’t brown food, so browning devices like an integral grill/browning element may be
included.

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Note: Microwaves travel in straight lines and when they hit metallic casing, they are reflected in all
directions back in the oven to be absorbed by the food.
Guidelines for using a microwave oven
 Follow the manufacturer’s instructions carefully.
 Use the oven to cook, defrost and reheat food. Don’t use it for storage.
 Use microwave cookware like glass, china, paper, polythene and Pyrex which allow microwaves to pass
through them. Metallic containers and aluminium foil repel microwaves and should be avoided.
 Set the timer according to instructions.
 When not in use keep a bowl of water inside the oven. If an empty oven is turned on, the microwaves can
damage the magnetron.
 If required, cover the food with cling film, kitchen paper, oven proof glass or roasting bags.
 Check the manufacturer’s instructions for maintenance. Periodically check the door seal and if in doubt
seek help from qualified personnel.
Advantages of microwave cooking
1. It saves time and energy since it cooks food quickly
2. Saves on washing up if foods are cooked and served in the same container
3. It is easy to clean
4. There are no problems of cooking smells or condensation
5. Flavour and nutrients retention is superior to convectional methods
6. It can be used for defrosting which speeds up food preparation
7. They are cheap to operate since they use a low power rating and no heat energy is wasted
8. It is mobile and can be used in any room other than the kitchen
Limitations of microwave cooking
1. It takes up working surface area
2. It is not suitable for cooking all sorts of foods e.g. pastry, biscuits
3. Timing is critical if overcooking is to be avoided
4. Not all conventional cookware is suitable; metals should be avoided
5. Microwaves don’t crisp or brown foods, however, some have separate browning devices
6. A lot of money is required for the initial outlay of the device
7. It needs to be maintained carefully e.g. the door seal needs constant checking
8. The cavity takes up less food amounts
Consumer choice of a microwave oven
 A defrost control allows short bursts of microwave energy and rest periods and does away with
manual controls.
 Variable power allows for flexibility of cooking speed
 A temperature probe is useful when cooking joints of meat
 A rotating platform reduces the need to turn dishes or stir foods
 Browning mechanisms can be added and save additional efforts such as glazing or use of hot grill.

MOIST HEAT METHODS OF COOKING

BOILING

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Boiling is the cooking of food rapidly in water or liquid at a temperature of 100 0c, the liquid is usually water,
stock, wine or a combination. The food is totally immersed in the boiling water so that the liquid is in direct
contact with the food. Heat is conducted through the base of the saucepan to setup convectional currents in
the liquid. Convectional currents transfer heat to the food and the heat is then conducted to the food and the
food cooks by conduction.
Suitable foods for boiling include vegetables, pasta, meat, poultry, fish, eggs, rice and other cereals.
Method for boiling
 Prepare the food as necessary while the water is brought to the boil.
 Use enough liquid to completely cover the food
 Bring back to the boil after adding food and then reduce to medium boil or simmer
 Add any flavouring if appropriate and allow to cook
 When cooked, drain off the liquid, if it’s not to be used
 Vegetables can be kept hot for service by lightly tossing them in a frying pan with little oil (sauté)
Parboiling; This involves the putting of food in water at 100 0c until when it’s partially cooked. The food is
placed in boiling water for a short time from 1 – 5 minutes or until the outside is soft. The cooking process is
then completed using another method e.g. for potatoes to give them a crisper texture.
Blanching; This involves plunging food in boiling water for 2 minutes and then removed and refreshed
in cold water immediately. Blanching is carried out to remove the skin from vegetables, fruits and nuts e.g.
tomatoes. It is also used to preserve and conserve vitamin C in fruits and vegetables. The heat destroys the
surface enzymes (oxidase) and bacteria and this helps to retain the colour and nutrients by sealing the
surface which comes in contact with the liquid.
Principles of boiling
 For root vegetables and salted meat, bring water to boil before adding the food. This creates a seal on the
surface of the food which minimizes loss of flavour, colour and nutrients.
 After the boiling point is reached, reduce to simmering point. This prevents toughening of the meat and
breaking up of fruits and vegetables.
 The cooking liquid should be used as stock for a sauce or gravy for the food. The liquid contains the water
soluble nutrients and some flavour.
 When boiling rice and pasta, keep the lid off during cooking. The water will quickly boil over if the lid is
used as the starch makes the water to froth easily. Oil is often added to prevent this from happening.
 Never place a lid on when boiling vegetables. The acids given off by the vegetables in the steam that rises
react with chlorophyll to produce an olive green colour.
Advantages of boiling
1. Easy and quick method
2. Needs little attention
3. Heat transfer is fairly rapid and efficient
4. Food remains moist, juicy and isn’t likely to dry out and become hard
5. Can be used to soften tougher, cheaper cuts of meat
6. Various types of foods can be cooked by this method
7. Can be used with various types of fuel
Disadvantages of boiling

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1. Loss of nutrients especially water soluble nutrients may be so high
2. Flavour and some colour may be lost into the cooking liquid
3. Does little to improve the appearance of the food
4. Food may disintegrate if overcooked
5. Foods tend to go sour more quickly than in other moist heat methods
STEAMING
Steaming is the cooking of food in steam rising from a boiling liquid usually water. The equipment must be
arranged so that no water touches the food but the steam can circulate freely around or under the food.
Convectional currents in the steam transfer heat to the food. Then conduction in the food heats up the
interior. Steaming can either be direct or indirect;
1. Direct steaming is where the food is in direct contact with the steam and not covered e.g. in tiered
steamers.
2. Indirect steaming is where there is a barrier between the steam and the food so that the steam doesn’t
actually come in direct contact with the food e.g. steaming matooke, when puddings are placed in a
covered bowl over boiling water.
Methods of steaming
1. Steamers with perforated bases are available. These fit over a pan of boiling water and allow steam to
enter through the perforations in the base.
2. Tiered steamers have an inner tube with an outlet that allows steam to pass into the upper tiers and a cap
placed on top of the tube to prevent escape of steam.
3. Food can be placed in a basin and covered with foil or leaves (banana) and set in boiling water to reach
half way up on the side of the basin. The covering must be waterproof and heat resistant to prevent
water from entering the food.
4. Use the plate method where the plate is placed over a pan of boiling water. This is useful for thin pieces
of food.
Note: For all the methods, the pan should be covered with a tight lid to prevent escape of steam.
Suitable foods for steaming include vegetables, small/thin delicate pieces of food like fish, small pieces of
meat, cake mixtures, puddings, custards, matooke, ground nuts sauce
Procedure for steaming
1. Prepare; peel, chop as required
2. Place water in the lower section and bring to boil. Water must be steadily boiling throughout the cooking
to give a constant heat.
3. Place food in the upper section and seal off the pan with a tight lid.
4. Add more water as needed (as it is lost through evaporation).
5. When cooked, remove the food from the steamer when still hot, garnish and serve.
6. Steamed foods usually have an insipid taste, so to improve the flavour;
(i) Season well before cooking
(ii) Marinate fish or meat before steaming
(iii) Lightly fry fish or meat with some vegetables before steaming
(iv) Grease or dot a few pieces of butter on steamed food after cooking
(v) Serve with a well flavoured sauce
Principles of steaming
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 Small pieces of food are most suitable. Steam may not efficiently penetrate the large dense foods so
cooking time would be long.
 A tight fitting lid or cover must be placed over the steamer/cooking vessel. This retains steam and reduces
cooking time.
 Avoid steaming green vegetables. The colour is lost to an olive green colour.
 Potatoes and root vegetables should be cut and placed on perforated trays. This allows condensation to
fall away.
 Water must be kept boiling, so keep a kettle handy for refilling. This avoids a fall in temperature when the
water is brought to boil again.
Advantages of steaming
1. Steaming makes food light and easy to digest
2. There is little danger of overcooking as it is a slow cooking method
3. It is a nutritious method as many of the water soluble nutrients which would dissolve in cooking liquid are
retained.
4. Ideal for invalids as food is easy to digest and no fats and additives are required.
5. Reduces shrinkage of food during cooking
6. Needs little attention
7. Economical i.e. saves fuel since more than one food can be cooked at the same time in different vessels.
8. Keeps food in its original form and colour
Disadvantages of steaming
1. Only tender foods can be steamed in a fairly short time
2. It’s a long slow process, thus consumes time and a lot of fuel
3. Food isn’t generally attractive as fried or baked foods
4. Food lacks flavour – insipid taste
SIMMERING
Simmering is the cooking of food in a liquid at a temperature below the boiling point i.e. 85 0c – 950c. The
liquid is not boiling and very small bubbles are seen to rise slowly from the sides of the pan. This temperature
is gentle and prevents the toughening or breaking of the large pieces of food like whole fish, meat, potatoes,
green vegetables. It is usually done to complete boiling of food.
POACHING
Poaching involves the cooking of food in a hot liquid at a temperature below the simmering point i.e. 80 0c –
850c. The liquid e.g. milk, wine, water or stock should just be trembling but not bubbling. Poaching can be
done on top of the stove or in a moderate oven. This gentle heat application makes it suitable for fragile
textured and soft foods like fish, eggs, fruits, delicate vegetables like asparagus, amaranthus.
Less volume of liquid is used than for boiling or simmering i.e. the liquid is half way the food.
Heat transfer is by conduction through the pan, convectional currents in the liquid and conduction of heat
through the food.
Procedure
1. Heat the liquid to boiling point, then reduce the temperature so that there is no movement (bubbling);
exception is for whole large fish, as it is placed in the cold liquid and brought up to poaching temperature.
2. Gently lower the food into the cooking liquid.
3. Allow food to remain in the liquid until cooked.
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4. Occasionally baste with the hot liquid.
5. Remove food and reserve liquid for sauce.
Principles of poaching
 The cooking liquid should be kept just below boiling point so that there is no movement or bubbling,
movement of the liquid can cause food to break up.
 There should be sufficient liquid barely to cover / submerge the food. Insufficient liquid will cause uneven
cooking while excess will allow food to float or move about too much.
 Food should be basted with the hot liquid. This prevents the topside from drying.
Advantages of poaching
1. Application of heat is gentle, so foods with a delicate texture may be cooked without breaking
2. Poached foods are easily digested hence fit for invalids, infants and elderly people
3. No fat needs to be added to the food
Disadvantages of poaching
1. Not suitable for large pieces of food
2. Little development of flavour and colour
3. Some loss in flavour and nutrient content of the food into the liquid
STEWING
Stewing is a long slow process of cooking food in a small amount of a well flavoured liquid which is allowed to
simmer for a long time. The cooking vessel should be covered to prevent loss of flavour and moisture through
evaporation. A stew is a mixture of meat/fish/poultry and vegetables cooked slowly in a well flavoured and
thickened liquid.
Heat is transferred by conduction from the flame to the base of the pan and onto the liquid, then
convectional currents in the liquid are set up which transfer heat to the food. The food is then cooked by
conduction.
Foods suitable for stewing include tougher cheaper cuts of meat, offal (tripe, liver, kidney, oxtail), chicken,
duck, turkey, fish cutlets, vegetables and dried fruits.
Note: The tougher, cheaper cuts of meat which would be unsuitable for many other methods of cooking
can be favourably cooked as a stew. The low temperature and moist heat soften the tough connective tissue
(collagen) turning it into gelatin. The fibres are thus separated and extractives are released into the cooking
liquid which is served together. This prevents loss of flavour and some water soluble nutrients except vitamin
C and some B group vitamins.
The low temperature also prevents toughening of meat fibres and evaporation.
Types of stews
1. Simple / Cold water stews
Very tough meat tossed in seasoned flour or royco, vegetables and seasonings are placed in layers in a
saucepan, moistened with cold stock or water and brought to simmering point. The mixture is simmered for 2
– 3 hours.
2. Rich white stew
Meat e.g. lamb, veal, chicken or fish is soaked and blanched to whiten it. Vegetables and seasonings are
added with stock to barely cover the meat and simmered for 1 – 2 hours. It is thickened with a roux or egg
yolk and cream. Examples include fricassee (meat, chicken and fish), blanquettes (enriched with egg yolk and
cream), irish stew (lamb and vegetables).
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3. Brown / Fried stew
Here the cubed meat is tossed in hot fat/dripping until browned, followed by onions and other vegetables.
Flour is then added to thicken and cooked for 3 minutes then stock is gradually stirred in and brought to
simmering point. This is then cooked slowly for 2 – 3 hours. Examples include ragout (rich dark beef stew),
navarin (mutton/lamb and root vegetables), salmis (poultry), goulash (beef, legumes, tomatoes and paprika),
curry (highly spiced stew served with rice), exerter stew (dumplings)
4. Vegetable / Fruit stew (Ratatouille)
This is a mixture of onions, pepper, tomatoes, carrots, aubergine or courgettes
5. Fish stew (Bouillabaisse)
Principles of stewing
 The meat and vegetables are usually cut up into mouth size pieces. This allows quick and even cooking.
 The meat is often surface fried prior to stewing for brown stews. This develops flavour for the meat and
colour for the sauce.
 Cooking time should be long and slow. This enables tougher cuts of meat to tenderize as connective tissue
is broken down to soluble gelatine.
 Seasonings and flavourings are added to the cooking liquid. These enhance the flavour of the sauce and
should be served with the meat.
 White meat like chicken and veal are blanched by immersing in cold water, brought to boil and washed
under cold running water for white stew. This removes any impurities that may discolour the sauce, make
it brighter and maintain the white colour.
 A very low temperature is essential to prevent toughening of meat fibres and evaporation of the liquid;
remember a stew boiled is a stew spoilt, so never allow a stew to boil.
Advantages of stewing
1. Economical as cheaper, tougher cuts of meat may be used
2. Little loss of nutrients, flavour and moisture as any juices which escape from the food become part of the
sauce.
3. Requires little attention
4. Very tasty, well flavoured food is prepared
5. All the foods can be cooked together like in a one-pot meal
6. Tough cuts of meat are made tender/soft
7. Economy of labour is achieved in terms of washing up since the whole dish may be cooked and served in
the same dish.
8.
Disadvantages of stewing
1. It’s a long slow process which consumes a lot of fuel
2. Food sometimes loses its original colour
3. Destroys vitamin C and B group vitamins more than any other method
4. Slow method takes a lot of time
5. Some stews lack “bite” and contrast in texture
6. There is a variation in consistency; therefore, only crisp foods should be served with stews.
PRESSURE COOKING

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Pressure cooking is the cooking of food at an increased pressure using steam from boiling water in a
specialized sealed container known as a pressure cooker.
Principle of operation
The boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure is 100 0c but this can be altered by lowering or
increasing the air pressure. An increase in pressure will make water boil at a higher temperature and vice
versa i.e. the higher the pressure the higher the boiling point.
When the lid of a pressure cooker is locked and the water inside boils, no steam is allowed to escape so
steam builds up inside which increases the pressure. This increases the boiling point of water to a
temperature of about 1200c. Steam is then forced / driven through the food cooking it very quickly.
Cooking time is reduced by half for every 10 0c that the boiling point of water is raised above 100 0c because of
the extremely high temperature.
Convectional currents in the steam will transfer heat to the food, which is then cooked by conduction.
Suitable foods for pressure cooking include all the foods which take a very long time by normal boiling or
steaming e.g. meat, offal and stews, legumes like peas, beans, potatoes, puddings, jam, stock.
Procedure
Never operate pressure cookers without prior reference to the operating manual as they are one of the most
dangerous cooking equipment if incorrectly used. The following steps are thus important;
 Always check that the water level in the base of the pan is adequate.
 Ensure that there is a tight seal before heating and check if there is a steady flow of steam escaping from
the valve.
 Use perforated trays for vegetables so that the condensation can drain away.
 Refer to the manual for cooking time because the food can overcook very easily.
 When cooking is completed, always allow the pressure cooker to return to normal air pressure before
opening.
 Various types of foods can be placed in separators to be cooked at once.
Advantages of pressure cooking
1. It is a fast method of cooking which saves time
2. Energy/fuel saving since food cooks in a very short time
3. Fewer nutrients are lost
4. Cooking smell/odour and condensation are reduced
5. Flavour and colour are conserved
6. A complete meal can be cooked at the same time using separators which saves labour in washing up, time
and energy.
7. Tough cuts of meat can be tenderized and cooked quickly
Disadvantages of pressure cooking
1. Very easy to overcook or undercook
2. Greater shrinkage of meat
3. It is only suitable for moist cookery
4. Food can’t be stirred so there is a possibility of sticking to the bottom
5. Steam and the cooker can cause serious accidents if not handled well
6. Food can’t be tasted to check if it is done without opening the cooker
7. The pressure cooker is expensive and takes up storage space in the kitchen
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 PRESSURE COOKER
A pressure cooker is a large saucepan made of heavy gauge aluminium or cast-iron material. It is designed to
cook any food that is suitable for boiling, stewing, or steaming in a short time.
Structure of a pressure cooker
Diagram
Pressure control valve/indicator
Safety valve
Locking lid Rubber handle

Trivet

Gas sealing gasket

Strong metallic body

Trivet
Separators

It consists of the following parts;

1. Strong aluminium / cast iron pan;
This is able to withstand any pressure that builds up inside and keeps in the heat.
2. Rubber handle; Allows one to remove the pan without getting burnt.
3. Safety valve; If the pressure is too high e.g. when the control is blocked, the valve will release steam
to reduce the pressure. It will be pushed out or melt.
4. Pressure control valve;
Allows a small amount of steam to escape and prevent too much pressure build up.
5. Pressure control gauge / indicator;
This is fitted over the control valve to indicate the buildup of pressure by means of marks. Some have weights
of low, medium or high pressure if required.
6. Rubber gas sealing gasket;
This prevents the escape of steam from the rim of the pan so that pressure builds up quickly.
7. Locking lid; Prevents escape of steam and it can’t be opened when pressure is high.
8. Trivet;
Is a metallic tray with perforations that allow food to stand in the steam but not to boil in the water.
9. Separators; Are light metallic baskets used to cook different types of food at the same time.
Rules for using a pressure cooker
 Follow the manufacturer’s instructions provided carefully.
 Preliminary frying can be done in the pan without the lid on.
 Don’t fill the pan beyond 2/3 with solid food or ½ with liquid.
 Time the cooking and lower the heat when the pressure is reached.
 Check the sealing gasket periodically to see that it doesn’t perish otherwise steam will escape and cause
scalds.
 Place the lid and weights correctly in position.

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 When cooking is done, reduce the pressure by leaving the cooker to stand at room temperature or cool
rapidly by using cold running water.
 The lid should never be removed until the pressure has been released or there may be a risk of an
explosion.
 Avoid thickening the liquid before cooking. Thicken after cooking using blended corn flour or the beurre
marie method.
 After use, wash thoroughly especially the rim, gasket and steam valve. If any particles are left, the cooker
may not function properly. Dry well and store without the lid on.
 Check the manufacturer’s instructions for proper maintenance.
 If the indicator or rotating weight is used, place it on and heat the pan.
 If the screw type weight is used, wait for the steam to flow out of the vent and place on the weights.
 The safety device / valve should be replaced immediately if damaged.
FRYING METHODS (COOKING WITH HOT FAT OR OIL)
Frying refers to the cooking of food by total or partial immersion of the food in hot fat or oil heated to a
temperature between 1500c – 2000c. The food being fried cooks quickly because the fat is so hot that the
heat quickly reaches the inside of the food.
Sudden contact with hot fat causes rapid evaporation of moisture in the food causing shrinkage and sealing
of the outside to avoid evaporation. Convectional currents in the fat heat the outer surface of the food. The
interior is cooked by conduction as heat passes through the food.
Types of frying
There are 3 major types of frying i.e. dry, shallow and deep fat frying.
1. Dry frying
This is done for foods that have a high content of fat without addition of fats or oil. These are fried on a lightly
greased shallow pan for example fatty meat chops like pork, bacon, steak and sausages.
2. Shallow frying
This involves cooking of thin pieces of food in a small amount of hot fat which should only partially cover the
food. Food must be turned during cooking to prevent burning or being poorly cooked.
Shallow frying is done as a preliminary stage of other methods and it may be done in the following ways;
(i) Sautéing involves frying of small amounts of meat, fish or poultry and vegetables in a small amount of
fat to develop a brown colour or seal in food juices before the main cooking. The food should be turned over
and over while frying to seal or brown it evenly.
(ii) Sweating is done by frying food in butter or oil in a covered pan to prevent steam from escaping which
avoids colour development. It is used when cooking vegetables or soups so as to draw out flavour.
(iii) Stir-frying involves heating a small amount of oil and adding foods which are kept constantly stirred as they
cook. The ingredients are usually fried separately and combined before service as in Chinese cookery.
3. Deep fat frying
Deep frying involves the cooking of food by complete immersion in hot fat or oil. The pan should be
heavy/thick and food should be coated to protect the surface from the intense heat and breaking up. Suitable
foods for deep frying include potato/cassava chips, fish cakes, fillets, meat balls, fritters, doughnuts, samosas,
etc.
Principles of frying
Dry frying
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 This should be done in a non-stick pan to avoid sticking and burning. A thin film of oil can be used.
 Regulation of heat is essential to prevent the pan from overheating.
 Small amounts of food and thin pieces of food should be used for even cooking.
Shallow frying
 Pre-heat the cooking utensils before adding the food. This seals the food and prevents absorption of
far/oil into the food, reduces the risk of food sticking to the pan and develop colour.
 The side to be presented for service is fried first. The best colour and finish occur on the side fried first.
 Thick foods should be cooked at a lower temperature. This allows food to cook through and colour
without burning. Foods should not be more than 25mm (1 inch) thick.
 Foods which take the longest time to cook are placed in the pan first. This way all foods will be ready for
service at the same time.
 The frying pan is moved and turned during cooking. This will maintain an even speed of cooking and
browning of the food.
 Tongs are used to move and turn foods. Avoid sharp utensils like forks, skewers which can pierce the
surface leading to escape of food juices and spoil the appearance of the food.
 Season foods before frying; this develops a good flavor in the food.
 Drain all fried foods before serving on absorbent paper or grease proof paper. It is not appealing to have
foods surrounded by oil on a plate when served.
 Avoid crowding food in the frying pan to allow space for turning the pieces of food. If crowded, foods will
tend to steam rather than fry due to lowering of the frying temperature.
 Lower foods gently into the hot fat, one piece at a time to avoid splashing of hot fat.
 Heat fat to the correct temperature; if it is too cool, the food will absorb the fat and will be greasy and if it
is too hot, the outside will be overcooked and the inside will be undercooked.
Deep frying
 To avoid any risk of a fire, the pan must not be more than 2/3 full with oil. This avoids spilling over of hot
oil into the fire when food is added.
 Food should be of uniform size and thickness. This allows even cooking and foods will be cooked at the
same time.
 All foods must be coated in batter, breadcrumbs or beaten egg. This prevents the surface of the food
from the intense heat and developed a crisp brown texture.
 Loose crumbs should be shaken off and surface patted. This will reduce impurities in the frying medium
which will spoil the oil/fat
 If coated in batter, the excess should be drained off and food slowly lowered into the fryer. The surface of
the batter will set before it comes in contact with the bottom or side of the fryer.
 Very cold/frozen food should be added in small amount and pieces. This will prevent a temperature drop
that can slow the cooking as the oil will take long to recover the heat.
 Residues of crumbs and food should be skimmed/drained from the oil. If left in, the impurities will burn
and increase the spoilage/deterioration of the oil.
 Fat/oil must be heated to correct frying point or temperature before food is added. This prevents food
absorbing fat and loss of flavour.

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 Avoid overheating of the fat (above the flash point). This can lead to burning of the food and rapid
deterioration of the oil.
 Dry the foods before immersing it in the hot oil. Water/moisture causes steam and bubbling of oil which
can cause the hot oil to spurt/spill.
 When removing the foods, drain them thoroughly. This returns the excess oil into the fryer.
 Season foods after frying. Salt and pepper cause rapid breakdown of fat/oil.
 Fried foods should be served immediately when the surface is still crispy. Fried foods will cool quickly and
can’t be reheated properly.
 Serve deep fried foods on absorbent or dish paper (doileys). Even after draining some fat is released from
the food and this is absorbed by the dish paper.
 Boiling water in a kettle or saucepan must be kept far away from frying pan because any drops to fall into
the hot fat will cause it to splash and spurt.
 After use, heat the oil until bubbling stops. This will ensure that no water is left which would hasten fat
spoilage (rancidity).
 Store the fat/oil in a light and water proof container.
Coatings for fried foods
Most foods are coated before frying for the following reasons;
1. Improve the texture and appearance of the food
2. Prevent fat soaking into the food which would become soggy
3. Enhance the taste and flavour
4. Protect food from the intense heat of the fat and prevent overheating
5. Prevents food from breaking up and retains a good shape
6. Prevents loss of food juices, flavour and nutrients into the fat/oil
Types of coatings include;
1. Batter (a wet mixture of flour, eggs and milk)
2. Beaten egg and breadcrumbs
3. Seasoned plain flour, salt and pepper
4. Pastry as for meat pies, samosas, fruits
The frying medium to be used should be able to;
 Withstand continuous heating or cooking and exposure to impurities without deteriorating rapidly
 Reach high temperature in order to seal the food coating and give a light crisp crust on the cooked foods
 Odourless and untainted in taste, so that the flavour of the food comes through rather than that of the
fat/oil in which the food has been cooked in
The following frying media are suitable;
 Vegetable oil like sunflower, olive, coconut oil
 Animal fats like butter, lard, dripping, suet
 Vegetable fats like margarine
 Butter clarified with oil
Advantages of frying
1. It is a quick and fast method of cooking
2. Makes food look very attractive and appetizing
3. Since it’s a quick method, it uses less fuel than other methods
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4. Improves flavour and makes food tasty since the juices are quickly sealed in the food
5. Enables food to keep for days hence food can be used after the meal
6. All types of fuels can be used
Disadvantages of frying
1. Expensive since food and fat have to be of good quality for good results
2. It needs attention to avoid accidents
3. Requires special containers like deep fat fryers, frying pans
4. Food is indigestible if it’s not well cooked or drained
COMBINATION METHODS
POT ROASTING
Pot roasting is the cooking of a small amount of food e.g. chicken/meat in a heavy saucepan or stew pan with
a tight-fitting lid. It involves a combination of frying, steaming and roasting.
The meat is first browned/fried in hot fat, vegetables added and lid placed on for cooking. The meat is
occasionally basted and turned gently for even cooking. The meat juices and vegetables are used as the
accompanying sauce and no additional liquid is added to the pot so the food is cooked by the moisture or
steam from the added vegetables and herbs which also enhance the flavour.
Pot roasting is suitable for very lean joints of meat like the thick ribs, topside, brisket; poultry; heart; liver.
Just before cooking is done, the lid is removed to allow steam to escape and develop a brown colour to the food.
BRAISING
Braising is the cooking of meat/fish/poultry on a bed of fried root vegetables known as “mirepoix” with
enough stock/water to cover the vegetables. It is a combination of frying, pot roasting, steaming and stewing.
Heat is conducted from the pan through the pot and onto the food.
Cooking takes place by convectional currents (steam) in the vessel and conduction through the food.
The meat to be braised is first browned by sautéing to seal in the juices. This is then placed on a bed of lightly
fried, diced vegetables at the bottom of the cooking dish. A little stock/water is then added to come half way
up the meat. This is kept covered with grease-proof paper or foil and the dish is covered with a tight fitting lid
and cooked slowly for about 35 minutes in an oven or in a heavy pan on very low heat.
The meat is occasionally basted with the stock. The liquid from the braising pan is strained,
reduced/thickened and served with the vegetables and the cooked meat.
Braising is suitable for tough cuts of meat; roast beef; offals; lamb; pork like spare ribs, chops; vegetables like
celery, onions, root vegetables; whole chicken or joints.

Diagram

Advantages of braising
1. A whole meal can be cooked and served in the same pan
2. Saves time and fuel and thus very convenient for a busy person
3. Tough cuts of meat can be tenderized
4. Saves on washing up
5. Loss of nutrients is minimized since juices and vegetables are also part of the meal
6. Requires little attention

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7. Develops flavour which makes food tasty
Disadvantages of braising
1. Slow method which uses a lot of fuel
2. Meat may not develop a good colour and thus needs to be grilled at the end of the cooking
3. Vegetables may be overcooked at the bottom of the pan
CASSEROLE COOKERY (CASSEROLING)
This is a slow method of cooking a small amount of food in little liquid in a covered utensil (casserole) in an
oven. The utensil used is a casserole which may be made of oven-proof glass, glazed earthenware, enamel or
cast-iron. It may be plain or decorated. The method is a combination of stewing, frying and steaming.
In casserole cookery, food should be cooked slowly to allow thorough penetration of heat into the tough
foods. Foods can also be browned or tossed in hot fat before cooking.
Advantages of casseroling
1. It is economical as several foods can be cooked at the same time
2. There is little loss of food value as the liquid in which the food is cooked is served together
3. Food is tasty and juicy
4. Food can be served in the same vessel in which it is cooked which saves labour on service and washing up.
5. Cheap and tough cuts of meat can be used
6. Makes food tender and easy to digest
7. Requires little attention
Disadvantages
1. Requires special equipment i.e. the casserole dish and the oven which are expensive
2. Takes up storage space
3. It can only be done in an oven thus not suitable with other fuels
CONSERVATIVE COOKING
This is a combination of boiling and steaming methods. It involves the cooking food especially vegetables in a
covered vessel in limited liquids the foods themselves produce or by addition of minimum amount of liquid
that will be required to soften them so that no liquid is left after cooking.
It is done for few minutes (10 – 15 minutes) and in minimum liquid so as to conserve the water-soluble
vitamins especially vitamin C, B group vitamins and minerals.
The long slow process of normal steaming or stewing destroys much of the food value and colour of green
vegetables, makes the texture soggy and unappetizing. This is avoided in this method.
Procedure
 Cover the bottom of the vessel with salted water and/or melted fat
 Heat to boiling point
 Chop, dice vegetables and place in the pan
 Cover with a tight fitting lid
 Boil rapidly for 10 minutes
 Remove lid, strain off liquid if it is still remaining and use for stock
 Serve when still hot

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 CONVENIENCE FOODS
Convenience foods are basically foods prepared by manufacturers ready to be eaten or prepared in a few
minutes. They are usually sold in packets, cans or bottles.
Convenience foods are categorized into the following;
i. Dry ingredients; these are usually partly prepared and are ready to mix and cook. They include self-
raising wheat flour, maize flour, millet flour, pasta (macaroni, spaghetti, noodles), custard powder,
instant soup and sauces, pounded g.nuts, mixtures for cakes, scones and pastry.
ii. Dehydrated foods; these are foods from which water has been removed during processing for
preservation purposes. They can be quickly rehydrated with milk and cold or hot water. These include
instant potato, instant porridge, instant coffee or tea, drinking chocolate or cocoa, instant pudding,
powdered or dried milk and dried soup (mushroom, onion chicken or oxtail).
iii. Frozen foods; Some of the frozen foods can be eaten as soon as they have thawed e.g. yoghurt, ice
cream, pasteurized milk and others need to be cooked e.g. sausages, dressed chicken, fish fillets,
iv. Canned foods; these can be used without cooking e.g. tinned fruit, meat and fish, and some drinks.
Others may need to be heated e.g. soup, vegetables and snack meals.
v. Ready to eat food; these include biscuits, cakes, pastries, sweets, fresh cream, crisps, cooked meat,
meat pies.
Why most people use convenience foods
These are the reasons why the choice and use of convenience foods is on the rise;
 Many house wives today go out to work and they do not have time to prepare foods which take a long
time.
 Families rarely sit down to eat family meals together due to work demand, educational and economic
activities. Most of the family members therefore eat packed meals or take-away.
 Cooks or family members who do not have variety of skills to prepare attractive meals can easily prepare
quick meals using convenience foods.
 Food technology has also greatly developed. This has led to;
(iii) Improvement in the quality colour, texture, flavour and nutrient content of convenience foods.
Therefore, people are attracted to using them more often.
(iv) Increase in the range of products (variety) from one food item.
 Advertisement that promote the food products. This is mainly through the mass media (radio, T.V.,
newspapers and magazines), sales promotion programs and activities.
Advantages of convenience foods
 They are readily available in shops and supermarkets.
 There is a wide variety of food products from which to choose. This increases variety in the diet.
 They can be easily stored at home and prepared from a limited space.
 The preserved form of convenience food can be kept for a longer period without getting spoilt.
 Easy to prepare even for elderly and physically handicapped people. Some have instructions on the cover
of how to use or prepare them.
 Labour, energy or fuel and time saving.
 A variety of flavour, texture, colour and nutrients can be added during the processing.
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 They are light, easy to carry and require small storage place. They are therefore useful when packing food
for travelling, picnic and camping.
 They can be used even when the important food preparation equipment like cookers, ovens are not
available.
Disadvantages of convenience foods
 Nutritionally, some foods may have lost the nutrients during the processing or storage period
 They are usually expensive because of the processing and technology used during the production.
 Most cereal-based convenience foods are prepared from refined cereals and lack dietary fibre.
 Many of the ready to eat foods are rich in saturated or animal fat and refined sugar whose intake should
be low due to their long term effects.
 Artificial colourinigs, flavouring and preservatives are used in production of convenience foods. These can
lead to body disorders if they accumulate.
Points to consider when buying convenience foods
 Compare the prices by window shopping. Some shops may have lower prices for the same item.
 Check on the labels for the manufacture and expiry date to avoid intake of expired foods that may be
harmful to health.
 Go in for food products with a long shelf life.
 The standard of hygiene must be high. This can be seen from the cleanliness of the place where you are
buying.
 There must be good shopping conditions i.e. enough space within the shop for movement, proper display
of food items on the shelves with labels and price tags, proper ventilation or air conditioning and lighting.
 Check on the freshness of the food products.
 Avoid dented, rusty and bulging tins. Using convenience foods
 Always read the label to check on the contents or ingredients used and the instructions.
 Once you open and rehydrate the dried foods, use them quickly.
 Use the thawed frozen foods immediately. Thawed foods should not be refrozen because this
encourages the growth of bacteria.
 Store any convenience food leftover in a clean covered container. Store in cool place and use within 48
hours.
 Store tins and bottles in a cool place.
 Tin openers must be sharp so that metal shavings do not get into the foods.

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 BEVERAGES
A beverage is any drink which can be served either hot or cold. Examples include milk, coffee, fruit drinks,
sodas, etc.

Beverages are taken because of various reasons which include;

 To cool the body on hot days and warm it on cold days.
 They act as stimulants.
 To maintain the water level of the body. This is needed for the proper functioning of the cells.
 Help in digestion especially if taken after a meal.
 To improve on the nutrient intake e.g. proteins in milk, vitamin C in fresh fruit juice.
Beverages are divided into three (3) main groups. These are;
4. Refreshing beverages
These are usually cool and they quench thirst. They include all the types of fruit and vegetable juices,
flavoured and coloured water and all fizzy drinks. All the refreshing beverages or drinks contain
carbohydrates in form of sugar or sucrose. Fresh fruit and vegetable juices are nutritious and contain a lot
of vitamin C and minerals.
5. Stimulating beverages or stimulants e.g. tea, coffee and cocoa.
6. Nourishing beverages e.g. milk

General points to consider when preparing a fresh fruit drink

 Always make syrup.
 Wash all the fruits before using or peeling them.
 For some fruits like lemon, orange or pineapple, infuse the peel (rind) in the syrup to extract its flavor.
 Citrus fruits can be cut into half and squeezed on a juicer or squeezer. The others can be sliced and
pureed (pulped and softened) on a strainer, strain whenever necessary.
 Add the cooled and strained syrup to the extracted juice, stir well.
 Taste and add sugar if necessary.
 Chill because cold drinks should be served cold and not warm.

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