ch1 Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition, Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
Chapter 1: Introduction
 What Operating Systems Do
 Computer-System Organization
 Computer-System Architecture
 Operating-System Structure
 Operating-System Operations
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management
 Protection and Security
 Distributed Systems
 Special-Purpose Systems
 Computing Environments
 Open-Source Operating Systems
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
Objectives
 To provide a grand tour of the major operating systems components
 To provide coverage of basic computer system organization
What is an Operating System?
 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
Computer System Structure
 Computer system can be divided into four components

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
4 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
4 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of
the users
4 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
4 People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
Operating System Definition
 OS is similar to a government
§ performs no useful function by itself
§ It simply provides an environment within which other
programs can do useful work
 OS is a resource allocator
§ Manages all resources
§ Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use
 OS is a control program
§ Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer
Operating System Definition (Cont)
 No universally accepted definition

 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is good
approximation (it means the OS plus/minus other things and what the
vendor changed in it.)
 But varies wildly
 “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel.
Everything else is either a system program (ships with the operating
system) or an application program
Computer Startup
 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Knows how to loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization
 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles
Computer-System Operation
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing
an interrupt
Interrupt
 Interrupt: An interrupt is a signal sent by hardware or software to the

processor for processing
Example: I/O interrupt, device interrupts
 CPU saves the state of the ongoing process and takes attention to the
interrupt generated
https://www.scaler.com/topics/operating-system/interrupt-handling/
Interrupt Handler and Handling
 Interrupt handler:
§ A generated interrupt is given access to the interrupt handler to process
the interrupt by CPU
§ Interrupt handler is also known as Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)
§ ISR manages the request and send it to the CPU
§ When the ISR is complete, the process gets resumed
§ For example, the keyboard has its interrupt handler, and the printer has
its interrupt handler, and so on.
 Interrupt handling: The entire process is called interrupt handling
How to handle interrupt? (1/3)
 Interrupt Controller:
§ An interrupt first goes to hardware knowns as interrupt controller
§ This controller will generate an interrupt to the CPU
§ After completion of one instruction cycle, the CPU checks whether an
interrupt is pending or not
§ If any interrupt is not there, then the CPU will continue with the next
instruction
§ But if there is some un-serviced interrupt, then the CPU will pay
attention to that interrupt
 Interrupt handler:
§ One thing to note here is that the state of the current program which
was in execution is saved along with its corresponding register states
§ After saving the state of the current process, the control is then given to
a program to handle the interrupt
 The CPU will now detect the kind of interrupt and its respective interrupt
number
 The interrupt number and its corresponding instructions set address(or
process’s base address) are stored in a vector table known as IVT or
Interrupt Vector Table
 Using the interrupt number and IVT, the CPU will get to know the base
address of the process that is needed to handle the respective interrupt
 The control will be given to that process to handle the interrupt and this
process is known as Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)
 The interrupt handler will now execute the necessary set of instructions
(ISR) to handle the interrupt
 After its execution, the control will be coming back to the very process
which was suspended. The suspended process will now be resumed
Handling I/O Interrupts (1/3)
 I/O interrupts are bi-directional
 A peripheral or terminal device like a keyboard or mouse either

sends some data to the memory or receives some data.
 The sending of the signal is known as Interrupt
Acknowledgement
 The CPU sends a read interrupt or a message to the Interrupt

Handler that the CPU is ready to handle I/O operations
 After sending a read interrupt, the CPU does the ongoing work and
meanwhile,
 if an interrupt is generated from the peripheral devices like
keyboard or mouse, then the CPU shifts its focus
 I/O module sends an interrupt to the interrupt controller only

 when it is ready with some data to be written on memory (also
known as words)
 After getting the interrupt from the interrupt controller, the CPU calls
the respective interrupt handler.
 It is the task of the respective interrupt handler to write words to
the memory.
Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
 Example: Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with
magnetic recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer
Storage Hierarchy
 Storage systems organized in hierarchy
 Speed
 Cost
 Size
 Volatility
 Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory
can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage
Storage-Device Hierarchy
Caching
 Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in
hardware, operating system, software)
 Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is
there
 If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
 If not, data copied to cache and used there
 The top four levels of memory in Fig. 1.4 can be constructed using
semiconductor memory
 Solid-state disks have several variants but in general are faster
than magnetic disks and are nonvolatile.
How a Modern Computer Works
Direct Memory Access Structure
 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to

memory speeds
 Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to
main memory without CPU intervention
 Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per
byte
Computer-System Architecture: single
general-purpose processor
 Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through
mainframes)
 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
 One main CPU execute a general-purpose instruction set
 All single- processor systems have other special-purpose processors as
well.
 They may come in the form of device-specific processors, such as disk,
keyboard, and graphics controllers; or,
 on mainframes, they may come in the form of more general-purpose
processors, such as I/O processors that move data rapidly among the
components of the system
 All of these special-purpose processors run a limited instruction set and do
not run user processes.
Computer-System Architecture: single
general-purpose processor
 They are managed by the operating system
 For example, a disk-controller microprocessor receives a sequence of

requests from the main CPU and implements its own disk queue and
scheduling algorithm. This arrangement relieves the main CPU of the
overhead of disk scheduling.
 PCs contain a microprocessor in the keyboard to convert the keystrokes

into codes to be sent to the CPU.
Computer-System Architecture:
Multiprocessors
 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems, multicore system
 First appeared in server, then desktop, laptop, now tablets, and smartphones
 Advantages include
1. Increased throughput: more work in less time
2. Economy of scale: cost less than equivalent multiple single-processor,
because of sharing peripherals, mass storage, and power supplies
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance, one processor
failure does not halt the system
 Two types
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing: boss-worker relationship (SunOS V4 provides)
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): All processors are peers, no boss-worker
relationship (Windows, Mac os X, Linux, Solaries)
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
A Dual-Core Design
Blade Servers
 Blade servers are a relatively recent development in which multiple

processor boards, I/O boards, and networking boards are placed in the
same chassis.
 The difference between these and traditional multiprocessor systems is that
each blade-processor board boots independently and runs its own operating
system
 Some blade-server boards are multiprocessor as well
 In essence, these servers consist of multiple independent multiprocessor
systems
Clustered Systems
 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together,
loosely coupled
 Each node may be single or multicore system
 Linked via LAN
 Each node monitors one or more
 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
4 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode,
while other runnung
4 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
4 Applications must be written to use parallelization
Clustered Systems: General Structure
Operating System Structure
 Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has
one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
Operating System Structure
 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches

jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running,
creating interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory [process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time [ CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to
run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory
Operating-System Operations
 Interrupt driven by hardware
 Modern operating systems are interrupt driven
 Software error or request creates exception or trap
Division by zero, request for operating system service

 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each
other or the operating system
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
4 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or
kernel code
4 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
4 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 MS-DOS for the Intel 8088 architecture, has no mode bit, i.e., no dual mode
 Contemporary operating system, e.g., Windows 7, Unix, Linux has dual
mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources

 Set interrupt after specific period
 Operating system decrements counter
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program
that exceeds allotted time
Process Management
 A process is a program in execution.
 It is a unit of work within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is
an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of
next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system
running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads
 Process management involves various tasks like creation, scheduling,
termination of processes, and a dead lock.
 Process operations can be easily controlled with the help of PCB (Process
Control Block) containing process id, priority, state, CPU registers, etc.
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection
with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Memory Management
 Memory management(MM) is the functionality of an operating system which
handles or manages primary memory
 and moves processes back and forth between main memory and disk
during execution.
 Memory management activities
 Memory management keeps track of each and every memory location,
4 regardless of either it is allocated to some process or it is free.
 It checks how much memory is to be allocated to processes.
 It decides which process will get memory at what time.
 It tracks whenever some memory gets freed or unallocated and
correspondingly it updates the status.
Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
4 Varying
properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
 OS activities include
4 Creating and deleting files and directories
4 Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
4 Mapping files onto secondary storage
4 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Mass-Storage Management
 MSDs include floppy disk drives, optical drives, hard disk drives, tape drives,
external hard drives, RAID and USB storage devices.
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that
must be kept for a “long” period of time
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
 Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed
 Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
 Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
I/O Subsystem
 The I/O (input output) subsystem consists of the system bus, disk
controllers, disks, tape drives, and other I/O devices.
 One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from
the user
 I/O subsystem responsible for
 Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping
of output of one job with input of other jobs)
 General device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices
Protection and Security
 Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS
 Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity

theft, theft of service
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can
do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights
Computing Environments
 Traditional computer
 Office environment
4 PCs connected to a network, terminals attached to
mainframe or minicomputers providing batch and
timesharing
4 Now portals allowing networked and remote systems
access to same resources
 Home networks
4 Used to be single system, then modems
4 Now firewalled, networked
Computing Environments (Cont)
 Client-Server Computing
 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by
clients
4 Compute-server provides an interface to client to request
services (i.e. database)
4 File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve
files
Peer-to-Peer Computing
 Another model of distributed system
 P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
 Instead all nodes are considered peers
 May each act as client, server or both
 Node must join P2P network
4 Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or
4 Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service
via discovery protocol
 Examples include Napster and Gnutella
Cloud Computing
 Cloud computing is a type of computing that delivers computing, storage,
and even applications as a service across a network
Many types of cloud computing:
 Public cloud—a cloud available via the Internet to anyone willing to pay for
the services
 Private cloud—a cloud run by a company for that company’s own use
 Hybrid cloud—a cloud that includes both public and private cloud
components
 Software as a service (SaaS)—one or more applications (such as word
processors or spreadsheets) available via the Internet
 Platform as a service (PaaS)—a software stack ready for application use via
the Internet (for example, a database server)
 Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)—servers or storage available over the
Internet (for example, storage available for making backup copies of
production data)
Cloud Computing
Open-Source Operating Systems
 Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just
binary closed-source
 Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM)
movement
 Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft” GNU
Public License (GPL)
 Examples include GNU/Linux, BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS X), and
Sun Solaris
End of Chapter 1
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition, Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009

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ch1 Introduction

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Chapter 1: Introduction

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

 Computer system can be divided into four components

 No universally accepted definition

 Interrupt: An interrupt is a signal sent by hardware or software to the

 Interrupt handling: The entire process is called interrupt handling

 A peripheral or terminal device like a keyboard or mouse either

 The CPU sends a read interrupt or a message to the Interrupt

 I/O module sends an interrupt to the interrupt controller only

 Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to

 For example, a disk-controller microprocessor receives a sequence of

 PCs contain a microprocessor in the keyboard to convert the keystrokes

 Blade servers are a relatively recent development in which multiple

 Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches

 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources

 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

 Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

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