Read only  What is Biology?

The science which deals with the study of living organisms and their life
processes

Taxonomy
The science of
identification,
nomenclature and
Cytology
The study of form
classification of
and structure of cells
organisms
and the behavior of
nucleus and other
organelles

Anatomy . Histology
The study of internal The study of tissue
structure which can organization that can
be observed by eyes be observed through
after dissection. light microscope

Physiology
The study of
different body
functions and
processes.
Embryology
The study of
Virology
fertilization , growth,
The study of
division and
viruses in all
differentiation of
The study of their aspects
zygote into embryo.
different body
functions
3 and
processes.
 Genetics
The study of
inheritance of
characters and
Zoology transmission of
The study of traits
different aspects of
animals

Morphology
The study of the
external shape, size,
color and structure
of living organisms.

Exobiology
The study of
possibility of life
in the outer space Ecology
The study of
living organisms in
relation to other
organism and their
environment

Microbiology
The study of
micro-organisms

Botany

The study of
plants

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Actinobiology
Acariology

Agronomy
Hematology

Biotechnology

Anthology

Arthology

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Chapter (1) Chemical structure of living organisms' bodies
(Carbohydrates and Lipids)

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The sequenced levels of living organisms (human body):-

Body  Systems  Organs  Tissues  Cells Cellular organellesmolecules

atoms.
Note molecules and atoms are called {Chemical level}

Classification of molecules that enter the living organism cells:

Cells of living organisms are made up of:

Organic molecules or Inorganic molecules

Biological macro-molecules

They are large –sized compounds mainly They often don’t

contains contain carbon atoms.
hydrogen (H) and carbon(C) atoms
Examples : Examples : water H2O
Carbohydrates,lipids,proteins& nucleic acids. Salts as NaCl

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 Note
Not all molecules that contain hydrogen or carbon atoms or both are considered
organic molecule, examples:
Water (H2O) Carbon dioxide gas (CO2)
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)

 They are large- sized organic compounds made up of smaller

molecules called monomers and combined together forming polymers by
polymerization process.
-They are necessary for the life of living organisms.
- All of them contain carbon element.

Polymerization
It’s the process by which monomers are combined together to
form the polymer.

The word polymer is a Greek word that consists of 2 parts:

(poly) which means multi or many and (mer) which means part.
The word monomer is a Greek word that consists of 2 parts:
(mono) which means one or uni and (mer) which means part.
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 They are classified into 4 groups according to their
molecular structure and the function that they perform

Carbohydrates
Chapter

1
Lipids

Proteins
Chapter

Nucleic acid
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The biological macromolecules (organic molecules) and the in organic
molecules are present in the human body within the meals we eat.
Examples:
Beans and cheese: rich in protein.
Milk products (cheese) rich in fats, vitamins and mineral salts &
oils.
Bread (wheat flour and corn) rich in carbohydrates and mineral salts

The following table illustrates some meals that are rich in biological
macro-molecules:
Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids
Vegetables Egg whites – cheese – Egg yolk – butter –
(sweet potato – yoghurt – milk – full cream yoghurt –
potatoes – eggplant chicken – fish – meat vegetables oils –
and pea) – legumes (beans) nuts – dark
Kidney beans-fruits – chocolate – avocado
honey-jam-whole
grains as wheat,rice
an d corn

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 They are biological macromolecules (polymers) that are made up
of many smaller molecules (monomers) called monosaccharaides
And they include sugars, fibers and starches

*Monosaccharaides are the simplest type of carbohydrates (sugar)

*fibers are considered one of the plant food components, where
cellulose enters in their structure, and they are indigestible inside the
human body, but they help in pushing the food inside the digestive
system especially the large intestine , which participates in facilitating
the defecation process.

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*Their general formula of carbohydrates is (CH2O) n
*They are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in ratio 1:2:1
Example: glucose (C6H12O6) contains 6-carbon atoms
Pentose (C5H10O5) contains 5-carbon atoms

Classification of carbohydrates

They are classified according to the molecular structure

Simple Complex
sugars sugars
sugars
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Glucose lactose starch

Fructose maltose cellulose
Galactose sucrose glycogen
Ribose

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Examples Structure Properties

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If a monosaccharide sugar is linked with another monosaccharide sugar to

form a disaccharide sugar, water molecule (H2O) is released

So the chemical formula decreases by 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom in

the resulted compound.

Glucose + Glucose = maltose

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 = C12H22O11

If more than monosaccharide are linked together to form polysaccharide

sugar (complex sugars)

The number of water molecule (H2O) that is released decreases by one than

the number of monosaccharaides that are linked together

Role of Monosaccharaides in energy production processes

inside living cells:-
Living organisms release the energy stored in monosaccharides such as
glucose as the following:-
* During glucose oxidation inside mitochondria of cells
1- The stored energy in chemical bonds of glucose released to be stored
in a compound called Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
2- ATP is transferred to other places in the cell to use the stored
energy in them for performing all the biological vital processes inside
the cell.

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 The importance of carbohydrates:-

1- The main and fast source of energy.(obtaining energy)

2- They are used in storing energy in living organism’s body till they need it.

** Plants store carbohydrates in the form of starch

** Animals and humans store carbohydrates in the form of Glycogen in

liver cells and muscles cells

3- The main component in building some parts of the cell such as:

Cellulose that enters in the structure of plant cell walls.

Carbohydrates enter in structure of protoplasm and cell membranes.

*Protoplasm means the cytoplasm and nucleus together

*Simple sugars are considered from the main and fast sources
for energy, due to their ability to dissolve in water, to be
digested and absorbed through the small intestine easily. Then
reaching the body cells easily through the blood in the form of
monosaccharaides, such as glucose in order to obtain energy
from them easily and changing into ATP molecules.
*Starch and glycogen are from the stored carbohydrates.
*Cellulose is from the structural carbohydrates.

*Glucose is the main source of energy in ATP molecules.

*ATP is the direct source of energy inside the body cells.

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 Detection of monosaccharaides

Practical activity (1)

Materials:
Water bath – burner – tube rack – 4test tubes
glucose solution – starch solution - egg albumin – distilled water
– blue benedict’s reagent – pen – tube handler

Procedure (steps):
1-Label the test tubes from 1 to 4
2-Put 2 ml of glucose solution ,starch solution ,egg albumin and
distilled water respectively in the four tubes.
3-Add 2 ml of blue Benedict’s reagent to each tube.
4-Place the tubes in water bath for 5 minutes, then turn off
the burner.

BLS Laboratory
BLS Laboratory

Benedict’s reagent Water bath

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 Observation and explanation:
Tube Substance Observation Explanation
1 Glucose solution Indicator color Glucose is one of
changes into monosaccharaides that
orange change the color of
(+ve result) the indicator Benedict
reagent from blue to
orange
2 Starch solution Indicator color Indicator color doesn’t
3 Egg albumin doesn’t change change because:
4 Distilled water (-ve result) *Starch is one of
complex sugars
(polysaccharides).
*egg albumin and
distilled water don’t
contain any
monosaccharaides.

BLS Laboratory BLS Laboratory

Conclusion: Blue Benedict’s

reagent is used for detecting the
monosaccharaides (glucose) in
different types of food and also is
used to detect sugar in blood and
urine 07
 Detection of starch
Practical activity (2)
Materials:
Iodine solution –dropper
Some food samples: (soya beans- macaroni – wheat-sugar-green apple – carrot-
celery-bread-milk powder-tomato-pea seeds)
Procedure (steps):
Detect the presence of starch in the previous samples by adding some drops of
iodine solution to them.
Observation and explanation:
- The orange colour of iodine solution turns into dark blue in the
samples that are rich in starch.
- The orange color of iodine solution doesn’t change in the food samples
that doesn’t contain starch.
- The degree of iodine solution color on adding it to food substances
depends on the amount of starch in them

Samples rich in Samples have little Samples doesn’t

starch amount of starch contain starch
Macaroni – wheat – bread Soya beans – carrot – pea Sugar-green apple –
seeds – celery tomato-milk powder
Conclusion:
- Iodine solution is used for detecting the presence of starch in
different (various) types of food.
Notes:
*Diabetic and obese patients must keep themselves away from taking sugary and
starchy substances.
* Benedict reagent is used to detect monosaccharaides as glucose
(color changes from blue to orange)
* Iodine solution is used to detect starch
(color changes from orange to blue)
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