LESSON 7

Sexual Selection

FORMS OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Syngamy − refers to the union of gametes of the same species
• Isogamy − refers to fusion of physiologically different gametes
• Anisogamy − refers to fusion of morphologically and physiologically different gametes
• Oogamy − refers to fusion of large, immobile female gametes with small, mobile male gametes
• Hermaphroditism − refers to an individual has both male and female organs
o leopard slug (Limax maximus)
o clownfishes (genus Amphiprion) − sequential hermaphrodites
o cactus (Epithelantha micromeris) − flower do not open
o bacteria (E. coli) − use conjugation

ANIMAL SEXUAL TRAITS

• Primary sexual traits − gonads and genitalia
• Secondary sexual traits − do not directly associate with gonads/genitalia (e.g., color, mating calls)
− do not play a direct role in reproduction itself
− common in sexually dimorphic species

MALE AND FEMALE DIFFERENCES

 distinguished by the size of gametes
 males usually small
→ sperm cell − 4.3 μm × 2.9 μm
 females usually big
→ egg cell − 0.1 mm diameter
 distinguished by their genitalia
 sexual dimorphism − 2 sexes of the same species exhibit different characteristics beyond
their sexual organs
o anglerfishes (suborder Ceratioidei)

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
• arises due to sexual selection
• arises when only a few males (or females) mate, produce offspring, and pass only heritable traits
• Bateman’s Principle − variability in reproductive success is GREATER in males than females

SEXUAL SELECTION
• selection cause by competition among same sex individuals for mates
• Darwin − not all traits evolve to INCREASE survival, it can also INCREASE mating success
• leads to exaggerated secondary traits − INCREASE mating success, DECREASE survival
o peacock (Pavo cristatus)
o túngara frog (Physalaemus pustulosus)
• acts on male more than females
→ not expressed in immature males (until sexually matured to court females)

WHY ARE MALES SEXUALLY SELECTED?

• sexual selection is more common and intense
→ males produce more gametes than females
 a single male can fertilize many females
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Sexual Selection

→ sexual selection INCREASES male fitness

 traits INCREASING mating success must be passed on
• a female can often fertilize all eggs with a single mating
→ traits that INCREASE mating success has no fitness advantage
→ invest much higher level of energy for nurturing offspring
• some unusual species show sex role reversal
→ males invest more than females in offspring
→ operational sex ratio female-biased − more females are available to mate than males
o seahorse (genus Hippocampus)

2 MAJOR MODES OF SEXUAL SELECTION

1. Male-Male Competition − competition between members of the same sex for access to mates
→ males interfere directly with each other
i. male combat − stag beetles (Lucanus cervus), bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis)
ii. sperm competition − damselflies (Calopteryx splendens)
iii. infanticide − killing of immature individuals by mature conspecific individuals
→ example: red deer (Cervus elaphus)
2. Female Choice − males attract females and persuade them to mate
→ limited by the level of cognition of the species
→ leads to the evolution of elaborate courtship displays
→ example: Western parotia (Arfak parotia)
→ mating preferences of females evolve:
i. direct benefits that they receive
→ INCREASE female’s fitness (such a food and care for the offspring)
o stag beetles (Lucanus cervus)
ii. do not receive any benefits (lekking species)
→ leks − aggregation of males who engage in competitive mating displays
(no benefit in females)
o Andean cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola peruvianus)
o Greater sage-grouse (Centrocerus urophasianus)
iii. pleiotropic effects of preference genes for mating
→ gene’s original function evolved to be used in choosing a mate
o Guppy (Poecilia reticulata)
iv. good genes mechanism
→ females choose males that display traits correlated with their fitness
SEX RATIO
→ relative numbers of males and females
→ selection favors producing equal numbers of males and females
 except fig wasps (Tetrapus costaricensis) − favors families that produce the LARGEST
number of daughters

HOW ARE SEX DETERMINED?

• humans and papayas − determined by chromosomes (XX, XY)
• environmental sex determination in reptiles (lizard/turtle) − determined by physical environment
(e.g., temperature during egg development)
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Sexual Selection

• haplodiploid sex determination in hymenopterans (bees) − unfertilized eggs develop as males

and fertilized eggs as females

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
→ 1% plants species
→ 0.1% animal species
 parthenogenesis − virgin birth; development from an egg with no paternal contribution of
genes
→ usually found on the tips of the tree of life
→ Aspidocelis uniparens (parthenogenetic) VS Aspidoscelis tigris (sexual)
→ very rare among animals and plants
o bdelloid rotifers
o whiptail lizard
o como dandelion

DISADVANTAGE OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• rarity of asexual reproduction gives it an evolutionary advantage over sexual reproduction
→ twofold cost of males – loss of fitness incurred by a sexually-reproducing genotype
 REDUCES population growth rate by ½, because males cannot reproduce

BENEFITS OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Red Queen Hypothesis – sex is more common in species where the environment is changing
→ recombination INCREASES frequency beneficial alleles
→  genetic variation =  chance of maintaining fitness
• random mating benefits species by INCREASING rate of evolution
→ INCREASES rate where advantageous mutations could be brought together
→ INCREASES rate where deleterious mutations could be brought together and removed
by selection
• removal of deleterious mutations more quickly
→ allows sexually reproducing organisms to avoid Muller's ratchet – genomes of an asexual
population accumulate deleterious mutations

SELFING AND OUTCROSSING

• hermaphroditic plants and animals evolve a compromise between sexual and asexual reproduction
→ self-fertilization – union of female and male gametes produced by the same genetic
individual
→ reproductive assurance
→ REDUCES fitness of offspring
• self-incompatibility – genetic condition where pollen grains are ineffective in fertilizing the same
flower or other flowers on the same individual plant
→ individual plant can identify and reject its own pollen grains
→ many has evolved and they outcross
• inbreeding depression – the major downside of self-fertilization
→ loss of fitness of offspring whose parents are close relatives
→ chance of inheriting deleterious mutations = HIGH and will DECREASE offspring’s fitness