https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=Eb8c_302lxs
What is Space Time and How it Works | Documentary
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what is our universe made of
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it's the biggest unanswered question
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space itself is something there's a
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hidden structure and a force that exists
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within space idli fundamental it's
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really part of the fundamental
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architecture a force that connects
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everything in our universe it's an
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active player and the game of life
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it underpins our reality tying together
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all of space and time since the very
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beginning we call it space-time
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it's everything space-time is what the
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universe really is space-time is how our
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universe works but what exactly is it
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and how does it control our past present
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and future
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we can't see it we can't touch it but
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without spacetime we wouldn't be here
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space-time is a fabric of our reality it
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shapes and governs our lives if we want
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to understand the story of the universe
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it's absolutely crucial we understand
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how space-time behaves space-time has
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been active since the beginning of
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everything and is the key to the
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evolution of everything we have to
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understand space-time in order to
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understand the history of the universe
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to understand how the universe began how
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it evolved and what's gonna happen in
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the future the story of space-time is
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the story of our universe to know how
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the story plays out how it will end we
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need to go back to the very beginning
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[Music]
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to a time when there was nothing no
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stars no space a time before there was
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time then all of a sudden our entire
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universe was born in the Big Bang it
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started in a instantaneous moment where
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from nothing our universe was created
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the very definition of the moment of the
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Big Bang is that space and time were
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created at that instant it is as far as
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we currently know that coming into
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existence of space and time itself
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the infant universe a tiny speck of
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energy and space-time materializes from
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nowhere then the universe suddenly
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expands the idea of inflation is that a
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very tiny region in an incredibly short
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amount of time far shorter than a second
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grew by many many many orders of
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magnitude so imagine myself suddenly
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becoming the size of a galaxy in a
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fraction of a second the universe grew
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from smaller than the size of an atom to
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the size of a baseball
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in cosmic terms that's like a grain of
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sand growing almost to the size of the
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observable universe
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the universe at the instant of inflation
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actually expanded faster than the speed
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of light it seems to be a violation of
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everything you've heard in physics you
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may be thinking hey hey hey mister
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astronomy guy nothing can move faster
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than the speed of light it turns out
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that's kind of true but the rule is
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nothing can move through the universe
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faster than the speed of light in
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inflation its space itself that is
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expanding so there is no violation there
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is no paradox
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[Music]
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inflating fast the universe went through
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a phenomenal growth spurt at the moment
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of the Big Bang space-time was this
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entity that was flying out in all
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directions it was space itself that was
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expanding but the universe didn't expand
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evenly one spot in the universe was ever
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so slightly more dense than a spot right
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next to it and we're talking about a
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tiny tiny fraction of a percent one part
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in a hundred thousand but that was
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enough fluctuations in expanding
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space-time created areas with higher
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density
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conflation made these high-density
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regions larger
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and this allowed our universe to take
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shape when parts of the universe didn't
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inflate quite the same way as others all
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of a sudden things could start to come
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together as the universe cooled energy
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turned into matter
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[Music]
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and in the denser regions that matter
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started to clump together
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crucially these regions had more mass
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than others
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masse bends space-time so anything that
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is made of matter bends space-time and
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the more matter you have in one place
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the more you bend it in fact I've been
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in space-time right now when I flex I've
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been it even more because of my
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incredibly high bustle density I don't
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bend at the maximum I don't want to
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destroy the earth in the solar system
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but you know it's an effect it's a real
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thing
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space isn't constant it's not something
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that is always the same everywhere it
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actually bends curves it warps depending
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on the matter inside of it we'd see a
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curving grid of space-time moving and
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reacting to objects within it and we'd
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feel the curving of space-time as the
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force we call gravity
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gravity is different from all the other
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forces it is intimately connected with
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the curvature of space-time something
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that can bend space and time has gravity
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that's what gravity is the bending of
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space and time itself it's hard to
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visualize this but a good analogy is a
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trapeze artist and their safety net you
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can imagine a trapeze artist falling
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into a net on purpose that net is flat
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and looks like a nice orderly evenly
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spaced grid but when they fall into it
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they distort that grid well that's a lot
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like space if you have matter in space
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it warps the framework when the trapeze
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artist is resting in the net they're
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bending that space-time grid a little
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bit if you had two trapeze artists in
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there double the mass in roughly the
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same volume you would get a bigger dip
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you have a bigger Distortion and that's
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how space-time works more mass equals a
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bigger curve in space-time equals more
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gravity but understanding the nature of
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gravity and space-time there's no easy
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thing it's an idea developed by one of
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the greatest minds ever Einstein had the
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idea that space itself is something
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something that can be bent something
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that can be stretched that we are all
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bound together by space-time Einstein
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says it's space and time have a geometry
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they have a life of their own they have
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dynamics
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those dynamics are what we call gravity
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the more dense the region of matter the
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greater the gravity the deeper the curve
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this connection is the foundation of our
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physical reality it's the interaction
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between matter and energy and space-time
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that created the universe that we see
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around us today but that doesn't mean we
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fully understand it there is much more
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that we don't know and that's
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frustrating with the laws of physics I
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can talk about how space-time behaves
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but it does appear to be something that
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stretches that contracts and that
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gravity is the embodiment of space-time
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born in the Big Bang space-time and
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energy combined to create our infant
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universe
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these basic materials were the
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foundations but how did we get to the
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incredible complex structures we see
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today
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how did space-time build our majestic
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cosmos
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our entire universe was created in the
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Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago
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everything came from nothing
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but our modern universe is a complex
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mosaic of matter
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I mean Marvel through our telescopes
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that the fantastic structure of our
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universe
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and it's galaxies if you want to ask
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where that come from matter in the
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universe arranges itself on a vast
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cosmic web galaxies and galaxies
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clusters are strung out on sheets and
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filaments it seems this intricate web is
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organized by a cosmic architect
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space-time it shaped everything from
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planets to galaxies atoms to cities the
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universe is made of space-time whatever
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the substance is time and space bound
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together that's expanding and creating
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the universe we see around us it's
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everything space-time is what the
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universe really is it's a hard concept
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to grasp and even harder to visualize
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[Music]
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scientists observe the universe in
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different wavelengths of light this is
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the Sun in visible light x-ray and
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ultraviolet now imagine if we could see
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it in the space-time spectrum we would
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see space-time distorting as objects
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move through it
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spacetime can warp and push things
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around it can expand and pull things
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apart but it's the shape of space-time
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that dictates how we experience it
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imagine you're in your car you go up
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hills and you go down hills so the shape
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of Earth's surface determines how you
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travel across Earth's surface in the
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same way the geometry of space-time
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determines how light and matter move
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through space-time
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the rules are simple matter in fact any
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object tells space-time how to curve the
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curvature of space-time tells matter how
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to move
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because the shape of space-time tells
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matter how to move what we call gravity
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this means that gravity and the shape of
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space-time tells matter how to clump
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together and form larger and larger
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structures but at the beginning the
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space-time landscape was very different
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from today's
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and the very first matter started to
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change the shape of space-time so this
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space right here has a tiny bit more
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matter in it than this over here
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wherever there was a little bit of extra
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mass that would Bend space a little bit
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more well if you're bending space a
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little bit more then more mass would
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collect there in the early universe the
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denser regions of matter created deeper
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curves in space-time and as the mass
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gets bigger as stuff falls into that
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well it gets deeper and deeper and
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deeper and attracts more stuff it's just
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a runaway process gravity increased
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pulling in more and more matter more
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dams got more dad's got more downs and
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then before you know it you've got a
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star and you've got a bunch of stars and
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you start to make a galaxy and these
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stars evolved and began forming large
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structures they sort of burn through all
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their nuclear fuel and exploded and they
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made all the heavier elements and with
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time we got down to having things like
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planets atmospheres people all the
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things that we care about today all of
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this started out as energy fluctuations
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in expanding space-time these at first
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very tiny fluctuations became these
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gigantic structures that we actually see
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today and over billions of years that
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material began to coalesce into
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individual galaxies stars planets and
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you
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fluctuations in the expansion of
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space-time laid out the pattern of the
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universe
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the curvature of space-time controlled
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the evolution of everything we see today
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if space-time didn't have that property
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and bringing mass together then all we
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would be is a thin haze of hydrogen gas
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not a very interesting Universal if
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space-time didn't curve because of
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matter inside of it the universe would
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be a really weird place I mean there'd
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be no gravity there'd be nothing to make
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things stick together no force of
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gravity means no stars no planets and no
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people we owe our existence to
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space-time but even scientists struggle
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to understand it I wish I knew what
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space-time is we know things about
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space-time but at the same time we feel
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like we know almost nothing about
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space-time then in 2015 we caught a
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break
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and for the first time we heard ripples
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in space-time
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generated by one of the most violent
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events in the history of the universe
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the universe is filled with space-time
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[Music]
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we think it's been around from the
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beginning of everything quietly pulling
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the strings of the cosmos
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[Music]
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and sometimes we get a glimpse of this
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elusive puppet master in action 2016
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astronomers witness a strange optical
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phenomenon a weird circle of light like
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a cosmic halo this is actually what you
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would see in the sky if your eyes were
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as sensitive as a telescope
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they're real this is not some artifact
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of how we adjust the images something is
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actually bending space and time itself
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into a lens that something is a red
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galaxy which is over 7 billion light
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years away from Earth it's bending the
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light from a blue galaxy which should be
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hidden behind it
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it's called gravitational lensing
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gravitational lenses are caused by
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objects with huge masses say clusters of
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galaxies that distort space and time so
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much that when light comes from farther
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objects has to pass around the galaxy
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clusters the light bends it really is a
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true warp in space-time
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mass from the foreground galaxy creates
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curves in space-time which we know is
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gravity
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light follows those curves and is warped
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so it bends around the galaxy massive
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objects like clusters of galaxies can
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bend the path of light through
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space-time a lot like a piece of glass
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can bend the path of light so when we
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look at a distant galaxy as the light
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passes through a galaxy cluster we see
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multiple images of the same galaxy we
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see arcs in circles as if that galaxy
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cluster were made of glass we are seeing
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the warping of space-time literally
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played out in front of our very eyes
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gravitational lensing gives us a way of
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seeing the effects of space-time on
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light
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but it's only an indirect observation of
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space-time could there be another way of
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experiencing space-time right here on
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earth not everything that happens in
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space can be seen sometimes you have to
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listen for it as well
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[Music]
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believe it or not space is a material
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much like this iron sheet and like this
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iron space can distort if I put a very
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heavy weight on this sheet of metal its
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shape is gonna change and it's gonna
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distort amazingly space can carry waves
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and so can this iron sheet but to get
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this sheet wavy you need something
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really powerful something like me and my
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hammer to see those ways to travel
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through that iron sheet
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well waves pass through space in exactly
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the same way we call these gravitational
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waves gravitational waves are vibrations
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from cosmic events-- transmitted through
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the material of space-time to set off
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waves in space you need the biggest
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baddest most powerful events in the
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universe something like the collision of
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two black holes when two black holes
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collide the energy released sends
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shockwaves through space-time across the
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universe
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by the time they reach Earth they're so
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small they're immeasurable almost in
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2015
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scientists at the LIGO Observatory made
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a groundbreaking observation they
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detected ripples in space-time
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gravitational waves rumors began flying
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but became clear after a while that this
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was indeed the first direct detection of
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gravitational waves seen by man-made
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instruments on the earth when we
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discovered gravitational waves it had
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been so long that we've been waiting for
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signals not only did most of us not
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believe it I went so far as to be so
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skeptical as to look into all kinds of
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conspiracy theories for ways it can be
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faked when I saw this data
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I still think back on it now and the
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emotional impact it has on me the only
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thing capable is when I saw my
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daughter's face for the first time after
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she had been born it was that kind of an
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emotional impact just having all of this
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things that we had worked for coming to
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fruition in one moment it's mind-blowing
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we can actually hear these gravitational
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waves on earth part of what makes this
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so amazing it's a bit of a coincidence
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but it's a really cool coincidence is
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that the signals that LIGO actually
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measures are in the same frequency band
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as the sounds that the human ear is
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sensitive to we can hear the waves
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change frequency as the two black holes
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get closer and collide it's a swoop up
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in frequency that sounds like what we
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were hearing in that where two black
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holes that are orbiting around one
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another and then coming together that
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was it
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listening to ripples in space-time has
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given us a powerful new tool to
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investigate the universe we are now
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hearing things in gravity for the first
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time it's a sense that we have never
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been able to apply to the universe and
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we're beginning to learn what is out
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there the observation of gravitational
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waves from black holes is one of the
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most significant findings in astronomy
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by anyone in the recent hundred years
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it's hard to overstate the importance of
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gravitational wave astronomy much like
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when Galileo first pointed his telescope
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at the stars to see something new we now
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have an entirely new window into the
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universe
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gravitational lensing and gravitational
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waves offer us an insight into the
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complex relationship between gravity and
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space
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[Music]
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but what about the other half of the
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equation time but it turns out you know
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it's space time gravity not only
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distorts space it actually distorts time
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too we think of time is something that
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can't be changed it simply flows ahead
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at a constant rate but that's not the
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universe we find ourselves in and some
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crazy circumstances my time might even
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according to you stop
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it might even be possible to travel
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through time and go back to the future
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[Music]
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[Music]
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for sci-fi fans space is the final
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frontier for scientists exploring time
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is a much bigger challenge originally we
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thought of time is the same thing as the
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Sun rising and setting but now we've
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come to realize the time is a more
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fundamental concept than that time isn't
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just something that passes time is an
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essential part of our universe it's part
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of the fabric of space-time
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the Big Bang was the beginning of space
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and time since then space has been
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expanding and time has been ticking
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forward it's been doing this for 13.8
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billion years creating the universe we
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see today there's sort of two sides of
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the same coin
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you can't have time without space or
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space without time so when matter
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influences space-time it's not just
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creating deformations in space it's also
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affecting the flow of time this is where
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space-time becomes really cool just as
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gravity bends space it also distorts the
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flow of time this isn't how we perceive
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time this is actually the rate at which
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time flows very massive objects can warp
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and twist space-time itself so not only
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a space distorted but time itself can
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slow down or even stop the stronger the
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gravity the greater the distortion what
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has the most gravity a black hole
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found in space near a strong
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gravitational tug from a black hole
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clocks can do funny things and this is
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where things start getting really
24:49
interesting around the black hole space
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time warps and twists slowing time down
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scientists dream of sending a probe
25:01
there to test their hypothesis
25:05
there's a famous way of thinking about
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this called the twin paradox where two
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twins are born on exactly the same time
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right so they're the same age but one of
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them zips very very close to a black
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hole hangs out awhile and then comes
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back if I had an identical twin who
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stayed back on earth while I flew near a
25:21
black hole when we had our daily video
25:24
phone calls he would see me and I would
25:30
see funny we would literally notice the
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time is running in a different pace for
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all the other one the closer to the
25:40
black hole the slower time passes
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if instead of coming back home I
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accidentally fell backwards into the
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black hole my twin back on earth would
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see me slow down even more ago
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and completely dry into halt and seemed
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frozen on the event horizon time appears
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to stand still why we just have a
26:05
sinking feeling that I would be able to
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come home again but if the twin could
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escape from the black hole he would be
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returning to the future maybe it's only
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been a few days or weeks experienced by
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the one that traveled to the black hole
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while the other is you know gray-haired
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and as grandkids by now as it lived
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decades here on earth
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the black hole warped space-time so much
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that the ultimate science-fiction
26:38
fantasy becomes reality
26:42
time travel is a staple of science
26:45
fiction and we know that time travel
26:48
into the past
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appears to be ruled out in our universe
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but time travel into the future is
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totally acceptable time travel isn't
27:01
possible just yet but space-time has a
27:04
very real effect on our daily lives it
27:08
controls how we age
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the key to different rates of flows of
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time is gravity
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if you experience different
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gravitational environment you will have
27:22
a different flow of time as I climb up
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these stairs and I put myself further
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away from the mass of the earth my own
27:31
clock runs a little bit faster if you go
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down closer to the surface the more your
27:38
clock slows down we have sensitive
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enough clocks that we can measure this
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different flow of time
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exaggerate this effect and we would see
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the flow of time change in front of us
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those closer to the earth would look
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slowed down those higher up the opposite
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which means the wealthy in their pent
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houses actually would age faster than
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people on the ground this is a
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mind-blowing concept but it's reality
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Earth's gravity even controls time high
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above the planet twelve and a half
28:21
thousand miles up there's an array of
28:23
global positioning satellites crucial to
28:26
the navigation systems and our cars and
28:28
cell phones we here on earth use the
28:31
global positioning system as a way of
28:33
getting around okay most people these
28:35
days would be lost if they have to go
28:37
more than about a kilometer from their
28:38
house unless they have their GPS app on
28:40
their phone to tell them where to go the
28:43
GPS receiver in your cell phone bounces
28:46
signals over four satellites to figure
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out exactly where you are it's an
28:52
exercise in precision timing onboard
28:56
each satellite is an atomic clock the
29:00
weaker gravity in orbit means the
29:03
satellite clocks tick fractionally
29:05
faster than those on the ground
29:09
if we didn't know to correct for the
29:12
fact that the clocks and our satellites
29:13
move at different rates the GPS system
29:16
here on earth would not work it would
29:18
actually lose accuracy at such a rate
29:20
that the entire global positioning
29:22
system will become useless in less than
29:24
an hour we correct for that every moment
29:26
of every day space-time has controlled
29:33
every phase of the universe's evolution
29:35
since its birth
29:38
now we're discovering space-time will
29:41
also dictate how the universe will die
29:48
[Music]
30:03
our universe started with a bang 13.8
30:08
billion years ago it's been expanding
30:11
ever since
30:14
will this expansion last forever or will
30:19
our universe come to a violent end for
30:25
almost a hundred years we've now known
30:27
that the universe is expanding
30:28
everything in the universe is expanding
30:30
away from everything else we can test
30:33
this by measuring light from exploding
30:35
stars type 1a supernovas all explode
30:41
with the same brightness so scientists
30:43
can accurately work out their distance
30:45
from Earth for decades astronomers have
30:50
measured this light being stretched by
30:53
expanding space-time the universe is
30:58
expanding and there's matter in it that
31:00
matter has gravity and that is
31:01
distorting the curvature of space-time
31:04
so it made sense to us that as the
31:06
universe expanded all of the matter in
31:08
the universe would hold on to each other
31:10
gravitationally if there's enough matter
31:13
in the universe it can actually pull on
31:15
itself enough that the expansion gets
31:17
slower but in 1998 astronomers took new
31:23
measurements and made a sensational
31:25
discovery people had expected it to be
31:29
slowing down to decelerate but instead
31:31
they found the opposite the expansion is
31:33
accelerating
31:35
if expansion was slowing then these
31:39
distant lights should seem brighter
31:41
instead they were dimmer
31:45
they were getting farther away much
31:47
faster than expected it could only mean
31:51
one thing that expansion is getting
31:55
faster it's accelerating every day
31:59
this discovery turned our understanding
32:02
of the universe upside down for the
32:05
first seven billion years of the
32:07
universe the rate at which the universe
32:09
was expanding was going slower and
32:11
slower but then something crazy happened
32:15
It was as if gravity had become the
32:19
opposite instead of attracting the
32:21
galaxies it was almost as if it was
32:23
pushing them apart that's a very
32:25
surprising result we're still struggling
32:27
to understand it was gravity losing its
32:32
power
32:34
where was there something else pushing
32:36
space apart there is another ingredient
32:40
in our universe an ingredient that
32:43
behaves very oddly the mysterious
32:47
quantity called dark energy
32:50
like space-time dark energy is all
32:54
around us we can't see it but it makes
32:57
up 70% of the stuff in our universe but
33:02
what is it exactly
33:03
dark simply means that we have no idea
33:06
what it is we don't know what form it is
33:08
in something is pouring energy into the
33:10
universe causing it to accelerate we
33:13
don't know what it is no clue whatsoever
33:15
we don't understand it that's the
33:17
greatest mystery out there today
33:21
dark energy behaves in mysterious ways
33:26
ordinary matter is attractive dark
33:30
energy is repulsive that's why it's
33:32
causing an acceleration ordinary matter
33:35
feels gravity it comes together but this
33:37
stuff doesn't his dark energy a new
33:41
force in the universe or like gravity
33:44
could it come from space-time itself
33:48
dark energy may very well be a property
33:51
of space-time it may be that space
33:53
itself has an energy and it's this
33:55
energy that's driving it to accelerate
33:57
in its expansion dark energy is a thing
34:00
we don't really know exactly what it is
34:02
but it will have a huge effect on the
34:04
future changes in the universe so what
34:08
will happen if dark energy keeps
34:10
accelerating the expansion of our
34:12
space-time universe
34:14
because of the presence of dark energy
34:17
it'll expand faster and faster and
34:19
faster which means the universe is going
34:22
to become a lonelier and lonelier place
34:24
to be all the galaxies are accelerating
34:27
away from each other the universe gets
34:29
dimmer and dimmer and colder and colder
34:32
everything gets darker and more desolate
34:34
and right now that is the leading
34:36
candidate for what's going to happen in
34:38
our future eventually our space-time
34:40
universe freezes the big freeze is the
34:45
ultimate endgame of the universe as we
34:48
know it it is an ugly fate it's a
34:52
depressing fate but luckily for us it's
34:54
not until an unimaginably long time from
34:58
now
35:01
trillions of years from now the universe
35:03
could end in a big freeze
35:10
but a 2017 study hints had an even more
35:14
frightening possibility dark energy
35:19
might be getting stronger one horrible
35:24
scenario for the ultimate fate of the
35:26
universe is if dark energy eventually
35:29
grows so strong enough that it can
35:31
overwhelm the gravitational attraction
35:33
of a galaxy itself it's even able to rip
35:36
black holes apart the very fabric that
35:41
holds everything together could be
35:42
ripped apart this idea is called the big
35:45
rip first clusters then galaxies like
35:48
our own Milky Way will be torn apart
35:52
then our solar system will break up and
35:57
in the final half-hour of the universe
35:59
the earth will explode in the final
36:04
second atoms will vaporize everything in
36:09
the universe would individually be torn
36:11
apart by the expansion of space we don't
36:14
understand dark energy is it constant is
36:17
it getting stronger is it getting weaker
36:19
at this stage we simply don't know the
36:23
future of our space-time universe hangs
36:27
in the balance
36:28
will it end in a big rip a big freeze or
36:34
is the end really just the beginning
36:56
spacetime controlled the birth of our
36:59
universe it will also dictate its death
37:03
[Music]
37:05
now we're discovering these two events
37:08
may be linked a link that reveals a flaw
37:12
in our understanding of the Big Bang
37:15
[Music]
37:16
all the galaxies all the planets and
37:19
stars all of this matter was compressed
37:21
into a tiny volume shrunk down to
37:24
infinitely small size we call this tiny
37:27
infinitely dense point a singularity
37:34
singularities are predicted by the
37:36
general theory of relativity but the
37:40
universe is also governed by another set
37:43
of rules quantum mechanics quantum
37:50
mechanics is our description of the sub
37:53
atomic realm of fundamental particles
37:57
and fields and forces in how they
37:59
interact
38:00
[Music]
38:02
quantum mechanics says that nothing can
38:05
be infinitely small or dense
38:10
so singularities cats exist singularity
38:15
is a bit where everything kind of goes
38:17
to hell because the densities become
38:19
infinite gravitational forces become
38:21
infinite things just sort of break down
38:23
there in the equation sort of stopped
38:24
making sense no singularity would be no
38:28
big bang as we understand it
38:30
so then how did the universe spark into
38:33
existence
38:37
scientists now think they have an answer
38:40
a solution that works with both general
38:44
relativity and quantum mechanics quantum
38:49
space-time
38:51
a successful theory of quantum
38:53
space-time should answer the question of
38:55
what really happened in the earliest
38:57
moments of our universe
38:58
hopefully the correct quantum theory of
39:01
gravity won't have any singularities it
39:04
will replace the Big Bang with something
39:06
else if we only knew what that something
39:09
else was we might have a clue as to how
39:11
and why the universe began
39:14
in a quantum space-time Big Bang there
39:18
was no singularity bursting from nothing
39:21
the universe formed from the remnants of
39:25
another dying universe it's possible
39:29
that before the Big Bang there was still
39:31
universe there was still space and time
39:33
but rather than expanding the universe
39:35
was contracting perhaps universes don't
39:40
end in rips or freezes perhaps they
39:45
collapse an ancient universe expands but
39:52
then begins to collapse under its own
39:54
gravity
39:55
crunching space-time down to a spec but
40:01
instead of forming a singularity
40:04
space-time once again explodes as matter
40:09
gets more dense than as the matter
40:11
crunches down this force will push
40:14
everything back out the near verse would
40:17
bounce and reignite in a new round of
40:21
expansion a new Big Bang what we
40:23
perceive as the Big Bang is the
40:25
aftermath of that bounce
40:28
[Music]
40:29
this suggests that the space-time that
40:32
dictates our lives today comes from the
40:35
collapse of an old universe and we live
40:39
in an infinite space-time cycle of birth
40:42
death and rebirth
40:46
a bouncing space-time universe if we
40:50
live in a bouncing universe it's very
40:52
plausible universes infinitely old that
40:54
it's gone through an infinite series of
40:55
bounces and there is no absolute
40:58
beginning it could be that we are just
41:00
one iteration of an infinite number of
41:03
cycles in the lifetime of some meta
41:05
universe we barely understand space-time
41:11
perhaps we will never understand it
41:14
completely
41:15
but one thing is clear without
41:18
space-time we would not be here
41:23
space-time is something absolutely real
41:26
it's really part of the fundamental
41:27
architecture the furniture of reality to
41:33
really understand the ultimate fate of
41:35
our cosmos it's not enough just look
41:37
more with our telescopes you also have
41:39
to understand the basic nature of
41:41
space-time
41:46
I think the biggest thing to take out of
41:49
all of this is that the universe is
41:52
weird you hear about these very weird
41:58
things that we talk about when we study
41:59
the universe and cosmology and
42:01
relativity it sounds like it could be
42:03
all made up
42:04
but trust it's not
42:08
you really are right now living in a far
42:11
more complex and beautiful universe than
42:14
the human mind can comprehend