Chemistry (CHM 111)

Credits Hours
Assessment:
• Final exam (40%)
• Midterm exam (30%)
• Class activities (30%): Quizzes, Attendance, and
Assignments
Attendance Policy:
• At least 75% of the total lecturers
Chemistry often is called the central science because knowledge of the
principles of chemistry can facilitate understanding of other sciences,
including physics, biology, geology, astronomy, oceanography,
engineering, and medicine.

Chemists go about research using a set of guidelines and practices known

as the scientific method, in which observations give rise to laws, data give
rise to hypotheses, hypotheses are tested with experiments, and successful
hypotheses give rise to theories, which are further tested by experiment.

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that matter

undergoes.

Matter is what makes up our bodies, our belongings, our physical

environment, and in fact our universe. Matter is anything that has
mass and occupies space.
What is Physical Chemistry?
Why do we warm ourselves by a radiator?
We turn on the radiator if we feel cold and warm ourselves in
front of it. We become warm because heat travels from the
radiator to us, and we absorb its heat energy, causing our own
energy content to rise. This explains why we feel more
comfortable.

The physical chemist could do nothing if nothing

happened; chemists look at changes

We say a physical chemist alters variables, such as pressure or

temperature. Typically, a chemist causes one variable to
change and looks at the resultant response, if any.
Classification of Matter

Chemists classify matter as either a substance or a mixture of

substances.

A substance is a form of matter that has a definite (constant)

composition and distinct properties.

Substances can be either elements (such as iron, mercury,

and oxygen) or compounds (such as salt, water, and
carbon dioxide). They differ from one another in
composition and can be identified by appearance, smell,
taste, and other properties.
 Temperature
There are two temperature scales used in chemistry. Their units are
degrees Celsius (ºC) and kelvin (K).
• The Celsius scale was originally defined using the freezing point (0
ºC) and the boiling point (100 ºC) of pure water at sea level.
• Kelvin is known as the absolute temperature scale, meaning that the lowest
temperature possible is 0 K, a temperature referred to as “absolute
zero.”

Celsius to Kelvin K = ºC + 273

Celsius to Fahrenheit ºF = (1.8 ºC) + 32
Temperature in Fahrenheit (C) = (ºF – 32) / 1.8
 Physical Properties

Color, melting point, boiling point, and physical state are all
physical properties.
A physical property is one that can be observed and measured
without changing the identity of a substance

For example, we can determine the melting point of ice by

heating a block of ice and measuring the temperature at which
the ice is converted to water. Liquid water differs from ice in
appearance but not in composition; both liquid water and ice are
H2O. Melting is a physical change; one in which the state of matter
changes, but the identity of the matter does not change. We can
recover the original ice by cooling the water until it freezes.
Therefore, the melting point of a substance is a physical property.
 Chemical Properties

The statement “Hydrogen gas burns in oxygen gas to form

water” describes a chemical property of hydrogen, because
to observe this property we must carry out a chemical
change—burning in oxygen (combustion), in this case. After
a chemical change, the original substance (hydrogen gas in
this case) will no longer exist. What remains is a different
substance (water, in this case).
 States of Matter
In a solid, particles are held close together in an orderly fashion with little freedom of
motion. As a result, a solid does not conform to the shape of its container.

• In a liquid, particles are close together but are not held rigidly in position;
they are free to move past one another. Thus, a liquid conforms to the shape
of the part of the container it fills.

• In a gas, the particles are separated by distances that are very large compared
to the size of the particles. A sample of gas assumes both the shape and the
volume of its container.

Molecular-level of a solid, liquid, and gas Water as a solid (ice), liquid, and gas
• The three states of matter can be interconverted without
changing the chemical composition of the substance.
• Upon heating, a solid (e.g., ice) will melt to form a liquid
(water). Further heating will vaporize the liquid, converting
it to a gas (water vapor).
• Conversely, cooling a gas will cause it to condense into a
liquid. When the liquid is cooled further, it will freeze into
the solid form.
GASES
 Characteristics of Gases
• A sample of gas assumes both the shape and volume of its
container.
• Gases are compressible.
• Gases have higher kinetic energy compared to solids and
liquids.
• Gases form homogeneous mixtures (solutions) with one
another in any proportion.
• The densities of gases are much smaller than those of
liquids and solids and are highly variable depending on
temperature and pressure.
 Gas Laws
The physical state of gas can be described completely with just
four parameters:
Temperature & Pressure & Volume & Number of moles
Knowing any three of these parameters enables us to calculate
the fourth.
The relationships between these parameters are known as the gas
laws.

Pressure (P) & Volume (V)

Temperature (T) & Volume (V)
volume (V) & amount (n)
Boyle’s Law Pressure – Volume Relationship
(1627-1691) (Temperature is constant)

The pressure of a fixed amount of gas at a constant

temperature is inversely proportional to the volume
of the gas
V α 1/P
 p T3 > T 2 > T 1
constant temperature, constant
amount of gas constant T and n T3
T2
T1

V
Sample Problem
If a skin diver takes a breath at the surface, filling
his lungs with 5.82 L of air, what volume will the
air in his lungs occupy when he dives to a depth
where the pressure is 1.92 atm?

P1 = 1.00 atm, V1 = 5.82 L, and P2 = 1.92 atm.

V2 = P1 • V1 / P2

= 1 atm. X 5.82 L / 1.92 atm = 3.03 L

 Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s Law:
Temperature – Volume relationship (pressure is constant)

“At constant pressure, the

volume of a gas sample
increases when heated and
decreases when cooled”.

Charles (1746-1823) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac

Charles’s law states that “the volume of a fixed amount of gas

maintained at constant pressure is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas”.

V1 / T1 = k = V2 / T2
m


Sample Problem
A sample of argon gas that originally occupied 14.6 L at
25.0 ˚C was heated to 50.0 ˚C at constant pressure. What is
its new volume?

Setup: T1 = 298.15 K, V1 = 14.6 L, and T2 = 323.15 K

Solution: V1 = V2 . T2 / T1
= 14.6 L . 323.15 K / 298.15 K
= 15.8 L
Avogadro’s Law
(1776-1856)

The volume of a sample of gas is directly

proportional to the number of moles in the
sample at constant temperature and pressure

Vn
 Problems
Sample Problem 1

Given P1 1.50 atm, V1 = 37.3 mL, and P2 = 1.18 atm,

calculate V2. Assume that n and T are constant.
a) 0.0211 mL
b) 0.0341 mL
c) 29.3 mL
d) 12.7 mL
e) 47.4 mL

Given T1 21.5 ◦C, V1 50.0 mL, and T2 316 ◦C, calculate

Sample Problem 2

V2. Assume that n and P are constant.

a) 100 mL
b) 73.5 mL
c) 25.0 mL
d) 3.40 mL
e) 26.5 mL
The Ideal Gas Equation

We can combine these equations into the following general

equation that describes the physical behavior of all gases:

V α nT/P V = R . nT/P

PV = nRT R = 0.082 L. atm / K. mol

Problem calculate the volume of 1 mole of an ideal gas at
0 ◦C and 1 atm, conditions known as standard
temperature and pressure (STP)?

In this case, n, T, and P are given. R is a constant,

leaving V as the only unknown

Thus, the volume occupied by 1 mole of an ideal

gas at STP is 22.41 L
Problem
Calculate the volume of a mole of ideal gas
at room temperature (25 ◦C) and 1 atm?

Setup The data given are n = 1 mol, T = 298.15 K, and P = 1.00

atm. Because the pressure is expressed in atmospheres, we use R
= 0.08206 L atm/K mol to solve for volume in liters.
Calculate the volume of 12.5 g of CO2 gas occupy at a
temperature of 40 ˚C and a pressure of 1.20 atm?
Sample Problem If a child releases a 6.25-L helium balloon in an
amusement park where the temperature is 28.50 ˚C and
the air pressure is 757.2 mmHg, what will the volume
of the balloon be when it has risen to an altitude where
the temperature is 34.35 ˚C and the air pressure is
366.4 mmHg?

Strategy The only value we don’t know is V2. Temperatures

must be expressed in kelvins.

P2 • V2 P1. T2 • V1
P1 • V1 V2 =
= P2. T1
T1 T2

757.2 mmHg x 238 K x 6.25 L

V2 = = 10.2 L
366.4 mmHg x 301.65 K
Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that:
The total pressure exerted by a gas mixture is the sum
of the partial pressures exerted by each component of
the mixture:

Schematic show of
Dalton’s law of partial
pressures. Total pressure
is equal to the sum of
partial pressures.
Gas Mixtures
• When two or more gaseous substances are placed in a container, each gas
behaves as though it occupies the container alone. For example, if we place
1.00 mole of N2 gas in a 5.00-L container at 0°C, it exerts a pressure of

• If we then add a mole of another gas, such as O2, the pressure exerted by N2
does not change. It remains at 4.48 atm. The O2 gas exerts its own pressure,
also 4.48 atm. In a mixture of gases, the pressure exerted by each gas is
known as the partial pressure of the gas.

Ptotal = PN2 + PO2 = 4.48 atm + 4.48 atm = 8.96 atm

Problem A 1.00-L vessel contains 0.215 mole of N2 gas and 0.0118
mole of H2 gas at 25.5 ˚C. Determine the partial pressure
of each component and the total pressure in the vessel?
 Ideal Gas Law with Density PV = nRT

If we then multiply both sides by the molar mass, M, we get

where M . n/V gives g/L or density, d. Therefore,

If we know the density of a gas, we can determine its molar mass:

 Carbon dioxide is effective in fire extinguishers partly
Problem
because its density is greater than that of air (Air has
a density of approximately 1.2 g/L at room
temperature and 1 atm). Calculate the density of CO2
at room temperature (25 ◦C) and 1.0 atm?

Setup The molar mass of CO2 is 44.01 g/mol

Graham’s law
Graham ’ s law states that the
rate of diffusion or effusion of a
gas is inversely proportional to
the square root of its molar mass:

To compare the rates of two different gases, we

must use the following relation:

R1 M2
=
R2 M1
Diffusion and Effusion
Diffusion is the mixing of gases as the result of
random motion and frequent collisions

Diffusion is the mixing of gases.

(a) Two different gases in
separate containers. (b) When
the stopcock is opened, the
gases mix by diffusion.
Effusion is the escape of gas molecules from a
container to a region of vacuum

Effusion is the
escape of a gas into
a vacuum
 Find the ratio of diffusion of hydrogen gas and oxygen
Problem
gas?
RH2
=
MO2
=√ 32
= 16 = 4 √ √
RO2 MH2 2
This means that the hydrogen has the speed four times
greater than the speed of oxygen
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Determine how much faster a helium atom moves, on
Problem

average, than a carbon dioxide molecule at the same

temperature?

Setup: The molar masses

of He and CO2 are 4.003 and
44.01 g/mol, respectively.

He atoms move 3.316 times faster than CO2 molecules at the same temperature
Determine how much faster a helium atom moves, on
average, than a carbon dioxide molecule at the same
temperature?
The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

• A gas is composed of particles that are separated by

relatively large distances. The volume occupied by individual
molecules is negligible.
• Gas molecules are constantly in random motion, moving in
straight paths, colliding with the walls of their container and
with one another in perfectly elastic collisions.
• Gas molecules show no forces of attraction or replusion.
• No energy is lost in collision of molecules, the collision is
completely elastic.
Deviation from Ideal Behavior

The gas laws assume that molecules in the gas phase

occupy negligible volume (assumption 1) and that they do
not exert any force on one another, either attractive or
repulsive (assumption 2). Gases that behave as though
these assumptions were strictly true are said to exhibit
ideal behavior. Many gases do exhibit ideal or nearly ideal
behavior under ordinary conditions.

Under the conditions of high pressure and low

temperature, the behavior of a real gas deviates
from ideal.
Factors That Cause Deviation from Ideal Behavior
At high pressures, gas molecules are relatively close
together. We can assume that gas molecules occupy no
volume only when the distances between molecules are
large. When the distances between molecules are
reduced, the volume occupied by each individual
molecule becomes more significant.
Factors That Cause Deviation from Ideal Behavior
At low temperatures, gas molecules are moving more
slowly. We can assume that there are no intermolecular
forces between gas molecules, either attractive or
repulsive, when the gas molecules are moving very fast, and
the magnitude of their kinetic energies is much larger than
the magnitude of any intermolecular forces. When
molecules move more slowly, they have lower kinetic
energies and the magnitude of the forces between them
becomes more significant.
Van der Waals Equation
Ideal gas PV=nRT
Incorporating both corrections into the ideal
gas equation gives us the van der Waals
equation, with which we can analyze gases
under conditions where ideal behavior is not
expected.

a indicates how strongly molecules of

a particular type of gas attract one another.
b is related to molecular (or atomic) size,
although the relationship is not a simple one.
 A sample of 3.50 moles of NH3 gas occupies 5.20 L at 47 ◦C.
Q Calculate the pressure of the gas (in atm) using (a) the ideal
gas equation and (b) the van der Waals equation.

Setup T = 320.15 K, a = 4.17 atm L/mol2, and b = 0.0371 L/mol

(b) Evaluating the correction terms in the van der Waals equation, we get
➢ Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of
two or more pure substances.
➢ In solution, the solute is dispersed
uniformly throughout the solvent.
 Types of Solutions and Solubility
A solution may be composed of a solid and a liquid (such
as the salt and water that are the primary components of
seawater), but it may also be composed of a gas and a
liquid, two different liquids, or other combinations. In
aqueous solutions, water is the solvent, and a solid, liquid,
or gas is the solute. For example, sugar water and salt
water are both aqueous solutions. Similarly, ethyl alcohol
readily mixes with water to form a solution, and carbon
dioxide dissolves in water to form the aqueous solution
that we know as club soda.
Intermolecular forces
 Intermolecular forces
The dipole–dipole force exists between all molecules that are
polar. Polar molecules have electron-rich regions (which have
a partial negative charge) and electron-deficient regions
(which have a partial positive charge).

Hydrogen Bonding. Polar molecules containing hydrogen

atoms bonded directly to small electronegative atoms—most
importantly fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen—exhibit an
intermolecular force called hydrogen bonding. HF, NH3, and
H2O, for example, all exhibit hydrogen bonding.

The ion–dipole force occurs when an ionic

compound is mixed with a polar compound; it is
especially important in aqueous solutions of ionic
compounds. For example, when sodium chloride is
mixed with water, the sodium and chloride ions
interact with water molecules via ion–dipole forces.
The positive sodium ions interact with the negative
poles of water molecules, while the negative
chloride ions interact with the positive poles.
 Solvent–solute interactions >
Solvent-solvent and solute-
solute interactions (Solution
forms

A solute’s ability to dissolve in a solvent depends largely upon:

(1) How strong the intermolecular forces are that bind the solute molecules to
each other. The stronger they are, the more difficult it is for the solvent to break
them apart.
(2) How strong the intermolecular forces are between the solute and the solvent.
The stronger these are, the easier it is for the solvent to dissolve the solute.
When Pentane (C5H12) mixes with heptane (C7H16), what type of attractive
forces must be broken ? London dispersion forces
What type of attractive forces are formed? London dispersion forces

When NaCl dissolves in H2O, what type of attractive forces must be

broken in the solute? ionic bonds
What type of IMFs must be broken in the solvent? hydrogen bonds
What type of IMFs are formed between the solute and the solvent?
Ion-dipole forces

Why NaCl does not dissolve in nonpolar solvents such as hexane?

Because the attractive forces between nonpolar C6H14 and the ions
Na+ and Cl- are very weak. The energy required to separation the
ions in NaCl is not recovered in the form of ion-C6H14 interactions.
 Energetic of Solution Formation
Separating the solute into its constituent
particles. This step is always endothermic
(positive ΔH) because energy is required to
overcome the forces that hold the solute
particles together.

Separating the solvent particles from each

other to make room for the solute particles.
This step is also endothermic because energy is
required to overcome the intermolecular
forces among the solvent particles.

Mixing the solute particles with the solvent

particles.
This step is exothermic because energy is
released as the solute particles interact
(through intermolecular forces) with the
solvent particles.
The solution process, has three DH components:
1- The DH of separating the solute particles from each other (DHsolute)
2- The DH of separating solvent particles from each other (DHsolvent)
3- The entire DH for the whole dissolving process (which we’ll call DHsoln)

Hess’s law, the overall enthalpy change upon solution formation,

called the enthalpy of solution (𝚫Hsoln) and can be defined as
the sum of the changes in enthalpy for each step:
DHsoln = DHsolute + DHsolvent + DHmix
endothermic (+) endothermic (+) exothermic (-)

An enthalpy change (DH) is approximately equal to the difference between the

energy used to break bonds in a chemical reaction and the energy gained by the
formation of new chemical bonds in the reaction. It describes the energy change
of a system at constant pressure.
Energetics of Solution Process:
(a) When ΔHmix is greater in magnitude than the sum of ΔHsolute and ΔHsolvent, the heat of
solution is negative (exothermic).
(b) When ΔHmix is smaller in magnitude than the sum of ΔHsolute and ΔHsolvent, the heat of
solution is positive (endothermic).
The solution is endothermic and the sign of DHsoln is positive. This can be
explained because the total energy is absorbed when solvent-solvent and
solute-solute interactions are broken is more than the energy that is released
when the solute and the solvent form interactions with each other.
The solution is exothermic and the sign of DHsoln is negative. This can be
explained because the total energy is absorbed when solvent-solvent and
solute-solute interactions are broken is less than the energy that is released
when the solute and the solvent form interactions with each other.
Molecular Compounds in water
 Solubility

We can measure how easily a solute will dissolve in a certain

solvent. This measurement is called solubility.
Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of solute that
dissolves in a specific amount of solvent.
High Solubility: The solute dissolves quickly & easily (e.g. salt in
water)
Low Solubility: The solute does not dissolve easily (e.g. sand in
water)
Solubility and the Solution Process
Saturated solution: maximum amount of solute is dissolved
in solvent. Trying to dissolve more results in undissolved
solute in container.
Unsaturated solution: less than max. amount of solute is
dissolved in solvent.
Supersaturation = more solute in solution than normally
allowed; we call this a supers
aturated solution.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

Nature’s tendency toward mixing

Types of intramolecular forces

This rule can be used to predict whether or not
certain substances will dissolve, or be miscible, in
each other. All we have to do is ask ourselves:
“are the two items in question polar or nonpolar?
If they are both polar, or both nonpolar, then they
will be soluble (miscible)
Types of intramolecular forces
Which one of the following substances is most likely to
dissolve in benzene (C6H6)?
a. CH3CH2OH
b. NH3
c. NaCl
d. CCl4
e. HBr

The principle reason for the extremely low solubility of

NaCl in benzene is the ______________.
a. Strong solvent-solvent interactions
b. Hydrogen bonding in C6H6
c. Strength of the covalent bond in NaCl
d. Weak solvation of Na+ and Cl- by C6H6
e. Increased disorder due the mixing of solute and solvent
Both of methanol and hexanol contain –OH group,
which is supposed to form hydrogen bonds with water.
Explain why hexanol is much less soluble in water than
methanol is:
The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of Solids

The solubility of solids in water can be highly dependent on

temperature.
Although exceptions exist, the solubility of most solids in water
increases with increasing temperature.

Solubility and temperature The solubility of most solids increases

with increasing temperature.
Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water

Solutions of gases dissolved in water are common. Club

soda, for example, is a solution of carbon dioxide and water,
and most liquids exposed to air contain dissolved gases from
air. Fish and other aquatic animals depend on the oxygen
dissolved in lake or ocean water for life, and our blood
contains dissolved nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
Even tap water contains dissolved gases. The solubility of a
gas in a liquid is affected by both temperature and pressure.
The Effect of Temperature

Unlike solids, the solubility of gases in water

decreases with increasing temperature.
The inverse relationship between gas solubility and
temperature is the reason that warm soda pop bubbles
more than cold soda pop when you open it. More carbon
dioxide comes out of these solutions at room temperature
than at a lower temperature because the gas is less soluble
at room temperature.
The decreasing solubility of gases with increasing
temperature is also the reason that fish don’t bite much in a
warm lake. The warm temperature results in a lower oxygen
concentration. With lower oxygen levels, the fish become
lethargic and do not strike as aggressively at the lure or bait
you cast their way.
The solubility of gases decreases with an increase in the temperature

Q. Why do fish die in water that is too warm?

Because O2 gas is less soluble in warm water, fish cannot
obtain the amount of O2 required for their survival.
On the two graphs below, sketch the general shape of the curve for
potassium nitrate (left) and oxygen gas (right).

Potassium nitrate becomes more soluble as temperature increases.

Oxygen gas becomes less soluble as temperature increases.

Explain why bubbles tend to form on the inside wall of a pot when water
is heated on the stove, even though the water temperature is well below
the BP of water?
As the temperature of the water increases, the solubility of air dissolved
in the water decreases. This causes the air molecules to leave the water.
They are visible on the sides of the pot as the water is heated.
Gases in Solution
In general, the solubility of gases in water increases with
increasing mass.
Why?
Larger molecules have stronger dispersion forces.

Solubilities of Gases in
water at 20 ◦C, with 1
atm gas pressure

Dispersion forces are present between all molecules, whether they are polar or nonpolar.
Larger and heavier atoms and molecules exhibit stronger dispersion forces than smaller
and lighter ones. In a larger atom or molecule, the valence electrons are, on average,
farther from the nuclei than in a smaller atom or molecule.
 Effect of pressure
• Pressure has little effect on the solubility of a liquid or solid, but has
dramatic effect on gas solubility in a liquid.
• Gases can dissolve in solvents. For example, carbon dioxide
dissolves in water, to a certain extent. Carbonated drinks contain
CO2 dissolved in water. When their lids are removed, sodas’ CO2
molecules begin to escape.
 Henry’s Law
In a sealed container, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
related to the pressure of that gas above the liquid.
This is summarized by the following equation, known as Henry’s Law:

At higher pressures, more gas molecules dissolve in the liquid

• The solubility of gases also depends on pressure. The higher the pressure of a gas
above a liquid, the more soluble the gas is in the liquid.

• In a sealed can of soda pop, the carbon dioxide is maintained in solution by a high
pressure of carbon dioxide within the can. When the can is opened, this pressure is
released and the solubility of carbon dioxide decreases, resulting in bubbling.
 Calculate the concentration of carbon dioxide in a soft drink that
was bottled under a partial pressure of 5.0 atm CO2 at 25°C (a)
before the bottle is opened and (b) after the soda has gone “flat”
Problem

at 25°C. The Henry’s law constant for CO2 in water at this

temperature is 3.1 x 102 mol/L atm. Assume that the partial
pressure of CO2 in air is 0.0003 atm and that the Henry’s law
constant for the soft drink is the same as that for water.

Setup
At 25°C, the Henry’s law constant for CO2 in water is 3.1 x 102
mol/L atm.
Solution
(a) c (3.1 x 102 mol/L .atm)(5.0 atm) = 1.6 x 10-1 mol/L
(b) c (3.1 x 102 mol/L. atm)(0.0003 atm) = 9 x 10-6 mol/L
The solubility of nitrogen gas at 25 ◦C and 1 atm is 6.8 x 10-4 mol/L. If the
partial pressure of nitrogen gas in air 0.76 atm, what is the concentration
(molarity) o dissolved nitrogen?
a. 6.8 × 10-4 M
b. 5.2 × 10-4 M
c. 4.9 × 10-4 M
d. 3.8 × 10-4 M
e. 1.1 × 10-4 M
Ways to express the
Concentration of Solutions
Molarity (M)
The moles of solute divided by the volume of the solution in liter.

1L

Note that
NaOH
A shortened term for this concentration term is the word "molar" 40 gm

M =1 molar

A sample of NaNO3 weighing 8.5 grams is placed in a 500 ml

Example 1

volumetric flask and distilled water was added to the mark on the
neck of the flask. Calculate the Molarity of the resulting solution?
 A sample of NaNO3 weighing 8.5 grams is placed in a
Example

500 ml volumetric flask and distilled water was added

to the mark on the neck of the flask. Calculate the
Molarity of the resulting solution?

Molecular mass of NaNO3 = 23 + 14 + 3(16) = 85 grams.

Solution

Volume of solution = 500 ml x 1 liter / 1000 ml = 0.5 liters

Number of moles of NaNO3 = W/Mw = 8.5/85= 0.1 mole
Molarity = moles NaNO3 / volume of the solution in liters
M = 0.1 mole / 0.5 liters = 0.2 Molar NaNO3
Molality (m)
The moles of solute divided by kilograms of solvent.

1 kg
of solvent

NaOH
Note that 40 gm
A shortened term for this concentration term is the word "molal"
M =1 molal
Example

Determine the molality of 3000 grams of solution

containing 37.3 grams of Potassium Chloride KCl.
Mole Fraction
The moles of one component divided by total
moles of components in solution
Example

How many grams MgCl2 will be needed to add to 1000 grams

of water to prepare a 0.1 mole fraction solution in MgCl2.
 Parts per million (ppm)

For example, if a 1-kg sample of water is found to contain 3 mg (3 x 10-6 g)

of arsenic, its concentration can be expressed in parts per billion (ppb) as
follows:
 DILUTING SOLUTIONS
Only solvent is added

Dilution

The idea is that the volumes may change but the number of moles
does not. This means that the original number of moles and the final
number of moles are the same
Example

What volume of 16 M sulfuric acid must be used to prepare 1.5 L of 0.1

M sulfuric acid?
• Freezing point depression
• Elevation in boiling point
• Lowering of vapor pressure
• Osmotic Pressure
Have you ever wondered
Why you add salt to the ice in an ice-
cream maker?
OR
why salt is scattered on icy roads in cold
climates?

Salt lowers the temperature at which a saltwater solution

freezes. A salt and water solution remains liquid even below 0
C. When salt is added to ice in the ice-cream maker, an
ice/water/salt mixture forms that can reach a temperature of
about -10 C, at which point the cream freezes. On the winter
road, the salt allows the ice to melt when the ambient
temperature is below freezing.
The depression of the freezing point of water by salt is an
example of a colligative property, a property that depends
on the number of particles dissolved in solution, not on the
type of particle. In this section, we examine four colligative
properties: vapor pressure lowering, freezing point
depression, boiling point elevation, and osmotic pressure.
 Vapor Pressure Lowering
When placed in sealed containers, volatile
solvents exert a vapor pressure, and they
eventually reach a state of Equilibrium, like
this;

When a nonvolatile (non-evaporating) solute

is added, it stabilizes the liquid solvent, which
decreases its rate of evaporation, like this

Once equilibrium is reestablished,

the new vapor pressure is now lower
than the old one;
Vapor Pressure Lowering
How does a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte solute affect the vapor pressure of the
liquid into which it dissolves? The basic answer to this question is that
the vapor pressure of the solution is lower than the vapor pressure of
the pure solvent.

The simplest explanation for why the vapor

pressure of a solution is lower than that of the
pure solvent is related to the concept of dynamic
equilibrium itself. Consider the following
representation of a liquid in dynamic equilibrium
with its vapor. Here the rate of vaporization is
equal to the rate of condensation:

When a nonvolatile solute is added, however,

the solute particles (shown in red) interfere with
the ability of the solvent particles (blue) to
vaporize. The rate of vaporization is thus
diminished compared to that of the pure solvent:
The change in the rate of vaporization creates an imbalance in the rates;
the rate of condensation is now greater than the rate of vaporization. The
net effect is that some of the molecules that were in the gas state
condense into the liquid state. As they condense, the reduced number of
molecules in the gas state causes the rate of condensation to decrease.
Eventually the two rates become equal again, but only after the
concentration of solvent molecules in the gas state has decreased:

The result is a lower vapor pressure for the solution compared to the pure solvent.
Effect of solute on the vapor pressure of solutions
1.3 g of glucose is dissolved in 500 ml of water at 25 ˚C. What is the vapor
pressure of the solution? (The vapor pressure of water is 23.8 torr at 25 ˚C
and the density of water is 1 g / ml)?
Boiling and freezing points of solvent and solution
Freezing Point Depression in Solutions
The freezing point of pure water is 0 ◦C, but that melting point can be
depressed by the adding of a solvent such as a salt. The use of ordinary
salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) on icy roads in winter helps to melt the ice.
A solution typically has a measurable lower melting point than the than
the pure solvent.

The treatment of freezing point depression is given by Ebbing. The

freezing point depression DTf, is a colligative property and defined as
the difference between the freezing points of the pure solvent and a
solution of a nonelectrolyte in that solvent, and it is directly proportional
to the molal concentration m of the solution:

DTf = Kf m
Where Kf is called the freezing-point-depression constant
 Boiling Point Elevation
The boiling point of pure water is 100 ◦C, but the boiling point can be
elevated by the adding of a solute such as a salt. A solution typically has
a measure higher boiling point than the pure solvent.
A treatment of boiling point elevation is given by Ebbing. The boiling
point elevation DTb is a colligative property and defined as the
difference between the boiling points of the pure solvent and a solution
of a nonelectrolyte in that solvent, and it is directly proportional to the
molal concentration cm of the solution:
DTb = Kb m
Where Kb is called the Molal boiling point constant.

Solutions may be produced for the purpose of raising the boiling point
and lowering the freezing point, as in the use of ethylene glycol in
automobile cooling systems. The ethylene glycol (antifreeze) protects
against freezing by lowering the freezing point and permits a higher
operating temperature by raising the boiling point.
Some physical properties of solution differ in important ways from
those of the pure solvent. For example, pure water freezes at 0 ◦C,
but aqueous solutions freeze at lower temperatures. We utilize this
behavior when we add ethylene glycol antifreeze to a car’s radiator
to lower the freezing point of the solution. The added solute also
raises the boiling point of the solution above that of pure water,
making it possible to operate the engine at higher temperature

Something else you should know is that adding a nonvolatile solute

to a solvent also decreases its freezing point. Why? Because
solutes get in between solvent molecules. This prevents the solvent
molecules from cohering together and freezing.
This is why adding salt to ice causes it to melt. The salt molecules
gradually dissolve into the ice and then separate the frozen water
molecules from each other, converting them back to a liquid.
Hence, the salt molecules decrease water’s freezing point.
If you were to make a 0.8 molal aqueous solution of glucose,
what would be its boiling point and freezing point? (Kb = 0.51
˚C/m, Kf = 1.86 ˚C/m)

DTb = m Kb DTf = m Kf
= (0.8 m) (0.51 ˚C/m) = (0.8 m) (1.86 ˚C/m)
= 0.41 ˚C = 1.49 ˚C

Tb = 100 ˚C + 0.41 ˚C Tb = 0.00 ˚C – 1.49 ˚C

= 100.41 ˚C = -1.49 ˚C
 Entropy

• Exothermic processes are energetically favorable and,

therefore, generally tend to occur spontaneously.
• In some cases, however, endothermic processes can also
occur spontaneously, thanks to entropy. In other words,
some processes that are endothermic (energetically
disfavored) will still occur spontaneously, if there are
accompanied by large increase in entropy (disorder).
• One melting of this is the melting of ice, an endothermic
process that still spontaneously at room temperature
because liquid water molecules are more disordered than
solid molecules.
Formation of solutions where the process is endothermic can be
spontaneous provided that ____________________.

a. they are accompanied by another process that is exothermic

b. they are accompanied by an increase in order
c. they are accompanied by an increase in disorder
d. the solvent is a gas and the solute is a solid
e. the solvent is water and the solute is a gas
2.4 g of CaCl2 is dissolved in 600 ml of water at 25 ˚C. What is the vapor
pressure of the solution? (The vapor pressure of water is 23.8 torr at 25 ˚C
and the density of water is 1 g / ml)?
How many grams of glucose must be added to 250 g of water at 40 to create
a solution with a vapor pressure of 54.0 torr? (The vapor pressure of water at
40 ˚C is 55. 3 torr)
 Colligative Properties
Vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure of the gas above the liquid when
the gas and the liquid are in dynamic equilibrium (that is, when the rate of
vaporization equals the rate of condensation)

How does a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte solute affect the vapor pressure

of the liquid into which it dissolves?

The basic answer to this question is that the vapor pressure of the
solution is lower than the vapor pressure of the pure solvent. We can
understand why this happens in two different ways.

Raoult’s law

Psolution is the vapor pressure of the solution. xsolvent

is the mole fraction of the solvent.
P °solvent is the vapor pressure of the pure
solvent at the same temperature.
Colligative Properties
• Freezing point depression
• Elevation in boiling point
• Lowering of vapour pressure
• Osmotic Pressure
 Solution & Vapor Pressure
When placed in sealed containers, volatile
solvents exert a vapor pressure, and they
eventually reach a state of Equilibrium, like
this;

When a nonvolatile (non-evaporating) solute

is added, it stabilizes the liquid solvent, which
decreases its rate of evaporation, like this

Once equilibrium is reestablished,

the new vapor pressure is now lower
than the old one;
Freezing point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation
 Freezing Point Depression in Solutions
The freezing point of pure water is 0 ◦C, but that melting point
can be depressed by the adding of a solvent such as a salt.
The use of ordinary salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) on icy roads
in winter helps to melt the ice. A solution typically has a
measurable lower melting point than the than the pure
solvent.

The treatment of freezing point depression is given by

Ebbing. The freezing point depression DT, is a colligative
property and defined as the difference between the
freezing points of the pure solvent and a solution of a
nonelectrolyte in that solvent, and it is directly proportional to
the molal concentration cm of the solution:
Dtf = ficm
Where Kf is called the freezing-point-depression constant
Boiling Point Elevation
The boiling point of pure water is 100 C, but the boiling point can be elevated
By the adding of a solute such as a salt. A solution typically has a measure
higher boiling point than the pure solvent.
A treatment of boiling point elevation is given by Ebbing. The boiling point
elevation DTb is a colligative property and defined as the difference between
the boiling points of the pure solvent and a solution of a nonelectrolyte in that
solvent, and it is directly proportional to the molal concentration cm of the
solution:
DTb = Kb cm

Where Kb is called the Molal boiling point constant.

Solutions may be produced for the purpose of raising the boiling point and
lowering the freezing point, as in the use of ethylene glycol in automobile
cooling systems. The ethylene glycol (antifreeze) protects against freezing by
lowering the freezing point and permits a higher operating temperature by
raising the boiling point.
Freezing point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation
 Solution & Vapor Pressure
When placed in sealed containers, volatile
solvents exert a vapor pressure, and they
eventually reach a state of Equilibrium, like
this;

When a nonvolatile (non-evaporating) solute

is added, it stabilizes the liquid solvent, which
decreases its rate of evaporation, like this

Once equilibrium is reestablished,

the new vapor pressure is now lower
than the old one;
Solutions & Freezing points

Something else you should know is that adding a nonvolatile solute

to a solvent also decreases its freezing point.
Why? Because solutes get in between solvent molecules. This
prevents the solvent molecules from cohering together and freezing.
This is why adding salt to ice causes it to melt. The salt molecules
gradually dissolve into the ice and then separate the frozen water
molecules from each other, conveting them back to a liquid. Hence,
the salt molecules decrease water’s freezing point.
Solutions & Freezing Points

Some physical properties of solution differ in important ways from

those of the pure solvent. For example, pure water freezes at 0 C, but
aqueous solutions freeze at lower temperatures. We utilize this
behavior when we ad ethylene glycol antifreeze to a car’s radiator to
lower the freezing point of the solution. The added solute also raises
the boiling point of the solution above that of pure water, making it
possible to operate the engine at higher temperature
 Solutions & Freezing points

Something else you should know is that adding a nonvolatile solute

to a solvent also decreases its freezing point.
Why? Because solutes get in between solvent molecules. This
prevents the solvent molecules from cohering together and freezing.
This is why adding salt to ice causes it to melt. The salt molecules
gradually dissolve into the ice and then separate the frozen water
molecules from each other, converting them back to a liquid. Hence,
the salt molecules decrease water’s freezing point.
 Colligative Properties
Vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure of the gas above the liquid
when the gas and the liquid are in dynamic equilibrium (that is, when the
rate of vaporization equals the rate of condensation)
How does a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte solute affect the vapor pressure of the liquid into
which it dissolves?
The basic answer to this question is that the vapor pressure of the solution is lower than
the vapor pressure of the pure solvent. We can understand why this happens in two
different ways.

Raoult’s law

Psolution is the vapor pressure of the solution. xsolvent

is the mole fraction of the solvent.
P °solvent is the vapor pressure of the pure
solvent at the same temperature.
1.3 g of glucose is dissolved in 500 ml of water at 25 ˚C. What is the vapor
pressure of the solution? (The vapor pressure of water is 23.8 torr at 25 ˚C
and the density of water is 1 g / ml)?
Freezing point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation
If you were to make a 0.8 molal aqueous solution of
glucose, what would be its boiling point and freezing
point? (Kb = 0.51 ˚C/m, Kf = 1.86 ˚C/m)

DTb = m Kb DTf = m Kf
= (0.8 m) (0.51 ˚C/m) = (0.8 m) (1.86 ˚C/m)
= 0.41 ˚C = 1.49 ˚C

Tb = 100 ˚C + 0.41 ˚C Tb = 0.00 ˚C – 1.49 ˚C

= 100.41 ˚C = -1.49 ˚C
2.4 g of CaCl2 is dissolved in 600 ml of water at 25 ˚C. What is the vapor
pressure of the solution? (The vapor pressure of water is 23.8 torr at 25 ˚C
and the density of water is 1 g / ml)?
How many grams of glucose must be added to 250 g of water at 40 to create
a solution with a vapor pressure of 54.0 torr? (The vapor pressure of water at
40 ˚C is 55. 3 torr)
Sample Problem
Consider a balloon with a volume of 22.4 L at 273 K.
What will be the new volume if the temperature
increases to 298 K?

Solution

Using Charles' Law: V2 = V1 T2/T1

= (22.4 L)(298 K)/ (273 K)

V2 = 24.5 L

When the temperature increases, the volume increases!

A certain gas has a molar mass of 28.0 g/mol. How many grams of
this gas would fit in a 3.00 L container at 182 kPa and 47.2 ◦C?
Converting between Moles and Liters of a Gas at STP

• What is the volume in liters of 3.80 moles of

CO2 gas at STP?
• How many moles are in 58.6 L of Nitrogen gas
(N2) at STP?
• What is the volume of liters of 10.3 moles of
Oxygen (O2) gas at 25 ◦C and 2 atm of pressure?
• How Many moles are in 29.4 L of liquid ethanol
(C2H6O) at STP?
What is the density (in g/L) of a sample of SO2 at 932 mmHg and 65 ◦C?
A gas has a density of 3.01 g/L at STP. What is its
molar mass?