2 Constitutive Laws - Rocks

Introduction to Reservoir Geomechanics
1 Introduction
Definitions and some challenges of reservoir geomechanics.
Modeling of coupled phenomena.
2 Constitutive Laws: Behavior of Rocks

Fundamentals of Pore-Mechanics.
3 Constitutive Laws: Behavior of Fractures

Geomechanics of Fractured Media.
4 Reservoir Geomechanics
Elements of a geomechanical model and applications.
5 Unconventional Reservoirs
Naturally fractured reservoirs, hydraulic fracture, proppant and fracture
closure model, validation (microseismicity).
6 Advanced Topics
Injection of reactive fluids and rock integrity.
Constitutive Laws
micro lab
Earth Sciences and Engineering:

Earth
Problems Scales
basin
wellbore reservoir
Deformable Porous Media
 Stresses
 Continuum mechanics deals with deformable bodies.
 The stresses considered in continuum mechanics are only those produced by deformation
of the body.
 Stress is a measure of the average force per unit area of a surface within a deformable
body on which internal forces act.
 It is a measure of the intensity of the internal forces acting between particles of a
deformable body across imaginary internal surfaces.
 These internal forces are produced between the particles in the body as a reaction to
external forces applied on the body.
In general, stress is not uniformly distributed over the cross-section of a material body,
and consequently the stress at a point in a given region is different from the average stress
over the entire area.
Therefore, it is necessary to define the stress not over a given area but at a specific point
in the body.
Normal and Shear Stresses:
Definition:
stress vector
(acting in a infinitesimal surface)
Decomposition of stress vector:
Normal stress:
Shear stress:
Stress Representation
In 3 dimensions :
Defined for each point

for a body in equilibrium,
subjected to external load
Mohr Circle:
3D representation of Mohr Circle:

 Cauchy Stresses
 According to Cauchy, the stress at any point in an object assumed to behave as a
continuum is completely defined by the nine components of a second-order tensor of type
known as the Cauchy stress tensor.
 zy  x  xy  xz 
 zx  yz  
y σ   yx  y  yz 
 xz  zx  zy  z 
z  
 xy  yx
y
e.g. xy acts on the x face in the y direction,
x
x
 The Cauchy stress tensor is used for stress analysis of material bodies experiencing small
deformations.
For large deformations, also called finite deformations, other measures of stress, such as the
first and second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensors, the Biot stress tensor, and the Kirchhoff stress
tensor, are required
 Stress Sign Convention
In Soil/Rock Mechanics compression is

considered as positive and tension as negative.
+ –
Compressive stresses Tensile stresses

are positives are negatives
Stress, stress changes in space and time
Principal stresses:
In 3 dimensions :  1  max(  a ,  b ,  c )
 3  min(  a ,  b ,  c )
 2  the remaining component
Rotation of
reference axes
Among the infinite number of triplets of

planes which satisfy the fundamental
stress Theorem, there is always one set
(=abc) on which no shear stress is present.
 x  xy  xz   1 0 0
 
σ   xy y  yz  σ   0 2 0 
 xz  yz  z  xyz  0 0  3  abc

full tensor diagonal tensor

Stress, stress changes in space and time
 Principal Stresses
 The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law under a change in the
system of coordinates.
A graphical representation of this transformation law is the Mohr's circle for stress
 At every point in a stressed body there are at least three planes, called principal planes,
with normal vectors , called principal directions, where the corresponding stress vector is
perpendicular to the plane and where there are no normal shear stresses.
The three stresses normal to these principal planes are called principal stresses
 1 0 0 
1   2   3  Principal stresses σ   0  2 0 
 0 0  3 
Stress state in lab experiments:
 1 0 0  1 0 0
σ   0 1 0  σ   0 3 0 
 0 0  1   0 0  3 
 1 0 0
σ   0 0 0 
 0 0 0 
TRIAXIAL TEST
1 1
F2
F3
s3 = 300 kPa
 -
s3 = 200 kPa
F1
s3 = 100 kPa 2  3
0 a (axial strain)
Mohr-Coulomb criteria for shear strength (minimum 3 samples):

t (shear stress)
f
c
s (normal stress)
 3  1
TRIAXIAL TEST
s’3 (s’1- s’3) s’1 1/2(s’1 - s’3) 1/2(s’1 + s’3)

Test
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
1 50 200 250 100 150
2 140 335 475 168 308
3 300 520 760 260 500
c’
Stress Fields
Principal stresses and principal planes of stress:

Very useful because
i) the position of principal surfaces of stress can often be identified
ii) the orientation of structures (faults etc) depends on the position
of the principal stresses
Where are surfaces of principal stresses?

tension due
to water load
arch
effect
Stress Fields
In 2D analysis: stress field and displacement field:
Finite element analysis of a tunnel excavation:
Mesh Stress field Displacement field

Stresses are related to Strains
 Axial behavior
 Example of elasto-plastic behaviour: tensile test (1D) in metals
F Yielding
F
A
L A
C
Y A
L0
Elastic
behavior
L
O D
L0
B
Stresses are related to Strains
 3D behavior
σ'  D  ε stress-strain relationship
D: constitutive tensor Elasticity

Visco-Elasticity
Plasticity
CAP Model: Elastoplastic multi-mechanism model Visco-Plasticity
Damage
Strains are related to Displacements
 Strain Tensor
Cauchy’s infinitesimal strain tensor:
y
v  1 1 
 x 2
 xy
2
 xz 
 
u  1 1 
ε   xy y  yz
x 2 2 
1 1 
y
  xz  yz z 
u
 2 2 
θ1
Compatibility conditions:
v
θ2 x
1

ε  u  uT
2

Strains
extension/contraction: distortion:
 Strain Tensor  Compression + Displacement vector

 Small deformations : u = (u,v,w)T
Component x: u
1
y
v 2

ε  u  uT  Component y: v
Component z: w
Symmetric part of the
or: displacement gradient tensor
u u v w
x x   y   z  
x y z
y
u + v u
 xy   xy   yx   +   xy   yx  2 xy
θ1 x y
v w u
θ2 x
 xz   xz   zx   +   xz   zx  2 xz
x z
w v
 yz   yz   zy   +   yz   zy  2 yz
y z
 Strain Tensor  Compression + Displacement vector

 Small deformations : u = (u,v,w)T
Component x: u
1
y
v 2

ε  u  uT  Component y: v
Component z: w
Symmetric part of the
or: displacement gradient tensor
u u v w
x x   y   z  
x y z
V
volumetric strain: v     u  vx  uy   z displacement
Divergence of the
vector
 xy  Vxy0   yx      xy   yx  2 xy
x y
w u 1
Note:  xz   xz   zx   ε    xzu  
 zxuT  2 xz
x z 2
Stress Sign Convention:
w v V

if positive for compressionyz   yz   zy    v    yz 
 zyu 2x  yz y   z
y z V0
Equilibrium Equation
MOMENTUM BALANCE (EQUILIBRIUM)

 Consider a volume of a porous medium.
 If inertial terms are neglected, the distribution of total stress within this
volume can be shown to satisfy the equilibrium equation.
 ij
 Fi  0 i  1, 2, 3
x j
or
 σ  b  0 wikipedia
Where the sij (or s) is the total stress on the medium and Fi (or b) is the
body force per unit volume of the medium.
The nine stress components are shown in figure above.

 ij
 Fi  0 i  1, 2, 3
x j
or
  (σ '  p f  I)  b  0
 wikipedia
σ

 ij
 Fi  0 i  1, 2, 3
x j
or
σ'
  (D  ε    p f  I)  b  0
  wikipedia
σ

  
ε

 
 1  
 T

  D   u  u     p f  I   b  0
 2  
 
wikipedia
σ
Effective Stress Principle
 Pore Water Pressure, Total & Effective Stresses

 Effective Stress
 Terzaghi (1936) proposed the principle of effective stress(*), the most
important equation in soils mechanics.
 The effective stress (s’) is the component of the normal stress taken
by the soil skeleton.
 It is the effective stress which controls the volume and the strength of Karl Terzaghi
the soil. (1883 - 1963)
 It is assumed saturated soil, water incompressibility and rigid soil particles.
s  s  uw
efective stress total stress pore water pressure
(*)“All the measurable effects of a change of stress, such as compression, distortion and a change in the
shearing resistance are exclusively due to changes in effective stress…every investigation of the stability
of a saturated body of earth requires the knowledge of both the total and the neutral stresses.”
(Terzaghi, 1936)
Normal Stress in the Stress Tensor:
s  s  pw
 Multiphase material (solid and liquid)

 Incorporation of an additional variable: pore pressure
 Coupled phenomena (mechanical & hydraulic)
The concept of effective stress is based on the pioneering work in

soil mechanics by Terzaghi (1923) who noted that the behavior of a
soil (or a saturated rock) will be controlled by the effective stresses,
the differences between total stresses and pore pressure. The so-
called “simple” or Terzaghi definition of effective stress is:
σ' σ  p f  I
Effective Total Fluid Identity

Stress Stress Pressure Tensor
Tensor Tensor
• the soil particles

A saturated porous medium comprises two
phases: • the pore water
= +
Saturated soil Solid Skeleton Water
The strengths of these two phases are very different:

 the soil skeleton can resist shears. Two basic mechanisms:
• inter particle friction
• particles interlocking
 the shear strength of water is zero
• water can only sustains isotropic pressure.
Physical Interpretation
σ : total stresses externally applied

σ
σ : stresses that act through the contacts
between particles (Am)
pw : water pressure (Aw )

pw At : total area
At = Am + Aw
σ
At
σ'  σ  p f  I
In terms of normal components: σ' σ  p f
(Zoback, M. D., 2007)
It is relatively straightforward to see that the stresses
acting on individual grains result from the difference
between the externally applied normal stresses and the
internal fluid pressure. If one considers the force acting
at a single grain contact, for example, all of the force
acting on the grain is transmitted to the grain contact.
Thus, the force balance is
σ  AT  σ c  Ac  ( AT  Ac ) p f
σ  aσ c  (1  a ) p f
lim aσ c  σ '
a0
σ'
σ '  σ  (1  a ) p f  σ  p f , for very small contact areas.
The strength of the soil skeleton and the pore water are so
different, therefore it is necessary to consider the stress
acting in each phase separately
pw
Water pressure
Soils as one phase

σ Total Stress material
 Based on experimental information it can be concluded that Terzaghi’s

definition of effective stresses works well for a number of soils, but for
other cases it needs an upgrade.
 A more general law for effective stresses can be expressed as:
σ' σ    p f  I
It is and extension of the one proposed by Terzaghi s   s  pw 
where a is a physical constant known as Biot parameter.
 Geertsma (1957) and Skempton (1960) suggested:
K 
  1  
where:  Ks 
K: is the drained bulk modulus of the dry aggregate or rock

(i.e. porous medium skeleton).
Ks: is the bulk modulus of the soil’s/rock’s individual solid grains

 Based on experimental information it can be concluded that Terzaghi’s

definition of effective stresses works well for a number of soils, but for
other cases it needs an upgrade.
 A more general law for effective stresses can be expressed as:
σ' σ    p f  I
  1 K / Ks Biot’s constant
Bulk modulus of the overall skeleton Solid phase (rock grains) bulk modulus
For rocks, it is important to take into account the Biot’s constant.  1

For soils, it is equal to one.   1
For unconsolidated or weak rocks, it is close to one.  ~1
  1 K / Ks
 It is clear that: 01
 For solid rock (i.e. practically no interconnect pores): K  Ks
lim   0
f 0
s ij  s ij'
Therefore the pore pressure has no influence on porous media behavior.
 For a highly porous soil (e.g. soil with an open structure): K  K s
lim   1
f1
s ij'  s ij  p  ij
Therefore the pore pressure has the maximum influence and the Terzaghi
principle of effective stress is recovered.
Biot’s Effective Stresses s ij  s ij'   p  ij
 Measured values of  (Biot’s parameter) for two porous materials:
 Uncemented Sand
 Sandstone
 In both cases  decrease

with confining pressure
Zoback (2009)
Biot’s Effective Stresses (Lade & De Boer, 1997)
 1 0 1  0
Soil Rock
Porosity
Strength
Derivation of Biot’s Constant
(Lewis and Schrefler, 1998)
Elasticity (solids): dσ  D  dε
Poro-elasticity for soils: dσ '  D  dε

(incompressible grains)
( d σ '  d σ  dp f  I ) Incremental form
For rocks, we have to consider that the pore pressure pf induces hydrostatic
stress distribution in the solid phase (compressible). The ensuing deformation
is a purely volumetric strain:
s
dp f s
dp f
dε v or in tensorial form dε  Iv
Ks 3K s
The effective stress causes all relevant deformations of the solid skeleton.
The constitutive relationship should be rewritten as
Elastic strain tensor Total strain tensor
other
d σ '  D  d ε e  D  ( d ε  d ε vs  d ε c  d ε T  d ε mechanisms
... )  D  ( d ε  d ε vs )
So, considering the deformations of the solid skeleton as new deformational

mechanism:
s
dp f Biot’s definition of
dσ '  D  (dε  dε )  D  dε  D  I 
v effective stress
3K s
On the other hand, using Terzaghi’s definition of effective stress:
σ  σ ' I  p f  d σ  d σ ' I  dp f
s
dp f
 dσ  D  (dε  dε )  D  dε  D  I 
v  I  dp f
3K s
Biot’s constant:
  1 
 d σ  D  d ε   I  D  I   dp f
 3K s 
Corrected
 K  effective
 d σ   1    I  dp f  D  d ε
Ks  stress!!

Biot´s effective stress: d σ ' '
 K 

dσ  1    I  dp f  D  d ε  d σ    I  dp f  D  d ε
 Ks 
Biot’s constant:
 d σ ' '  d σ  I    dp f
σ  σ ' ' I    p f
σ' '  σ  I   p f
This is the stress which directly induces rock deformation:
dσ ' '  D  dε
Stress Path
 Stress path in 3D
1  It is generally complicate to
B(σ1,σ2,σ3)end
draw the stress path in 3D
 We tend to work with
invariant if stresses rather
with the full stress tensor
Stress path
 We use a lot trixial conditions,
A(σ1,σ2,σ3)ini in which σ2=σ3
2  Under this condition we can

work in 2D, with σ1 & σ3 only
 This is what we generally do
3 with the Mohr circle.
Stress Invariants
 The components of the stress tensor

depend on the orientation of the
coordinate system at the point under
consideration.
However, the stress tensor itself is a
physical quantity and as such, it is
independent of the coordinate system
chosen to represent it.
There are certain invariants associated with every tensor which are also independent of the
coordinate system.
 A vector is a simple tensor of rank one. The value of the components will depend on the
coordinate system chosen to represent the vector, but the length of the vector is a physical
quantity (a scalar) and is independent of the coordinate system chosen to represent the
vector.
Similarly, every second rank tensor (such as the stress and the strain tensors) has three
independent invariant quantities associated with it.
One set of such invariants are the principal stresses of the stress tensor.
Stress Invariants
Invariants of the Stress Tensor (σ)
I1   kk   x   y   z   1   2   3
1
I 2  ( ij ij   kk2 )  ( x y   x z   y z )   xy2   xz2   yz2
2
 ( 1 2   1 3   2 3 )
I 3  det σ   x y z  2 xy xz yz   x yz2   y xz2   z xy2   1 2 3
 x  xy  xz 
 
σ   yx  y  yz 
 zx  zy  z 
 
Stress Invariants
 Stress Deviator Tensor

 The stress tensor can be expressed as the sum of two other stress tensors:
 A mean hydrostatic stress tensor or volumetric stress tensor or mean normal stress tensor,
which tends to change the volume of the stressed body;
1 1
 m  I1   x   y   z 
3 3
 A deviatoric component called the stress deviator tensor, S, which tends to distort it.
σ   mI  s
Mean normal stress
 m 0 0  x   m  xy  xz 
 
σ hydrostatic   0 m 0  σ deviator  s    yx  y  m  yz 
 
 0 0  m    zx  zy  z   m 

Stress Invariants
 Invariants of the stress deviator tensor
s  σ   mI
J1  0 = 0 because , the stress deviator tensor is in a state of pure shear
1
J 2  sij sij  ( s x s y  s x s z  s y s z )   xy2   xz2   yz2
2
1 2
 ( s x  s y2  s z2 )   xy2   xz2   yz2
2
1
 
 ( x   y ) 2  ( x   z ) 2  ( y   z ) 2   xy2   xz2   yz2
6
J 3  det s
1 2
J 2  I 2   I1 
3
Stress Invariants
Some stress invariants:

 ' x  ' y  ' z
Effective mean stress (volumetric behavior): p'   m   
3
Deviatoric tensor (shear behavior): S =
Deviatoric (shear) stress: J  2 2 2 2

( ' x  p ' ) 2  ( ' y  p ' ) 2  ( ' z  p ' ) 2   ' xy  ' yz  ' zx
2
3 3 
 det( S ) 
Lode angle: 1
   arcsin  2 3 
 30     30 
3  J 
 
 
  30     30 
 2  3  2  1
triaxial triaxial
compression extension
3 3 
 det( S ) 
Lode angle: 1
   arcsin  2 3 
 30     30 
3  J 
 
 
Schematic diagram of a Stress state in cylindrical specimens
triaxial compression apparatus in compression and extension tests
can be   30     30 
varied
during the
experiment
3 3 
 det( S ) 
Lode angle: 1
   arcsin  2 3 
 30     30 
3  J 
 
 
Stress Invariants
Deviatoric plan: B
space
diagonal
A
J-p’ space
(for a fixed Lode Angle)
Potts & Zdravkovic (2001)

Stress Invariants
J-p’ space: B
A
Stress Invariants
J-p’ space:
shear
behavior
volumetric
behavior
Better than this...

Material understands J-p’ space
but not Cartesian space!
Representation of Constitutive Models
 Mohr Coulomb Model in terms of Principal Stresses (2D)
The relationship between the principal stresses at failure and the shear strength parameters
is:
σ1 - σ3  σ1 + σ3 c 

2
= +  sin'  σ'1 - σ'3  =  σ'1 + σ'3  sin'+2c'cos'
 2 tan'
s’1

  c    tan  '
'
s’
s’3 s’3
tf
 1   3 
c 2
'  s’1
 3  1
c  1   3
tan   2
F  ( 1   3 )  ( 1   3 ) sin    2 c  cos    0
Mohr Coulomb Model in Principal Stress Space (3D)

s’1=s’2= s’3
s’3
s’2
 Mohr – Coulomb failure

surface is a irregular
hexagon in the principal
s’1 stress space
F  ( 1   3 )  ( 1   3 ) sin    2 c  cos    0
 Mohr Coulomb Model in Principal Stress Space (3D)
A
J
p'
A
6sin  
M
3  sin  
p'
O
O'
TRIAXIAL COMPRESION TEST (TCT)

For TCT the Lode Angle: Θ = + 30˚
The plane (p',J) is the one that pass thought OO'A
J
p'
F
J 6sin  
M* 
3  sin   p'
O
O'
TRIAXIAL EXTENSION TEST (TET)

For TET the Lode Angle: Θ = - 30˚
The plane (p',q) is the one that pass thought OO‘F

 Yielding/failure for TCT (OO’A)

corresponds to a stress path with θ=+30˚.
Yielding/failure for TET (OO’F) corresponds
to a stress path with θ=-30˚.
 We may need to predict yielding or failure
for any stress path (i.e. any θ)
 We can use a function g(θ) that generalize
the yield/failure surface to any stress path
(i.e. any θ)
F  F ( p, J , )
F  J  ( p  a) g ( )  0; where
sin  c
g ( )  ;a 
A   a   b   c   a   1,  b   c   3 1 g ( )
cos   sin  sin 
F   a   b   c   a   b  1,  c   3 3
Mechanical Constitutive Behaviour
More about stress-strain relationship...
σ' D ε
Linear Elasticity – Isotropic Materials
Compression test:
Uniaxial compression
tests in reservoir rocks:
(Zoback, M. D., 2007)

(Jandakaew, M. and Chevrom, 2007)
Young modulus:
Deformed sample subjected to uniaxial stress:
<0
>0
(Fjaer, E. et al., 2008)
Poisson ratio:
Physical interpretation of elastic modulus:
(Zoback, M. D., 2007)

 p  mean stress

p  K v  K  bulk modulus
  volumetri c strain
 v
Relationship between elastic modulus:
Lamé constants:
Uniaxial compaction
modulus:
Bulk modulus:
Homogeneous isotropic material:

or:
Kronecker delta
Using tensorial notation:

σ  D ε or dσ  D  dε (incremental form)
where: D ( E , ) is the elastic constitutive tensor that relates

the stress and strain tensors.
Anisotropy
If the elastic response of a material is not independent of the material’s orientation for a given
stress configuration, the material is said to be anisotropic. Thus the elastic moduli of an
anisotropic material are different for different directions in the material.
Most rocks are anisotropic to some extent…
The origin of the anisotropy is always heterogeneities on a smaller scale than the volume under
investigation.
Sedimentary rocks are created during a deposition process where the grains normally are not
deposited randomly. Seasonal variations in the fluid flow rates may result in alternating
microlayers of fine and coarser grain size distributions.
Due to its origin, anisotropy of this type is said to be lithological or intrinsic. Another important
type is anisotropy induced by external stresses. The anisotropy is then normally caused by
microcracks, generated by a deviatoric stress and predominantly
oriented normal to the lowest principal stress.
Note (Fjaer et al., 2008): In calculations on rock elasticity, anisotropy is often ignored. This
simplification may be necessary rather than just comfortable, because—as we shall see—an
anisotropic description requires much more information about the material—information that
may not be available. However, by ignoring anisotropy, one may in some cases introduce large
errors that invalidate the calculations.
Anisotropy
For a general anisotropic material, each stress component is linearly related to every strain
component by independent coefficients:
Since the indices i, j, k and l may each take the values 1,2 or 3, there are all together 81 of the
constants Cijkl
Some of these vanish and others are equal by symmetry, however, so that the number of
independent constants is considerably less: and
with that, the number of independent constants reduces to 21.

Anisotropy: orthorhombic symmetry
Orthorhombic symmetry: Rocks can normally be described reasonably well by assuming

that the material has three mutually perpendicular planes of symmetry.
or using vetorial notation of stress and strains:
where:
These stress–strain relations generally describe most types of rocks.
This model describes the elastic properties of any linear elastic material with or-
thorhombic or higher symmetry. Thus they may also describe an isotropic rock:
Anisotropy: orthorhombic symmetry
Example: consider the uniaxial stress state defining Young’s modulus and Pois-
son’s ratio. In this example, σy = σz = 0 and τxy = τxz = τyz = 0. The stress–strain
relations become:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
the equations above (2,3) for

Anisotropy: transverse isotropy
Transverse isotropy: A special type of symmetry, which is relevant for many types of rocks,
is full rotational symmetry around one axis. Rocks possessing such symmetry are said to be
Transversely isotropic. It implies that the elastic properties are equal for all directions within
a plane, but different in the other directions. This extra element of symmetry reduces the
number of independent elastic constants to 5.
Note: linear elasticity
2 constants
Transverse isotropy is normally considered to be a representative symmetry for horizon-

tally layered sedimentary rocks.
Stress induced anisotropy may often be described by transverse isotropy as well.
Realistic stress-strain relationship
Realistic stress-strain relationships: based on experiments

Before Failure
(associated to
Very important!! shear FAILURE)
Rock Failure
Triaxial testing: typical influence of the confining

pressure on the shape of the differential stress (axial
stress minus confining pressure) versus axial strain curves
Realistic stress-strain relationship
Rocks:
It depends on the
confining stress!!
Schematic representation
of brittle failure styles in
triaxial tests (Griggs and
Handin, 1960a).
a) Extension test.
b) – e) Compression test
with confining pressure
increasing to the right.
Rocks:
It depends on the
confining stress!!
Shear Failure
Rock Volumetric Behavior
Dilation :
rock expansion under shear
Soil
Rock
Important
for geological
(consolidated fault reactivation
geomaterials)
(unconsolidated
geomaterials)
Tensile Failure
Tensile failure occurs when the effective tensile stress across some plane in the sample
exceeds a critical limit. This limit is called the tensile strength ( T0 ) and has the same unit
as stress. The tensile strength is a characteristic property of the rock. Most sedimentary
rocks have a rather low tensile strength, typically only a few MPa or less. In fact, it is a
standard approximation for several applications that the tensile strength is zero.
(Fjaer et al., 2008)
- Brazilian Test: - Incorporation of tensile strength in failure surface:
TENSION cutoff
Rock compaction :
Volume deacrease due to compression
Normal Consolidation Line (NCL):

Change of pore structure
(LIMIT to plastic compaction: Normal
irreversible behavior) Load/ Consolidation
Unload Line (NCL)
Load/Unload Line: Lines
No changes in pore structure
Isotropic
(elastic deformation:
compression of
reversible behavior)
Bringelly shale
Important for reservoir compaction

Irreversibility...
Rock compaction :
Volume deacrease due to compression
- Incorporation of elastic-plastic compressive limit in failure surface:
CAP Model
TENSION cutoff
CAP model:
Multi-mechanism model
CAP model:
Multi-mechanism model
Critical point:
no volumetric plastic strain
εp
Compression
Dilation εp
εp  vp
 vp
Stress path
In situ (initial) stress

FAULT REACTIVATION
 1 FORMULATION
HM
3 c
c
Vargas et. all 2006
J2
PORE
σ  b  0
3 COLLAPSE
TENSION
1 In Situ Stress
I1
σ  σ ' p f  I
HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR COMPACTION

FRACTURING
Coupling Between Deformation and Permeability
σ1 Ex: Kozeny-Carman
Hydrostatic Compression:
σ3=σ1
Effect of reservoir compaction:
Decrease of permeability due to
(irreversible) pore colapse.
Interpretation using CAP model
p

Stress path Plastic strain
(only volumetric)
Hydrostatic Compression: Applied stress did not induce

further anisotropy
σ1
σ3=σ1
Intrinsic
anisotropy
(initially)
Triaxial Compression:
Anisotropy on permeability:
III
II IV
I IV V
V
III
II
dilatancy
I
Stress
Permeability variation in a brittle rock in a triaxial compression test. This type
Intrinsic Induced
of stress-strain behavior is widely reported in the literature. Anisotropy Anisotropy
We have five distinct regions:
σ1
I - closure of pre-existing micro-cracks
II - zone of elastic behavior
III - steady growth of cracks σ3
IV - unstable growth of cracks
V- post-peak zone characterized by the loss of resistance
(softening followed by rupture) of the material σ1 >σ3
Fluid Flow in Deformable Porous Media
u x 
 
u  u y 
u 
 z u
du
u 
dt
Volumetric strain:   u  d x  d y  d z
du d  x d  y d  z
   
dt dt dt dt
MASS BALANCE OF SOLID

Mass balance of solid present in the medium is written as:

t
  s 1  f      js   0
where s is the mass of solid per unit volume of solid and js is the flux of solid.
 
 s 1  f       s 1  f  u   0
 (1)
t  
s f   
1  f   s  s 1  f    u  1  f  u s  s u f  0 (2)
t t

 
 s 1  f       s 1  f  u   0

(Eulerian description)
t  
When the description of motion is made in terms of the
spatial coordinates is called the spatial description or
Eulerian description,
That is, the current configuration is taken as the
reference configuration.
 In the Lagrangian description the position and physical properties of the particles are
described in terms of the material or referential coordinates & time.
 The material derivative (or substantial time derivative) can serve as a link between ‘Eulerian’
and ‘Lagrangian’ descriptions of motion
A more convenient form of the balance equations is obtained considering the definitions of
material derivate with respect to the solid velocity; which can be expressed generically as:
D      (3)
  u .   
Dt t
Definitions:
Spatial point: fix point in the space
 Material point: a particle.
 The particle can be at different spatial points during its movement in time.
 Configuration (Ω): space occupied by the particles (that conform the continuum
medium) at certain instant ‘t’
t=to is the reference time

Ω0 = initial material or reference
configuration.
Ωt = current configuration
Material coordinates (X1, X2, X3)
Spatial coordinates (x1, x2, x3) (current
configuration).
 The movement of the particles (which conform the continuum medium) can be
described by the evolution of their spatial coordinates (or their ‘position vector’) in
time.
 We need to know a function for each particle (identify by a ‘label’), which provide
the spatial coordinates xi (or the corresponding vector) in the successive instants
of time.
 As a label, to characterize unequivocally each particle, it is possible to use the
‘material coordinates’.
In this manner, the ‘movement equations’ are obtained:
Which provide the spatial coordinates as a function of the material ones.

The ‘inverse movement equations’ are given by:
Which provide the material coordinates as a function of the spatial ones.

Description of the movement

Material description: A property is described (i.e. density ) using as argument
the material coordinate.
Note that if we fix X=(X1, X2, X3), we are following the density variation
specific particle.
Because of that the name of ‘material description’(Lagrangian description).
Spatial description: A property is described (i.e. density ) using as argument
the spatial coordinate (Eulerian description).
Note that if we fix x=(x1, x2, x3), we focus the attention on one point of the
space; and we follow the density evolution for the different particles that are
passing for this fix spatial point.
Olivella and Argelet (2000)

Temporal, local, material and convective derivative.

Consider a given property and their respective descriptions material and spatial.
 We pass from one description to the other by using the ‘movement equations’
Local derivative: it is the variation of a property in time of a fix point in the

space.
It is possible to write this derivative as:
local derivative
Material derivative: it is the variation of a property in time following a specific

particle (material point) of the continuum medium.
 It is possible to write this derivative as:
D
material derivative also denoted as :
Dt
If we start with the spatial description of the property and we consider implicit
in this equation the ‘movement equation’:
We can obtain the material derivative (i.e. following the particle) from spatial
description:
material derivative
Velocity is the derivative of movement equations respect to time:
Finally:
We can generalized that definition for any property (scalar or vectorial):
D

Dt
material derivative local derivative convective derivative
u x 
 
u  u y 
u 
 z u
du
u 
dt
Volumetric strain:   u  dx  d y  dz
du d  x d  y d  z
   
dt dt dt dt
 
 s 1  f       s 1  f  u   0
 (Eulerian description)
t  
D     
  u .    (Material derivative)
Dt t
s f   
1  f   s  s 1  f    u  1  f  u s  s u f  0 (equation 2)
t t
 s  f 
s 1  f    u  1  f   1  f  u s s  s u f  0
 t  t 
D s Df
1f  s
Dt Dt
D f  1  f  D s 
  1  f    u (4) (Lagrangian description)
Dt s Dt
Ds f 1  Ds  s  du
 1  f    (1  f) 
Dt  s  Dt  dt
Detailed description of solid Volumetric strain:

density variation (including rock
compressibility Cr) can be found in du d  x d  y d  z
   
Lewis and Schrefler (1998). dt dt dt dt
u
 Flow Equation – Water Saturated Porous Media ql
ql : velocity
 Water Mass Balance Equation respect to
 the solid
  l       l q l   l u   0 skeleton
t
This term considers the velocity of the liquid respect to the solid skeleton (ql) + the velocity of the solid
respect to a fix reference system  u  . This is because the solid is moving now and drag the liquid phase
with it.
 l 
  l    l .q l   l .q l   u .  l   l u .    l.u  0
t t
Using (3) Ds  l D s
  l    l .q l   l .q l   l.u  0
Dt Dt
Replacing (4) i.e. solid mass balance in material description D f  1  f  D s 
  1  f    u
Dt s Dt

Ds  l
 l
1    Ds 
  l 1      u    l .q l   l .q l   l.u  0
Dt s Dt
 Flow Equation – Water Saturated Porous Media

 Water Mass Balance Equation
Ds  l  l Ds  s 
  1      l   u    l .q l   l .q l  0
Dt  s Dt
Ds  l  l Ds  s 
(Lagrangian description
  1      l   u  .   l q l   0
Dt  s Dt Mass Balance of Water)
 If there is a source or sink of water

Ds  l  l Ds  s 
  1      l   u  .   l q l   f l
Dt  s Dt
 If solid density is constant  If liquid density is constant

Ds  l 
   l   u  .   l q l   0   u  .q l  0
Dt
SUMMARY
HM FORMULATION
Mechanical problem for geomaterials:
 Equilibrium Equation:
 σ  b  0
 Principle of Effective Stresses:
σ  σ '   p f  I
 Stress-strain relationship:
dσ'  D  dε
Specific for each geomaterial

FAULT REACTIVATION
 1 FORMULATION
HM
3 c
c
Vargas et. all 2006
J2
PORE
σ  b  0
3 COLLAPSE
TENSION
1 In Situ Stress
I1
σ  σ ' p f  I
HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR COMPACTION

FRACTURING
HM FORMULATION
HYDRO-MECHANICAL COUPLINGS:
 Rock porosity:
 (mass conservation of solids)

1    s   1    s .u   0
t
d  
(material derivative )   u   
dt t
d  1    d  s d v (porosity update)
  1    d v
 v    u
dt s dt dt dt
Other: Kozeny-Carman
 Rock permeability: k  k i expb   i 
HM FORMULATION
Hydraulic problem: two phase flow equations for deformable porous media
Ds S  S  Ds  s
  (1   )  S    u     q   0   w, o
Dt  s Dt
kk
q   r p   g 

where:
S  S 1
w o
pc  po  p w   k r 

 porosity k permeability tensor
s fluid saturation k r fluid relative permeability
 fluid density  fluid mobility
q Darcy flow p Fluid pressure
 phase viscosity pc capillary pressure
u Solid velocity
g~ gravity
APPLICATION:
Primary Recovery – Reservoir Depletion
Increase of fluid Volumetric strain in mass balance equations:

flow apparent
velocity Compaction-driven mechanism
q
v 

Porosity Later...
decrease
D (1   ) D
  s  (1   )  u
Dt  s Dt
Pressure maintenance
Ds S  S  Ds  s
  (1   )  S    u     q   0   w, o
Dt  s Dt
HM FORMULATION
HM FORMULATION
Numerical scheme to solve the coupled problem:
M: (u) H: (p)
σ  b  0  (s  ) Formulação u - p :
  q  s  u   0
σ  σ ' p f  I
t C 0  d u  K  Q  u   f 
Q T    
q  
kk r
p   g~   S  dt p   0 H  p  q 
σ'  D  ε 
u – displacement
p – pressure
Fluid Flow – Geomechanics Coupling
Pore pressure Transmissivity
Effective stress Permeability
Rock deformation Porosity
Geomechanics Simulator Reservoir Flow Simulator

FEM FDM
L. C. Pereira (MSc, 2007)

Coupling Schemes
Implicit Explicit
Pseudo-coupling
Iterative
Coupling Schemes
Implicit Iterative Explicit Pseudo

Computational
costs
Changes in
numerical code
Convergence
control
Accuracy
Speed
Iterations
Disadvantages
Advantages
Workflows to exchange
parameters between
individual modules
Coupling with
commercial
reservoir simulators
Stress-split Method

2 Constitutive Laws - Rocks

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2 Constitutive Laws - Rocks

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Introduction to Reservoir Geomechanics

2 Constitutive Laws: Behavior of Rocks

3 Constitutive Laws: Behavior of Fractures

Earth Sciences and Engineering:

Normal and Shear Stresses:

Decomposition of stress vector:

Defined for each point

3D representation of Mohr Circle:

 Stress Sign Convention

In Soil/Rock Mechanics compression is

Compressive stresses Tensile stresses

Among the infinite number of triplets of

full tensor diagonal tensor

Stress state in lab experiments:

Mohr-Coulomb criteria for shear strength (minimum 3 samples):

s’3 (s’1- s’3) s’1 1/2(s’1 - s’3) 1/2(s’1 + s’3)

Principal stresses and principal planes of stress:

Where are surfaces of principal stresses?

In 2D analysis: stress field and displacement field:

Finite element analysis of a tunnel excavation:

Mesh Stress field Displacement field

D: constitutive tensor Elasticity

 Strain Tensor  Compression + Displacement vector

 Strain Tensor  Compression + Displacement vector

MOMENTUM BALANCE (EQUILIBRIUM)

MOMENTUM BALANCE (EQUILIBRIUM)

MOMENTUM BALANCE (EQUILIBRIUM)

MOMENTUM BALANCE (EQUILIBRIUM)

 Pore Water Pressure, Total & Effective Stresses

 It is assumed saturated soil, water incompressibility and rigid soil particles.

Normal Stress in the Stress Tensor:

 Multiphase material (solid and liquid)

The concept of effective stress is based on the pioneering work in

Effective Total Fluid Identity

• the soil particles

The strengths of these two phases are very different:

σ : total stresses externally applied

pw : water pressure (Aw )

Soils as one phase

 Based on experimental information it can be concluded that Terzaghi’s

 Geertsma (1957) and Skempton (1960) suggested:

K: is the drained bulk modulus of the dry aggregate or rock

Ks: is the bulk modulus of the soil’s/rock’s individual solid grains

 Based on experimental information it can be concluded that Terzaghi’s

For rocks, it is important to take into account the Biot’s constant.  1

 For solid rock (i.e. practically no interconnect pores): K  Ks

Therefore the pore pressure has no influence on porous media behavior.

 Measured values of  (Biot’s parameter) for two porous materials:

 In both cases  decrease

Biot’s Effective Stresses (Lade & De Boer, 1997)

Poro-elasticity for soils: dσ '  D  dε

So, considering the deformations of the solid skeleton as new deformational

On the other hand, using Terzaghi’s definition of effective stress:

Biot´s effective stress: d σ ' '

This is the stress which directly induces rock deformation:

2  Under this condition we can

 The components of the stress tensor

Invariants of the Stress Tensor (σ)

 Stress Deviator Tensor

 Invariants of the stress deviator tensor

Some stress invariants:

Deviatoric tensor (shear behavior): S =

Deviatoric (shear) stress: J  2 2 2 2