University of Technology - Iraq

Department of Electrical Engineering

Electronic Engineering Division / First Year
Physics of Electronics I
2022-2023
Assistant Professor:
Sabah A. Al-Karagolee

1
University of Technology 2022 – 2023 First Year, Lecture One
Electrical Engineering Department Physics of Electronics I Assist. Prof. Sabah A. Al-Karagolee

Atomic Structure and Energy Levels

Basic Construction of the Atom

The atom is a basic unit of material that consists of a central nucleus surrounded by a cloud
of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positive charges called
(protons) and uncharged particles called (neutrons) (except in the case of hydrogen, which is
the no include neutrons). The electron is the basic unit of the negative charge in the atom,
where the charge of an electron is 1.6×10-19 C (coulomb) and the mass of an electron is
9.11×10-31 Kg. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically
neutral. A group of atoms can remain bound to each other forming a molecule.

The Rutherford Model of the Atom

The experiment relied on shining alpha particles rays on a gold foil, and he noticed that
some rays are reflected and others are deflected, and most of them are carried out as shown
in Fig. (1), in the following he most important conclusions:
1. The influence of most of the transmitted rays this is evidence that most of the volume
of the atom is empty and not as the scientist Thomson thought.
2. The reflection of a small number of rays, this is evidence of the existence of a mass
with a high density capable of repelling those rays, which was later called the nucleus.
3. The deflection of a small number of rays after passing through means that they
approached an object charged with a similar (positive) charge, so they repelled with it.

Figure (1): Influence, reflection and diffraction of rays according to Rutherford's experiment.
1
University of Technology 2022 – 2023 First Year, Lecture One
Electrical Engineering Department Physics of Electronics I Assist. Prof. Sabah A. Al-Karagolee

Rutherford, proposed the following model of an atom:

1. At the center of the atom is concentrated the mass of the atom and its positive charge,
known today as the nucleus of the atom, which is responsible for the scattering of rays.
2. Electrons revolve around the nucleus with a negative charge and a very small mass
that can be neglected and its charge cannot be neglected.
3. The charge of the electron is equal to the charge of the nucleus (proton), so the atom is
considered electrically neutral.

The scientist assumed that the atom is a hydrogen atom for ease because it contains one
electron and the only atom whose nucleus does not contain neutrons.

1. Electrostatic Attraction Force (Fe): This force is resulting from the attraction between
the electron and the proton; it can be calculated by Coulombs Law. See Fig. (2).
𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐 𝐞𝐄 𝐙𝐞𝟐
𝐅𝐞 = = = in newton (N).
𝟒𝛑∈𝐨 𝐫 𝟐 𝟒𝛑∈𝐨 𝐫 𝟐 𝟒𝛑∈𝐨 𝐫 𝟐
Where:
e: Negative electron charge = 1.6 × 10−19 coulomb (C).
E: Positive nucleus charge = Ze, in coulomb (C).
Z: Atomic number, Z =1 for hydrogen.
∈o : Permittivity of free space = 8.849 × 10−12 farad / meter (F/m).
r: Radius of the orbit, in meter (m).

2. The Centrifugal Force (Fc): This force is resulting from the circular motion of the
electron; it can be calculated by Newton’s Second Law of motion. See Fig. (2).
𝐦𝒗𝟐
𝐅𝐜 = = 𝐦𝐚, in newton (N).
𝐫
Where:
m: The Electron mass = 9.11 × 10−31 Kg.
𝑣: The electron velocity in its circular path, in meter/second (m/s).
a: Acceleration toward the nucleus, in meter / second square (m/s2).

Figure (2): The effect of the two forces on the electron.

2
University of Technology 2022 – 2023 First Year, Lecture One
Electrical Engineering Department Physics of Electronics I Assist. Prof. Sabah A. Al-Karagolee

In order for the electron to be stable in orbit, the two forces must be equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction, hence:

e2 m𝑣 2 e
= , the velocity of the electron can be found 𝑣 =
4π∈o r2 r √4π∈o rm

m𝑣 2 e2
 The kinetic energy of the electron is K. E. = = in joule (J).
2 8π∈o r

−e2
 The potential energy of the electron is P. E. = − Fe r = in joule (J).
4π∈o r

−e2
 Thus the total energy (ET ) of the electron is ET = K. E. +P. E. = in joule (J).
8π∈o r

The energy of the electron is often measured using an energy unit called electron volt (eV).
This unit is defined as the energy that the electron has when it falls in a (1V) potential
difference, therefore: 𝟏𝐞𝐕 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐉.

Disadvantages of Rutherford’s Model of the Atom

The following are the main disadvantages of Rutherford's model.
1. This model could not explain the stability of the atom because, according to the
classical electromagnetic theory, the electron that revolves around the nucleus must
constantly radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation, and thus its energy
gradually decreases to zero and falls in the nucleus and this is a demolition of the
atomic structure as shown in Fig. (1-3).
2. Rutherford explained the rotation of electrons around the nucleus, but he did not
mention anything about the arrangement of the electrons, which made his model
incomplete for the atom.
3. He could not explain the atomic spectra and the causes of the light emanating from the
atom.

Figure (3): The electron moves in a spiral orbit toward the nucleus.
3
University of Technology 2022 – 2023 First Year, Lecture One
Electrical Engineering Department Physics of Electronics I Assist. Prof. Sabah A. Al-Karagolee

Example 1: According to Rutherford's model, calculate the potential energy and the total
energy of an electron moving around a hydrogen atom if the kinetic energy is +13.6 eV and
radius of 0.529×10-10 m.

Solution:
−e2 − (1.6×10−19 c)2
P. E. = = ≈ −27 eV
4π∈o r 4×(3.14)×(8.849×10−12 F/M) × (0.529×10−10 m)

ET = K. E. +P. E. = 13.6 eV −27 eV ≈ -13.4 eV

Example 2: Find the atomic number of a carbon atom if the electrostatic attraction force
acting on the electron is 13.8N and the orbital radius is 0.1 × 10−11 cm.

Solution:
4π ∈o r 2 Fe 4 × (3.14) × (8.849 × 10−12 F/M) × (0.1 × 10−13 m)2 × 13.8N
Z= = =6
e2 (1.6 × 10−19 c)2

Example 3: If the kinetic energy of a zinc atom electron is 21.44×10-19J and atomic number
is 30. Find the electrostatic attraction force.

Solution:

Ze2 30 × (1.6 × 10−19 c)2

r= = −12 −19
= 0.016 × 10−7 m
8π ∈o K. E. 8π × (8.849 × 10 F/M) × (21.44 × 10 J)

Ze2 30 × (1.6 × 10−19 c)2

Fe = = = 26.992 × 10−14 N
4π ∈o r 2 4π × (8.849 × 10−12 F/M) × (0.016 × 10−7 m )2

Exercises

1. An electron of oxygen atom has an acceleration of 6×1012 m/s2 and an orbital radius
of 4.232×10-10 m. Calculate its kinetic energy.

2. Calculate the electron velocity of a lithium atom if the nucleus charge is 4.8×10-19C
and a radius is 2.116×10-10 m.

3. Prove that the unit of measure for the total energy of an electron is the joule, according
to Rutherford's model.
4