1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

The shoreline is the edge of land at the border of a large body of water.
It is one of dynamic geographic features and historically, ecologically,
economically important feature of the coastal area. An idealized definition of
the shoreline is that it coincides with the physical interface between land and
water. It continuously fluctuates due to the regular action of waves and tides.
The boundary of shore is identified by the shoreline at its closest to sea (low
tide) and closest to land (high tide). Tides are generated by the periodic rise and
fall of the sea water produced by the differential attraction of the sun and moon
on the ocean. Various morphological features, modifications and chronological
positions of shoreline are analysed with the information derived from multi-
dated satellite imageries, toposheets and GPS shoreline mapping along with
extended field survey.

Remote sensing provides a platform for rapid delineation of the coastline

at relatively low cost. Also, repeated observations over the time do allow
detailed qualification of shoreline change. In the addition to that, coastal
morphology may be qualified by coupling remotely sensed data with
information on the historic coastline position from archived sources. Remotely
sensed data can be provide value preliminary estimates of change and is unique
tool for research and monitoring coastal areas and deltaic environments.

The remote sensing and GIS applications have proved effective in the
delineation of coastal configuration and coastal landforms changes, extraction
of shallow water bathymetry. A coastal hazard may be defined as the potential
for causing damage to, or loss of, natural ecosystems buildings infrastructure.
 2

Coastal vulnerability is the measure of risk in coastal areas considering all

natural and artificial phenomenon.

1.2 DEFINITIONS OF THE PROBLEM

Shoreline is changed due to both natural and manmade interventions.

Effects of shoreline change either accretion or erosion in that particular location.
Natural causes the forces that moves the sand namely wind waves and currents,
by the supply of sand and the relative sea level changes control the littoral
transport are the most common cause the effects are trapping of sand on the
upstream side of the structure, trapping of sand in the entrance channel and outer
harbours, loss of sand to deep water. The structures are groynes and similar
structures perpendicular to the shores, ports, inlets jetties at tidal inlets and river
mouth, sand mining and detached breakwater. Littoral transport is the movement
of sediments in the near-shore by wave action and currents. A lack of sediments
within the littoral system contributes to erosion.

Groynes are normally built perpendicular to the shoreline with the purpose
of protecting a section of shoreline by blocking (part) of the littoral transport,
whereby sand is accumulated in the upstream side of groynes. However, the
trapping of the sand causes a deficit in the littoral drift budget and this kind of
Coast protection is always associated with corresponding erosion on the side of
the structures. In other words, groynes just shifts the erosion problem to the
downstream area. This is the reason groynes are often built in long series on the
shoreline, also called groynes field.

1.3 TOOLS FOR SHORELINE MONITORING

Shoreline is a dynamic system where sediments get eroded here and

deposited somewhere else and its attempts to establish equilibrium with respect
to prevailing marine processes. The location of shoreline and the changing
 3

boundary through time has become a keen importance to coastal engineers,

scientist and managers. Monitoring of shoreline is very important and informative
for people who live and depend on the coast. It also helps the agencies near the
coast to predict the future change and develop the measure to prevent and mitigate
from shoreline change. Now a day’s a costal, managers, scientist show interest
on shoreline, they analyse the change and develop the management plan, so that
the costal users are not greatly affected. Monitoring of shoreline is done using the
ways through field study, numerical modelling and remote sensing techniques.
from these remote sensing is the most accurate, less time consuming, respective
observation, cost effective. Hence remote sensing is the effect tool to monitor
shoreline change detection of shoreline change, the rate of potential change play
an important role in any coastal zone management such as hazard zoning, island
development studies, marine transport, erosion/accretion, Perspective Sediment
budget, conceptual/predictive modelling of coastal morphodynamics.

1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

 To analyse the rate of change over 2 decades for all shoreline changes
(2000-2020).
 To extract the shoreline from moderate resolution satellite image, high
resolution satellite image and analyse the shoreline change using DSAS.
 To identify the erosion and accretion at the study site.

1.5 SCOPE AND OUTLINE OF THE STUDY

Shoreline is dynamic. Various methods are being followed for monitoring

the dynamics of the shoreline such as field data collection (beach profiling and
 4

RTK surveys), levelling measure, remote sensing, etc. One such method to
identify the changes in shorelines is through satellite sensors. Satellite images are
available various resolutions (spatial, spectral, temporal, and radiometric).
Depending on the scale of analysis, the satellite images of different spatial
resolutions have been employed. This study focuses on the shoreline change
analysis (overall, decadal) using satellite images of different spatial resolution
and temporal resolution. The thesis is structured into five chapters including the
introductory part(Chapter 1) describing the general explanation about shoreline
changes, definition of the problem, tool for shoreline monitoring, aim, objective
and scope of study. (Chapter 2) describes literature review in detail. (Chapter 3)
describes the concept and methodology used in this research. The detailed
information on the tool used were discussed. (Chapter 4) describes the results
from long term shoreline change analysis and validation (Chapter 5) includes the
conclusions of the research findings and scope for further research.
 5

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 GENERAL

The literature is done the various authors on domains relevant to this

project is discussed in this chapter.

2.2 SHORELINE CHANGE ANALYSIS

Mirza Razi Imam Baig et al (2020) published a paper titled “Analysis of

shoreline changes in Vishakhapatnam coastal tract of Andhra Pradesh, India: an
application of digital shoreline analysis system (DSAS)”. The full basic sketch of
the Shoreline changes and analysis can be understand. The data collection and
use of the database as well as the statistical calculation like EPR and LRR can be
profound in this article. The long-term shoreline change assessment of
Vishakhapatnam district coast is studied for a period of 28 years from 1991 to
2018. Shoreline change evaluations are based on comparing four shorelines
extracted from different time period satellite imageries. Multi-temporal Landsat
satellite data.

Majid Nazeer, et al (2020) presented a paper titled “Coastline Vulnerability

Assessment through Landsat and Cubesats in A Coastal Mega City”. A baseline
was created for the two zones offshore and onshore of the coast, which remained
parallel to the shorelines, in order to draw transects for determining shoreline
changes. The baseline of the eastern constitutes segments of baseline and a
baseline of the western zone is divided into three segments because of the discrete
shoreline orientation to draw transects of length 3500 m and 1000 m respectively
from the baseline as it intersects all the shorelines. A total of 2516 transects were
drawn for the study area at 20 m intervals along the baseline (1194 for the eastern
zone, and 1322 for the western Zone). This transect interval was small enough
 6

comparatively to the satellite image resolution, but transect intervals below than
this would not provide a better understanding of shoreline change.

Gurugnanam B. (2020) presented a paper titled “Remote Sensing and GIS

Application for Shoreline Change Measurement in South East Coastal region of
Tamil Nadu, India”. Geospatial Technology have a vital role to analyses and
monitor the morphological changes on earth surface. [Kwarteng et al.2009]. For
the present study base map is prepared from the Survey of India Toposheet (SOI)
map and to analyze the shoreline changes Multi-spectral and Multi-Temporal
satellite data of Landsat 1991, 1999, resources at 2008 and were used for the
study. The input satellite imageries from the various data sources, had gone
through Image pre-processing includes the detection and restoration of band lines
were processed using Image processing software.

Parthasarathy K.S.S et al (2018) published a paper titled “Shoreline

Change Detection Using Geo-Spatial Techniques- A case study for Cuddalore
Coast”. Multiple shoreline position along with a fictitious baseline are the basic
requirement for analyzing the shoreline. Continuous shoreline position with
regular time interval was demarcated in ArcGIS software for the following four
years of 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015. Shoreline change analysis is done in order to
calculate the shoreline rate of change from time series of multiple shoreline
positions taken into account for shoreline calculation.

Pritam Chand et al (2010) published a paper titled “Shoreline change and

sea level rise along coast of Bhitarkanika wildlife sanctuary, Orissa: An analytical
approach of remote sensing and statistical techniques”.
 7

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 GENERAL

The methodology involved in this project and the description of the

methodology of various data and software, tools used in the project were
elaborate in this chapter.

3.2 DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

The present study area extends to a stretch of about 238km in the coastal
region of Kanyakumari-Thoothukudi Coastline, the present study area is located
in the south eastern part of coastal zone of Tamil Nadu State, India. It is located
between latitudes of 8° 4ʹ 38.25ʺ N to 9° 6ʹ 42.5ʺ N and longitudes of 77° 5ʹ 14ʺ
E to 78° 7ʹ 57.8ʺ E. The coastline length of these zones is 72km, and 163.5km in
Kanyakumari, and in Thoothukudi respectively (Figure 1.1). The majority of the
people in these coastal regions are employed in salt pans, sea-borne trading and
tourism. It is bounded on the east by Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay.

3.2.1 Overview of Study Area

Kanyakumari and Thoothukudi are both coastal cities located in the

southern part of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The climate of both cities is
influenced by their proximity to the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean.

Temperature: Both cities have a tropical climate, with high temperatures

throughout the year. The average temperature in Kanyakumari ranges from 24°C
to 32°C, while in Thoothukudi it ranges from 26°C to 34°C.
 8

Figure 1.1 Study Area

Figure 3.1 study area
 9

Humidity: Both cities have high humidity levels due to their coastal
location. The average relative humidity in Kanyakumari ranges from 65% to
85%, while in Thoothukudi it ranges from 70% to 85%.

Rainfall: Both cities receive moderate to heavy rainfall during the monsoon
season, which lasts from October to December. The average annual rainfall in
Kanyakumari is around 1600 mm, while in Thoothukudi it is around 900 mm.

Wind: Both cities experience strong winds during the monsoon season. The
prevailing winds in Kanyakumari are from the southwest, while in Thoothukudi
they are from the northeast.

Overall, the climate of both Kanyakumari and Thoothukudi is hot and

humid throughout the year, with heavy rainfall during the monsoon season. The
coastal location of both cities also makes them prone to cyclones and other
extreme weather events.

3.2.2 Shoreline Change Analysis

The change in shoreline through process of accretion and erosion can be

analysed in a geographical information system (GIS) by measuring difference in
past and present shoreline location. Several resources are available for both
extracting shoreline positions and quantifying shoreline change shortwave near
infrared wave is used in location and delineation land water boundary Shoreline
change analysis is the process of studying how the position and shape of a
shoreline or coastal area changes over time. This can be done using a variety of
techniques, including satellite imagery, aerial photography, and ground surveys.

The analysis of shoreline change is important for a number of reasons,

including the management of coastal resources, the protection of coastal
communities and infrastructure, and the understanding of coastal processes.
 10

Shoreline change can be caused by a variety of factors, including erosion, sea

level rise, storms, and human activities such as development and dredging.

To conduct a shoreline change analysis, researchers typically compare data

from different time periods to determine the amount and direction of change. This
can involve measuring changes in the position of the shoreline, the width of the
beach, and the elevation of the coastal landform. The resulting data can be used
to develop predictive models and inform coastal management decisions.

3.3 DATA USED

The data which are used for this study are LANDSAT images, Shoreline,
Baseline. LANDSAT images are downloaded from USGS, Shoreline and
Baseline are manually delineated from LANDSAT images.

3.3.1 LANDSAT

Landsat is a series of Earth observation satellites operated by the United

States Geological Survey (USGS) and National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). The Landsat program has been collecting and providing
satellite imagery of the Earth's surface since 1972, making it the longest
continuously acquired dataset of its kind. Landsat satellites use a combination of
visible, infrared, and thermal sensors to capture high-resolution images of the
Earth's surface. The images are used for a wide range of applications, including
land use and land cover mapping, environmental monitoring, natural resource
management, and disaster response. One of the main advantages of Landsat
imagery is its temporal resolution, which allows for the detection of changes in
land cover and land use over time. The imagery is also free and publicly available,
 11

making it a valuable resource for researchers, governments, and non-

governmental organizations. Landsat data is used for a variety of applications,
including monitoring deforestation, tracking changes in water resources,
assessing crop health, and mapping urban growth. Additionally, Landsat data is
used in conjunction with other datasets and analytical tools to study a range of
environmental and social issues, such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and
land degradation.

3.3.2 SHORLINE

A shoreline is the boundary between land and water, where the land and
the ocean or other bodies of water meet. Shorelines are dynamic and constantly
changing due to natural processes such as erosion, accretion, and sedimentation,
as well as human activities such as coastal development and dredging. Shorelines
can be classified based on their morphology, which refers to the physical
characteristics of the shoreline, such as its shape, slope, and composition.

3.3.3 BASELINE

A baseline is a fixed reference line used to measure shoreline positions and

calculate shoreline change rates. The baseline is typically a straight line that runs
parallel to the shoreline and is located a fixed distance inland from the shoreline.
The baseline is an important component of DSAS because it provides a consistent
reference for measuring shoreline change over time. By selecting the same
baseline from multiple time periods, DSAS can calculate the rate of shoreline
change and identify areas where erosion or accretion.

3.4 SOFTWARE USED

ArcGIS v.10.4

ArcGIS software environment, is a powerful tool for analyzing and

visualizing geographic data. ArcGIS provides a wide range of tools for data
 12

preparation, analysis, and visualization, making it a useful tool for shoreline

change analysis.

3.5 TOOL:
The tool is to be used in this study is Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS)
which is to be used to analyse the rate of change of shoreline.

3.5.1 DSAS:
The Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) is a freely available
software application that works within the Esri Geographic Information System
(ArcGIS) software to compute rate-of-change statistics for a time series of
shoreline data. DSAS provides an automated method for establishing
measurement locations, performs rate calculations, provides the statistical data
necessary to assess the robustness of the rates, and includes a beta model of
shoreline forecasting. DSAS version 5.0 (v5.0) was released in December 2018
and has been tested for compatibility with ArcGIS versions 10.4 and 10.5 and
above versions.
 13

3.6 METHODOLGY CHART

The following Figure represent the methodology used in this project in

form of a flowchart.

Satellite Data

Landsat images (USGS)

2000, 2005,2010,2015,2020

Base line creations Shoreline creation

Digitization of shoreline

DSAS (v.5.0)

Calculate shoreline change

statistics

EPR LRR

Figure 3.2 flowchat for shoreline analysis

 14

3.6.1 Data Collected

The Landsat satellites use sensors to collect data in multiple spectral

bands, including visible, near-infrared, and thermal infrared wavelengths. This
data can be used to create detailed images of the Earth's surface, which can be
used for a variety of applications, including monitoring land use changes, tracking
vegetation growth, and mapping natural resources.

The USGS manages a large archive of Landsat data, which is available for
download free of charge from the agency's EarthExplorer website. The Landsat
data is available at different spatial and temporal resolutions, ranging from coarse
resolution data collected by the early Landsat satellites to high-resolution data
collected by the more recent missions. For this project Landsat images of the year
2000, 2005, 2010, 2025, 2020 were downloaded from USGS.

3.6.2 Shoreline creation

A shoreline is the boundary between the land and the water, where the
land meets the sea or a lake. It is the dynamic interface between the land and the
water, where the forces of waves, tides, and currents shape the shoreline over
time. The shoreline can be defined by the mean high water mark, which is the
average height of the highest tide over a given period of time, or by the mean
sea level, which is the average height of the ocean's surface over a long period
of time.

In ArcGis we have to create a personal database. And then create a new

feature class to hold the shoreline data. This can be done by right-clicking on
the geodatabase and selecting "New" and "Feature Class".

Then fix correct the projection and then meet the “Shoreline Attribute
Field Requirements” in Figure 3.3.
 15

Figure 3.3 Shoreline Attribute Field Requirements

Then using the editing tools in ArcGIS, digitize the shoreline by tracing
along the water's edge. Ensure that the shoreline is continuous and does not
overlap or intersect with any other features.

Once the shoreline is digitized, add attributes to the feature class to

describe the shoreline, such as the date it was created, its accuracy, and the
source of the data. And save the edits with attribute table.

3.6.3 Baseline creation

The baseline is constructed by the user and serves as the starting point for
all transects cast by the DSAS application. Transects intersect each shoreline to
create a measurement point, and these measurement points are used to calculate
shoreline change rates.

Similarly create the personal database and feature class like shoreline
creation steps in Figure 3.4 and then meet the “Baseline Attribute Field
Requirements”.

Figure 3.4 Baseline Attribute Field Requirements.

 16

DSAS v5.0 supports a baseline located anywhere—offshore, onshore, or in

the middle of the shoreline data (midshore) in Figure 3.5. Because of this
increased functionality, there are changes to the baseline component of the Set
Default Parameters window from prior versions of DSAS. We created onshore
baseline with 200m distance form the 2000’s shoreline.

And the save the edits with attribute, now both shoreline and baseline are
created.

Figure 3.5 Baseline Defnition

3.6.4 Digitization of shoreline

All shoreline positions that are to be used in the change-rate analysis must
reside in a single feature class in the geodatabase. The following steps describe
how to merge multiple feature classes into a single feature class in a
geodatabase.
 17

1.Confirm that all shoreline files have the same spatial reference (meter
units in a projected coordinate system) and that the required shoreline attribute
fields have been created and populated with data. For example, use caution when
combining shorelines if the date field is not complete.

2.Open the Merge tool from ArcToolbox (Data Management Tools >>
General >> Merge).

3.Add the shoreline feature classes to the input features list in the Merge
window. This tool can be used on feature classes in a geodatabase as described
but can also be used to merge data from multiple shapefiles and then imported
into the geodatabase.

4.Specify a new output file as the combined (merged) shoreline.

3.6.5 DSAS

The ArcGIS add-in is available in compressed format for download at

https://code.usgs.gov/cch/dsas. Once the file has been uncompressed and
installed in windows.

After install DSAS add-in in windows Open ArcMap. If the DSAS 5v.0
toolbar application is not automatically added, you can add it by clicking
“Customize” on the main ArcMap menu, pointing to “Toolbars,” and then
selecting the DSAS v5.0 toolbar. Once selected, the DSAS v5.0 toolbar should
appear.

Once the required geodatabase and input feature classes have been created
or imported from shapefiles and all necessary feature classes have been added
and properly attributed, DSAS can be used within ArcMap to establish transect
locations and calculate change statistics explained in Figure 3.6.
 18

The inputs are shoreline and baseline data in DSAS tool bar and then the
outputs will be transcets and shoreline change statistics

Figure 3.6 DSAS workflow

3.6.6 Calculate Shoreline Change Statistics

Shoreline change analysis can provide valuable insights into the rate of
coastal erosion or accretion over time. By comparing shoreline positions at
different time periods, it is possible to calculate the rate of change using statistical
 19

methods. The most common statistic used to describe rate of change is the linear
regression slope, which represents the average rate of change over the entire time
period analyzed. Other statistics, such as the mean, median, and standard
deviation of shoreline change, can also provide useful information about the
variability of shoreline change rates. Additionally, analyzing rates of change for
different segments of the coastline can reveal spatial patterns in erosion or
accretion. Overall, using statistical methods to analyze shoreline change rates can
help to better understand the magnitude and variability of coastal processes and
inform management and adaptation strategies.
There are five types of methods to calculate rate of change they are
NSM – Net Shoreline movement
SCE – Shoreline Change Envelop
EPR – End Point Rate
LRR – Linear Regression Rate
WLR – Weighted Linear Regression Rate

Methods used in this study are EPR, LRR

3.6.7 End Point Rate (EPR)

The end point rate is calculated by dividing the distance of shoreline

movement by the time elapsed between the oldest and the most recent shoreline.
The major Advantage of the EPR are the ease of computation and minimal
requirement of only two shoreline dates. The major disadvantage is that in case
where more data are available, the additional information is ignored. Changes in
sign (for example, accretion to erosion), magnitude, or cyclical trends may be
missed. It shown in Figure 3.7.
 20

Figure 3.7 End Point Rate

3.6.8 Linear Regression Rate (LRR)

A linear regression rate-of-change statistics can be determined by fitting a

least-square regression line to all shoreline point for a particular transects. The
regression line is placed so that the sum of the square residuals (determined by
squaring the offset distance of each data point from the regression rate is the slope
of the line in Figure 3.8. The method of linear regression includes these features:
(1) All the data are used, regardless of change in trend or accuracy. (2) The method
is purely computation, (3) The calculation is based on accepted statistical
concepts, and (4) The method is easy to employ (Dolan et al., 2000). However,
the linear regression method is susceptible to outlier effect and also tends of
underestimate the rate of change relative to other statistics.
 21

Figure 3.8 Linear Regression Rate

 22

CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 GENERAL

The various results and outputs estimated from the project are discussed in
this chapter.

4.2 SHORELINE CHANGES

Shoreline change were analyzed using moderate resolution satellite

images, high resolution satellite images, remote sensing and GIS techniques for
the past two decades. The results were calculation and changed for long term
change.

Figure 4.1 shorelines

 23

Figure 4.1 represent the shoreline and baseline for the Kanyakumari and
thoothukudi coastline.

Figure 4.2 Transects

ujuj9
 24

Figure 4.2 shows the transects which are created by DSAS tool.

Figure 4.3 Calculated End Point Rate.

 25

Figure 4.3 shows the end point rate calculated by dividing the distance of
shoreline movement by the time elapsed between the oldest and the most recent
shoreline.

Figure 4.4 Calculated Linear Regression Rate

 26

This Figure 4.4 shows the LRR linear Regression rate done by DSAS A linear
regression rate-of-change statistics can be determined by fitting a least-square
regression line to all shoreline point for a particular transects. The regression line
is placed so that the sum of the square residuals determined by squaring the offset
distance of each data point from the regression rate is the slope of the line.

4.3 OVERALL SHORELINE CHANGES

The End Point Rate has the short term analysis with low accuracy which
shows the net shoreline movement with respect to the time interval unit
meter/year which shows in graph.

EPR
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1
126
251
376
501
626
751
876
1001
1126
1251
1376
1501
1626
1751
1876
2001
2126
2251
2376
2501
2626
2751
2876
3001
3126
3251
3376
3501
3626
3751
3876
4001
4126
4251
-10.0
-20.0
-30.0
-40.0
-50.0
-60.0

Figure 4.5 EPR Graph

END POINT RATE (short term analysis with low accuracy Figure 4.5)

CLASSIFICATION RANGE (m)

High erosion > -46
Moderate erosion -46 - -25
Stable -5 – 14
Moderate accertion 14 – 34
High accertion > 34
 27

The linear regression rate is the slope of the line. The method of linear
regression includes these features, All the data are used, regardless of changes in
trend or accuracy. The method is purely computational, The calculation is based
on accepted statistical concepts.

LRR
40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
1299

3659
1
119
237
355
473
591
709
827
945
1063
1181

1417
1535
1653
1771
1889
2007
2125
2243
2361
2479
2597
2715
2833
2951
3069
3187
3305
3423
3541

3777
3895
4013
4131
4249
-10.0

-20.0

-30.0

-40.0

-50.0

Figure 4.6 LRR Graph

LINEAR REGRESSION RATE (statistical analysis Figure 4.6)

CLASSIFICATION RANGE (m)

High erosion > -36
Moderate erosion -19 - -2
Stable -2 - 13
Moderate accertion 13 - 30
High accertion > 30
 28

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

This study clearly demonstrated that the integration ofremote sensing and
GIS technology which shows both erosion and accertion occurs in this study area
reasonable accuracy. The study shows that erosion rate in study area is 36.67 m
and accretion rate is 30.82 m. Beach areas have sand bars and free stone particles
and topographically delicate stone which is effectively erodible. Further, this
study may be carried out using high resolution satellite images or RTK (real-time
kinematic) GPS surveys with new invention like DGPS and Geo tagging
applications so as to demarcate the shoreline more accurately. Littoral drift, tidal
action, near shore bathymetry, construction of seawalls, groins or breakwaters etc.
are factors which are natural as well as manmade and modify the shoreline
conFigureuration. This output could be more useful for coastal engineers,
planners and coastal zone management authorities to facilitate suitable
management plans and regulation forcoastal areas of India with similar
geographic conditions.
 29

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