UNIT 02: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEY

2.1. INTRODUCTION
➢ A geodetic control survey consists of establishing the horizontal
and vertical positions of points for the control of a project or
installation site, map, GIS or study area,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, OR
➢ It is a class of survey that establishes positions of points with a
high degree of accuracy in order to support activities such as
mapping, GIS, property survey, etc.
➢ They establish 2D/3D point positions of fixed monuments, w/c
then can provide
➢ the primary Reference for subsequent engineering & construction
projects
➢ the basic Framework from w/c detailed site plan, topographic
mapping, boundary demarcation, and construction alignment
work can be performed, or
➢ used to effectively & efficiently monitor and evaluate external
deformations in large structures, such as Lakes and Dams
UNIT 02: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEY
➢ Geodetic Network Surveys are distinguished by use of
➢ Redundant,
➢ Interconnected, and
➢ Permanently Monumented ……… control points that comprise
the FRAMEWORK for NATIONAL SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEMS
(NSRS)

➢ It consists of the following components(parts & work

sequences):-
➢ Standard accuracy , classification, and specification
➢ Planning & field Reconnaissance
➢ field work,
➢ Computations and/or Adjustments
➢ Quality analysis of Results
UNIT 02: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEY
STANDARDS OF ACCURACY & CLASSIFICATION OF
CONTROL SURVEYS
➢ A survey standard may be defined as the minimum accuracies
deemed necessary to meet specific objective.
➢ It provide QUALITY ASSURANCE as well as CONSISTENCY
in a survey, and also HELP RE- ESTABLISH MISSING
SURVEY MONUMENTS.
➢ Conventional control surveys have been classified based on
the RELATIVE POSITIONAL ACCURACY b/n directly
connected control points as a RATIO of the HORIZONTAL
SEPARATION b/n them
➢ if pts A & B are 13,786m apart, and the positional accuracy of one point
relative to the other is 0.128m, then the relative accuracy b/n them is
1:107,703 How?
UNIT 02: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEY
2.2. HORIZONTAL GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEY
➔The determination of the precise horizontal position of a
number of stations (points), usually spread over a large area,
or to establish a network of control points (stations) whose
positions is specified in terms of LATITUDE & LONGITUDE.

➔ The horizontal control points positions can be obtained in a

number of different ways (methods). These methods are
❑ TRIANGULATION,
❑ TRILATERATION,
❑ RESECTION,
❑ INTERSECTION,
❑ TRAVERSE, and
❑ SATELLITE POSITIONING
 UNIT 02: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEY
➔HORIZONTAL CONTROL SURVEY STANDARDS

A. Approximate Surveying
B. Higher Order Surveys:- (1:100,000)
C. Construction Layout or Grade Control:- This is intended to
cover temporary control used for alignment, grading, and
measurement of various types of construction, and some local site
plan topographic mapping, or photo mapping control work.
Analogous to traditional fourth order (1:2,500 – 1:20,000)
❑ Lower Accuracies (1:2,500 – 1:5,000).
❑ Moderate Accuracies (1:5,000)
❑ Higher Accuracies (1:10,000 – 1:20,000)
UNIT 02: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEY

Construction Surveys Third Order, Class – II (1:5,000)

Cadastral & Real Estate Third Order – (1:5,000 – 1:10,000)

Surveys

Topographic Site Plan Third Order – (1:5,000 – 1:10,000)

Mapping

Photogrammetric Third Order – (1:5,000 – 1:10,000)

Mapping Control Survey

Hydrographic Survey Third Order – (1:5,000 – 1:10,000)

GIS Surveys Third Order – (1:5,000 – 1:10,000)

UNIT 02: GEODETIC CONTROL SURVEY
2.2.1. TRIANGULATION
➔Is based on the TRIGONOMETRIC proposition that if ONE
SIDE of and THREE ANGLES of a TRIANGLE are known, the
remaining SIDES can be COMPUTED. Further more, if the
DIRECTION of ONE SIDE is KNOWN, the directions of the
remaining sides can be determined.
➔ A TRIANGULATION SYSTEM consists of a series of joined
/overlapping triangles in w/c an occasional side is measured
and remaining sides are calculated from angles measured at
the vertices of the triangles.
➔ The vertices of the triangles are known as TRIANGULATION
STATIONS,
➔ The side of the triangle whose length is predetermined, is called the
BASE LINE.
➔ The lines of triangulation system form a network that ties
together all the triangulation stations.
PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION
PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION
It was also known that <ACB and <BDE are right triangles and line AC is parallel to BD.
Determine the lengths of all lines of the triangulation system.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
B. OBJECTIVE OF TRIANGULATION SURVEYS
➔ The main objectives of triangulation surveys is to provide a
number of stations whose relative or absolute positions,
horizontal as well as vertical, are accurately established. More
detailed location or engineering survey are then carried out from
those stations.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
C. CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGULATION SYSTEM
➔ Based on the EXTENT and PURPOSE of the survey, and consequently
on the DEGREE OF ACCURACY desired, triangulation surveys are
classified as
▪ PRIMARY / FIRST – ORDER TRIANGULATION
✓ used to determine the shape & size of the earth or to cover a vast area like
a whole country with control points to w/c a second – order triangulation
system can be connected.
✓ Average length of sides of triangles is 50km
✓ Angles less than 40 degrees must be avoided (to ensure well-conditioned
triangles).
▪ SECONDARY / SECOND – ORDER TRIANGULATION
✓ consists of a network within a first – order triangulation & used to cover
areas of the order of a Region, small country, or provinces.
✓ Consist of simple homogeneous network of well conditioned triangles
with sides averaging 12km and connected to primary stations
✓ There should rarely be more than 10 secondary stations and 15
secondary triangles within a primary triangle.
✓ Angle greater than 150 and less than 30 degrees should be avoided.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
▪ TERTIARY / THIRD – ORDER TRIANGULATION
✓ is a framework fixed within and connected to a second
– order triangulation system & serves the purpose of
furnishing the immediate control for detailed
engineering and location surveys.
✓ Sides average 5-8km and generally points are fixed by
countersection, resection or intersection.
✓Very often tertiary points include main and intermediate
points.
2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
D. TRIANGULATION FIGURES & LAYOUTS
➔ The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the
triangle, braced or geodetic quadrilateral and the polygon with a
central station.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
➔ The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a
number of ways:
1. Single chain of triangles
2. Double chain of triangles
3. Braced quadrilaterals
4. Centered triangles and polygons
5. A combination of the above
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
I. SINGLE CHAIN OF TRIANGLES
✓ Is rapid and economic due to its simplicity of sighting only four other
station and does not involve observations of long diagonals.
✓ Simple triangles of a triangulation system provide only one route
through which distances can be computed and hence does not provide
any checks on the accuracy of observations.
✓ Used for control points (w/c are) to be established in a narrow strip of
terrain such as a valley b/n ridges.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
II. DOUBLE CHAIN OF TRIANGLES
✓ This arrangement is used for covering the larger width of a belt.
✓ The system has disadvantages of single chain of triangles system.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
III. BRACED QUADRILATERALS
✓ A triangulation system consisting of figures containing four corner stations and
observed diagonals.
✓ The triangles are overlapping.
✓ This system is treated to be the strongest and the best arrangement of triangles,
and it provides a means of computing the lengths of the sides using different
combinations of sides and angles.
✓ Most of the triangulation systems use this arrangement.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
IV. CENTERED TRIANGLES AND POLYGONS
✓ A triangulation system which consists of figures containing interior stations
in triangle and polygon.
✓ Is generally used when vast area in all directions is required to be covered.
✓ The centered figures generally are quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons
with central stations.
✓ Though this system provides checks on the accuracy of the work, generally
it is not as strong as the braced quadrilateral arrangement.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
E. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE LAYOUT OF
TRIANGLES
▪ The under mentioned points should be considered while
deciding and selecting a suitable layout of triangles.

1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.

2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate
squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that the computations
can be done through two or more independent routes.
5. The arrangement should be such that at least one route
and preferably two routes form well conditioned
triangles.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
6. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever
end of the series is used for computation.
7. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case of
quadrilaterals, no angle should be less than 30°. In the case of
centered polygons, no angle should be less than 40°.
8. The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines
and very short lines should be avoided.
9. The layout should be such that it requires least work to achieve
maximum progress.
10. As far as possible, complex figures should not involve more than 12
conditions.

It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle does not fall
opposite the known side it does not affect the accuracy of triangulation.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
F. WELL CONDITIONED TRIANGLES
➢ The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by
the arrangement of triangles in the layout and the magnitude
of the angles in individual triangles.

➢ The triangles of such a shape, in which any error in angular

measurement has a minimum effect upon the computed
lengths, is known as well-conditioned triangle.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
G. STRENGTH OF FIGURES
• The strength of figure is a factor to be considered in
establishing a triangulation system to maintain the
computations within a desired degree of precision.

• It plays also an important role in deciding the layout of a

triangulation system.
• For a given change in the angles, the SINE of small angles
change more rapidly than those of large angles. This suggests
that smaller angles less than 30 degree should not be used in
the computation of triangulation.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
STRENGTH OF…… CONT’D
The expression given by the U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey for
evaluation of Strength of figure is

𝟐 𝟒 𝟐
𝐋 = 𝐝 𝐑
𝟑
Where : 𝐋𝟐 = the square of the probable error that would occur in the
Sixth place of the logarithm of any side
d = the probable error of an observed direction in seconds of
arc,
R= a term which represents the shape of a figure
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
STRENGTH OF FIG…….CONT’D
𝑫−𝑪
𝑹= σ( 𝜹𝟐𝑨 + 𝛅𝐀𝛅𝐁 + 𝜹𝟐𝑩 )
𝑫
Where : D = the no. of directions observed excluding the known side of
the figure
D = 2(n – 1)
δA, δB, δC = the difference in the sixth place of logarithm of the
sine of the distance angles A, B, C, etc respectively.
C = the no. of geometric conditions for side and angle to be
satisfied in each figure
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
C = the no. of geometric conditions for side and angle to
be satisfied in each figure
C = (n’ – s’ + 1) + (n – 2s + 3)
Where : n = the total no. of sides including the known side of the figure
n’ = the total no. of sides observed in both directions including
the known side
s’ = the no. of stations occupied, and
s = the total no. of stations
➔In any triangulation system more than one routes are possible for various
stations.

➔ The strength of figure decided by the factor R alone determines the most
appropriate route to adopt the best shaped triangulation net route.

➔If the computed value of R is less, the strength of figure is more and vice
versa.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
H. INTERVISIBILITY BETWEEN TWO
TRIANGULATION STATIONS
➔The intervisibility of triangulation stations is ascertained by
one of the following methods:-
❑ By joining the two triangulation station points with a straight
line drawn on the contour map prepared during reconnaissance
and comparing the height of line of sight between the stations with
the intervening ground, whether LOS between the least height
station is clear of ground.

❑ By making observations from the hills, mounds, and climbing

the trees.

❑ Reflecting the light of strong sun light from high quality mirrors at
, e.g, one station and observing the quality of gleam from the
surrounding stations.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
➔Over short distances where the curvature of the earth can be
neglected (say up to 10 – 16 km) intervisibility is a simple
linear geometrical problem
𝟏
𝒉= (𝒉1d2 + h2d1) …………………………….(1)
𝒅
➔ For greater separations the curvature of the earth has to be taken into
account. The following expression can be derived from the figure below:
𝟏 𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒉= (𝒉1d2 + h2d1) - ……………..(2)
𝒅 𝟐𝒓
➔ From the above we can derive the well known result for the DISTANCE
OF THE VISIBLE HORIZON (putting h = 0, h1 = h2 = H, and d1 = d2 =
D) we find:
𝑫𝟐
➔ 𝑯= ……………………………………..(3)
𝟐𝒓
and if figures are put in for r ……. 𝑯 = 0.0785 D²
Where H is in meter & D in Km
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
➔If we take account of REFRACTION due to temperature
gradients in the earth’s atmosphere, the above formulae have
to be modified by a factor (1 – 2m) where m is known as the
coefficient of refraction – found to have a mean value of 0.07

𝟏 (𝟏 −𝟐𝒎)𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒉= (𝒉1d2 + h2d1) - ……….(4)
𝒅 𝟐𝒓

➔ The distance of the visible horizon is given by :

(𝟏 −𝟐𝒎)𝑫𝟐
𝑯= ………………..(5)
𝟐𝒓

𝑯 = 0.0675 D² (H – in m & D – in Km)

 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
➔Or the Rule for intervisibility between proposed stations A &
B can be defined by the equation:-

𝒅𝟏
𝒉 = 𝒉𝟏 + (𝒉𝟐 - 𝒉𝟏 ) ( ) – 0.06735𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐

Where : ℎ - height of point on light ray

ℎ1 - height of A
ℎ2 - height of B
𝑑1 - distance in km of point from A
𝑑2 - distance in km of point from B
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
I. SPHERICAL TRIANGLE (SPHERICAL EXCESS)

➔ The theodolite measures horizontal angles in the horizontal plane, but when the
area becomes large (such as in the case of Primary triangulation) the curvature
of the earth means that such planes in large triangles called as SPHERICAL
TRIANGLES / GEODETIC TRIANGLES are not parallel at the apices as
shown in the figure below.
➔ Accordingly, the three angles of a large triangles do not total 180 degree, as in
the case of plane triangles, but to 180° + ε, where ε is known as SPHERICAL
EXCESS.
➔ The spherical excess depends up on the area of the triangle, and it is given by :
𝑨𝒐
ε = 𝟐
𝑨𝒐
seconds = 𝟐 206265 seconds
𝑹 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝟏″ 𝑹

➔ The triangular error is given by: ε = Σ observed angles – (180° + ε) or

= A + B + C - (180° + ε)
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
J. SATELLITE STATION, REDUCTION TO CENTER, AND
ECCENTRICITY OF SIGNAL
➔ In triangulation surveys there can be two types of problems as under:
a) It is not possible to setup the instrument over the triangulation station.
b) The target or signal is out of center
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D
➔ The first problem is solved by taking another station S in the
vicinity of the main triangulation station C from where the other
stations A & B are visible. Such stations are called the
SATELLITE STATIONS, and determining the unobserved angle
ACB from observations made is known as the REDUCTION TO
CENTER.

➔In the second type of problem, signals are blown out of

position. Since the signal S is out of center and not over the
true position of the station, the observations made from other
stations A & B will be in error. Such type of problem is known
as the ECCENTRICITY OF SIGNAL.

➔ Both problems are solved by determining the

CORRECTIONS α & β.
 2.2.1. TRIANGULATION CONT’D

➔In general, depending upon the field conditions the following

FOUR (4) cases may occur

a) CASE – 1 : 𝑺𝟏 position of the satellite station Φ = θ + α – β

b) CASE – 2 : 𝑺𝟐 position of the satellite station Φ = θ - α + β

c) CASE – 3 : 𝑺𝟑 position of the satellite station Φ = θ - α – β

d) CASE – 4 : 𝑺𝟒 position of the satellite station Φ = θ + α + β
 2.2.2. INTERSECTION
• Is a process of locating and coordinating a point from at least 2
existing control points/stations by observing horizontal
directions to the point to be fixed.
• The point to be fixed is not occupied.
• Used in surveying details, in accessible places e.g. flag pole,
church spires.
 CALCULATING COORDINATES FOR
INTERSECTION
• Coordinates can be obtained by use of angles and/or
directions.
1. using angles
 CALCULATING COORDINATES FOR
INTERSECTION (CONT…)
USING DIRECTIONS

• PL = AL tan ∝ = XP – XA = (YP -YA) tan ∝ ------------- 1

• PM = BM tan 𝛃 = XP – XB = (YP - YB) tan 𝛃 --------------2

• Subtracting 2 from 1
• XB – XA = (YP - YA)tan ∝ - ( YP - YB)tan 𝛽
= YPtan 𝛼 –YA tan 𝛼 - YP tan𝛽 + YB tan 𝛽

= YP (tan𝛼 – tan 𝛽) + YB tan 𝛽 – YA tan 𝛼

 CALCULATING COORDINATES FOR INTERSECTION
(CONT…)

Using equation 1
∆YAP = ∆ XAP tan ∝
YP = YA + ∆YAP
IT IS ALSO POSSIBLE TO USE THE FOLLOWING FORMULAE:

∆YAP = ∆XAP tan 𝛼

where 𝛼 – dir AP
𝛽 – dir BP
 2.2.3. RESECTION
• This is a method of determining the coordinates of an unknown
point by observing at least 3 controls.

• The observations are taken from the unknown point.

• There are no orientation forward rays from the known points

to the unknown point, which is the main disadvantage of
resection.

• The point to be resected can either be within or outside the

triangle defined by the 3 trig station.

• When it is within, the solution is normally perfect but when

outside a DANGER CIRCLE might result.