British Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences 1

July 2020, Vol. 24 (1)

World Englishes: An Overview of Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles Model & the Position of
Bangladesh

Mohammad Nurul Islam

Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, University of Malaya, Malaysia;
Department of English, Faculty of Languages and Translation, King Khalid University Abha, Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia

Professor Azirah Hashim

Department of English Language, Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, University of Malaya, Malaysia

Abstract

This paper aims to introduce and explain Kachru’s proposed revolutionary model of “World Englishes” in
the mid-1980s, which distributes the manifestation of English into three concentric circles, namely, the
‘Inner’ Circle, the ‘Outer’ Circle and the ‘Expanding’ Circle, in a concise manner. Kachru’s ‘Three
Concentric Circles’ of English Language has aroused an incredible discussion since its first emergence in
1985. It was recognized by numerous language scholars to be one of the most persuasive models for
understanding English usage in various nations. On the other hand, a few criticized the model including
Kachru himself, for its overgeneralization and inconsistent member status to the circles. In addition to an
outline of the critique of Kachru’s model founded on various studies, this article attempts to find the
position of ELT in Bangladesh among the three concentric circles.

Keywords: EFL, ESL, ELT pedagogy and Kachru’s Model.

1. Introduction
World Englishes is a term used to describe developing indigenous or localized English varieties,
particularly varieties that have evolved in regions dominated by Britain or America. There are many
researchers of World English varieties, two prominent scholars are worth noting, Quirk and Kachru.
Randolph Quirk was among the first to address varieties of English in contemporary times and the idea of
World English ‘standards’ in his book (1962), ‘the use of English’. Bolton aptly opines the varieties of
World Englishes in the following:
The expression “world Englishes” is capable of a range of meanings and interpretations. In the
first sense, perhaps, the term functions as an umbrella label referring to a wide range of differing
approaches to the description and analysis of English(es) worldwide. Some scholars, for example,
favor a discussion of “world English” in the singular, and also employ terms such as “global
English” and “international English,” while others adopt the same terms in their plural forms.
Indeed, in recent years, a plethora of terminology has come into use, including: English as an
international (auxiliary) language, global English(es), international English(es), localized varieties
of English, new varieties of English, non-native varieties of English, second language varieties of
English, world English(es), new Englishes, alongside such more traditional terms as ESL (English
as a Second Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language). In a second narrower sense, the
term is used to specifically refer to the “new Englishes” found in the Caribbean and in West
African and East African societies such as Nigeria and Kenya, and to such Asian Englishes as
Hong Kong English, Indian English, Malaysian English, Singaporean English, and Philippine
English (Bolton, 2009, p. 240).
Moreover, Braj B. Kachru was a professor of Linguistics who instituted the phrase ‘World English’.
The term represents the fact that the English language was used in different languages globally as an

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international medium of communication. English is the most significant language in the globe. English
has been recognised as the global language among the speakers of numerous different languages because
it has basic characteristics. To keep up a worldwide relationship in education, business, science,
technology, tourism, travel etc, English provides a means of a popular and worldwide language. British
Empire expansion presented English in India (present Bangladesh e.g. East Pakistan, was a part of India),
Africa, South Asia, New Zealand, Australia and America. It migrated to these nations as the language of
commerce, tourism and exploration language and became the main instructional medium. Currently,
English is the formal language of almost all international communications. It is probably the most
adaptable language of all. Thus, individuals having a place various part of the globe use English
extensively. It is the most widely used language (lingua franca) of the world.
“In recent years, the term ‘English as a lingua franca’ (ELF) has emerged as a way of referring to
communication in English between speakers with different first languages. Since roughly only one
out of every four users of English in the world is a native speaker of the language (Crystal 2003),
most ELF interactions take place among ‘non-native’ speakers of English. Although this does not
preclude the participation of English native speakers in ELF interaction, what is distinctive about
ELF is that, in most cases, it is ‘a ‘contact language’ between persons who share neither a
common native tongue nor a common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen
foreign language of communication” (Firth 1996, p. 240 as cited in Seidlhofer, 2005).
The internationalization of English and the need of realizing the English language make an incredible
requirement for a study on the relationship between the language and native speakers’ ways of life, as
well as an extraordinary requirement to seek for the most ideal approaches of improving EFL (English as
an international language) or EIL (English as an international language) in the world, along with the
Bangladeshi scenario.

2. Three Concentric Circles of English:

The most compelling model of English spreading has without a doubt been that of Kachru (1992)
that is a three-circle model. Following the three-way categorization (e.g., ENL, ESL & EFL), Kachru
partitions World Englishes into three focused circles, namely, the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and the
Expanding Circle. The three parameters reflect the sorts of spread, acquisition trends and the functional
assignment of English in different cultural settings (Jenkins, 2003) which are described below:

Figure 1: Kachru’s three concentric circles of English (Kachru, 1992a, p. 356)

Referring to figure 1, the ‘three circles’ model is usually portrayed graphically as three partially
overlapping ovals and the expanding circle is situated at the top. The model represents the dispersion of
English from the local nations to non-local ones by a segment of the populace. The English language is
migrated to the US, Australia, Canada and New Zealand from Great Britain. English is named Native
English Varieties in such countries. Kachru (1992a, p. 356) refers to the ENL countries (the Inner Circle)
as ‘the traditional culture and linguistic bases of English’. This circle is called ‘norm-provider’.
Traditionally, the British variety was accepted as the oldest model, and it is very recently that the
American model has been presented as an alternative system. These two models give local standards
(native norms) to Australia, Canada and New Zealand English. The Outer (or extended) circle

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encompasses prior periods of English spread. Its acceptance takes place in non-native settings, so it is
termed the Institutional English Varieties in Asia, Africa and the South Pacific. Most of the countries
belonging to this circle are former British colonies, such as Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Malaysia, Kenya,
Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Zambia. English is commonly used in
social life or the administrative field. The use of English is English as a second/foreign language in these
countries. These varieties have carried through long periods of colonization, each involving linguistic,
political and sociocultural explanations. Statistically, the outer circle shapes a broad group of speech
network with great variety and unique features. In ESL countries that are using these varieties, there have
been conflicts between linguistic norms and linguistic behaviour. As a result, this circle merits the word
‘norm-developing’ as the provincial standards (norms) are constructed based on the exonormative and
endonormative standards (norms). The provincial standards (regional norms) have been creating since
being embedded by the British and American models in the frontier time frame. Finally, the Expanding
Circles involves countries that incorporate English into education as a foreign language (EFL), mostly for
the reason of interacting with the Inner and Outer Circles in English. Such countries comprise China,
Caribbean Countries, Egypt, Indonesia, Israel, Korea, Nepal, Japan, South Africa, Saudi Arabia and
others. The Expanding Circle includes those areas where the varieties of performance are being used.
Understanding the function of English in this circle requires a recognition of the fact that English is a
global language. Nevertheless, English uses tend to be greater in number than different circles like those
of China, Russian and Indonesia. The geological neighbourhoods presented as the extending circle do not
have a background marked by colonization by the clients of the internal circle. This circle right now is
extending quickly and has led to various English varieties of implementation (or EFL) (Kachru and
Quirk, 1981). It is the users of that circle who reinforce the cases of English as a global or standardized
language. Kachru (2006) also mentions that in the pedagogical literature, in popular literature (e.g., in
newspapers) and in power elite circles, only the inner circle varieties are considered ‘norm makers’; the
other two are treated as the ‘norm breakers’. Indeed, in the inner circle alone, a particular elite class is
regarded as ‘norm-makers’ or emulation models (Kachru, 2006; Jenkins, 2003). The media set positive
standards for the acquisition of English around the Inner, Outer and Expanding Circles of users (Moody,
2020). Kachru formulated the notion of three concentric circles of the language to better understand the
use of English in various nations (Bhatt, 2001).

3. Debate on the model

The approach of Kachru to World Englishes has been subject to debate. Although Kachru’s model
presents a valuable contribution regarding the English language in the world for language researchers, it
has been criticized by many researchers, in addition to Kachru himself for its oversimplification and the
unclear membership to the circles (Al-Mutairi, 2020, p. 85). For several purposes, the three concentric
circles inspire numerous expects. Bolton (2003a) concurs that the three concentric circles are challenging
the myth of ‘native speaker idealisation’, the myth of ‘native vs. non-native speaker interaction’ and the
myth of ‘cultural identity (monoculture). This suggests a difference in the conviction that English is not,
at this point a language of the white-native speakers. Moreover, Bolton (2003a) recognizes this
framework, the outcome of the three circles, as a success. Park and Wee (2009) further concur with the
key advertising of the circles. In the Inner, English is advanced as the benchmark English for the language
policy. After that, speakers might adjust or embrace various forms of the approach to use English for their
reasons. Consequently, the circles are promoted as the examples of status, model and functions of English
of local and non-local users. In addition, Rajadurai (2005) agrees that the three circles are helping to
encourage new English varieties through aspects of innovation, communicative ability and relative
reputation. Their procedures of codification bring about the acknowledgement of new writing and
educational models and materials. Thusly, the quality of the model is the attention to pluralism and
linguistic diversity worldwide.

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Nonetheless, many drawbacks of this model have been raised. This present study exhibits some
main parts of such limitations. McArthur (1992, pp. 19-20) states that the circles are constituted as
adjoining ovals, not circular or concentric despite its name. Likewise, Tripathi (1998, p. 56) views that
this model is named ‘circle’ but represented as ‘oval’ to yield the tripartite scheme of ENL, ESL, and
EFL. Moreover, the Inner Circle is not expanding in terms of its population. Besides, the Outer Circle is
unaccountably located in the middle. This view implies that the bottom-located Inner Circle is less
important than the middle-located Outer Circle. Crystal (2003) also argues that this model cannot display
all outer circles nations in which English belongs. He proposes Kachru to investigate more nations in this
circle, by looking at the use of ENL and ESL through revised language users numbers. Besides, Burt
(2005), Kim (2006), and Saracini (2008) likewise acknowledge that this model is more based on English
features in the Outer Circle than the Expanding Circle; the previous circle is linked with the Inner Circle.
The above debate shows that the concentric circles have been controversial.
Meshrire (2008) argues that this model was distributed in the twentieth century (1980s). However,
it has the obscured circles in the twenty-first century as English use has reformed in ESL and EFL
nations. Currently, English is likely to decline in use in some ESL nations because of modified language
strategy, while the use of English in an EFL nation may be progressing. This signifies that the altering
position of English in the circles as a disadvantage of this paradigm as there looks to be more practical
native speakers in both ESL and EFL nations. Therefore, the setup circles may get ineffective. These
deficiencies and disadvantages caused other specialists to propose new models that, in their perspective,
better mirror the current status of the English language usage and spread.

Ultimately, by having this concept of three focused circles as a paradigm for evaluating the
position of English in the globe, one would ponder in the case of depending on the Inner Circle as a
model for universal correspondence raises doubt about the endeavours of those L2 users of the Outer
Circle and Expanding Circle who give a valiant effort to achieve near-native fluency and accuracy.

4. The Position of Bangladesh in Kachru’s Three Concentric Model:

The Researchers believes that it is very useful to explain the backdrop of English as a foreign
language (EFL) in Bangladesh and how it is acquainted all together with precisely dispense the country in
the English language framework of Kachru’s Three Concentric Circle.
Education, as is obvious from the extended meaning of the term, is a broad category which
includes all disciplines and subjects of study in a formal university setup. It is a blanket term
which covers all branches of knowledge, English language being one of them. But we must point
out that among other disciplines, English enjoys a special status. English is known as a service
language which is used in the teaching and learning of a number of disciplines as a medium.
Hence, the overall policy of education in a country provides special space for the teaching and
learning of English. We shall discuss in the chapters that follow Bangladesh policy of teaching
and learning of English in its historical perspective. A proper historical overview of the status of
English in Bangladesh can be made in the following sections: A. The status and the teaching of
English in the pre-independence period, ie, up to 1947(colonial period); B. The status and the
teaching of English in newly created Pakistan (since 1947-1971) or post-colonial period; and
C.The status and the teaching of English in newly created Bangladesh (since 1971 onwards) or
Post-Liberation period (Bangladesh period) (Islam & Azirah, 2019, p. 247).

The Indian sub-continent had been a British province (colony) for a long time. In the principal half of
the nineteenth century, it was the British frontier rulers that decisively settled English as an obligatory

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educational program subject by presenting English instructing and learning in this sub-continent.
Eventually, English has been a significant part of our countrywide educational program (Hoque, 1997).
A. Medium of Instruction
Islam & Azirah (2019) have discussed the present status of English education in the following:

The main purpose of teaching English is to acquire language skills and not to learn any particular
subject. It is also to enable students to interact in it in real-life situations. The themes and topics
introduced in the syllabus are meant to be used as vehicles for practising all four skills effectively.
Therefore, the situation demands that English should be taught as a functional or operational
language. According to a popular belief, the main aim of teaching English in Bangladesh is to
enable students to use it as a ’library language’ in the higher education both at national and
international levels. But such naming gives the impression of a confined role of the language,
while it remains a fact that the use of English in Bangladesh is as expanded and dynamic as in any
modern country of the world, ranging from interpersonal use to international communication (p.
252).

Chapter III (P-III, P-147), Report of the Commission on National Education (1960), place greater
focus on English language education related to Bengali, Science and Math. The Commission likewise
proposed that English ought to be instructed at all levels as a practical language. The educators must be
appropriately prepared before they enter administrations. Clarifying the significance of English in global
relations, the president of Bangladesh stresses that focus will be put on English teaching close to the first
language to enhance jobs abroad and facilitate technology transfer (The Daily Observer, 2002; cited in
Imam, 2005).
I. Primary level

At present, informally English is educated from class one in a large number of elementary schools
and even in nursery schools (Khatun, 1992). Students are expected to have attained basic (elementary)
knowledge of the four English language skills. At this stage, the fundamental aim of training English is to
get ready the schoolchildren for more serious and intensive study of English for the secondary stage.
II. Secondary level

Students undergo studying English as a mandatory subject for around 10 years by the end of
secondary education. Students study it truly and in extraordinary detail during this prolonged period.
Students are additionally required to use reference materials such as dictionaries and to interpret texts
from Bengali (mother tongue) into English and the other way around which allow them to use English
more efficiently at this level.
III. Higher Secondary level

English teaching can be seen as a continuation of the secondary level study. The primary target of
teaching English at this stage is to broaden and strengthen the knowledge of language skills that students
have just gained at the secondary level through revision and exercise activities.
IV. Tertiary Level

Tertiary-level students look for a wide scope of higher study alternatives. Under the National
University, students of the degree pass and honours study one paper of mandatory English comprising in
100 points. The primary goals of English teaching are to strengthen the skills already learned via remedial
instructing. Students additionally should be taught components of English for specific purposes (ESP), for
example, English for medicine, engineering and agriculture and so forth, with special focus on reading

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and writing skills. Listening and speaking skills also require successful learning and use where
appropriate in real-life circumstances. (Hoque, 1997). The Private University Act in 1992 was approved
that built up private English-medium universities in the nation (Hamid, 2007). As a result, the Act
authorized about 105 universities to be founded (UGC, 2020). These universities put particular stress on
English since English is in great demand. Besides, Bangladesh has 46 government universities (UGC,
2020) that likewise pay unique emphasis on English. English is the most generally communicated
language after Bengali in this country.
Figure 2: Timeline of English Language Teaching (ELT) in Education policies
Education policies and commission reports The position of English and English
education

1974 Bangladesh Education  English language is given priority as a 

Commission foreign language, to be taught from
class 6.

General emphasis on the English 

1976 English Teaching Taskforce 
Commission
1988 Bangladesh National Education 
Commission
language
English language to be taught either in 
class 3 or class 6, subject to availability
of English teachers.
Grade 3 suggested as a recommended 
starting point for English language
education.

Grade 6 suggested as a uniform starting 

1991 National Curriculum Committee 
2000 National Education Policy 
2003 National Education Commission 
point for English language education.
English language education introduced 
in class 3.
English language was introduced as a 
compulsory subject in class 1 (1992)
English language set as a medium of 
instruction for kindergartens.
Curriculum and all text material used in 
kindergarten translated into English.
Introduction of English language as an 
extra subject from class 1 to 2 and as a
compulsory subject from class 3 Along
with Bengali,
English language could be a medium of 
instruction from the secondary level
(class 7).
Emphasis on English language as a 
medium of the instruction at the tertiary
level.
Re-emphasis on English language 
learning from the primary level.
One objective of primary education to 
acquaint learners to English language

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skills as a foreign language.

Emphasis on rebuilding the overall 
English language curriculum.
Emphasis on organising foreign 
training for trainers of Primary
Teachers Institute (PTI) and National
Academy for Primary Education
(NAPE) and local training for all
secondary school teachers to improve
English education.
Emphasis on introducing a 6-month 
English language course at the tertiary
level
2010 National Education Policy  English language was recognised as an 
essential tool to building a knowledge-
based society.
Emphasis on English language writing 
and speaking from the very beginning
of primary education.
English language to be set as 
compulsory subject adopted in all
streams from the secondary level.
English language as a medium of 
instruction could be introduced from
the secondary level.
Emphasis on appointing adequate 
number of English language teachers at
the secondary level.
English language to be a compulsory 
subject in all colleges and universities.
English language (along with Bengali) 
to be the mediums of instruction at the
tertiary level.
Emphasis on the need to translate 
books written in English to Bengali.
Adapted from Chowdhury and Kabir (2014, p. 10) and Rahman and Pandian (2018a, 2018b, pp. 895–896)
cited in Rahman et al., (2019, p. 04)
Rahman et al., (2019, p.06) have aptly posited the status of English in the following statement:
“Bangla was also given higher prestige in all domains of the society, primarily in education, which
was not pragmatic at that time, since the outcome of the policy was a drop of English proficiency
among the learner community. It also resulted in the automatic digression of English from the
second language to a foreign language” (Hamid & Baldauf, 2014 ).
To wind up with, since English is taught as a foreign language in Bangladesh to communicate
with people from other countries because all Bangladeshis use their mother tongue (L1 Bengali) to
communicate in the formal contexts, Bangladesh is the position in the outer circle. As a result,
based on the history and functions of English Language in Bangladesh, Kachru has clearly
allocated the position of the country in the Outer Circle in his famous ‘Three Concentric Circles’
model.

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5. Conclusion
Despite a few sharp criticisms of its simple approach to categorizing and grouping English
speakers into circles that frequently absents an unmistakable method of reasoning, the Three Circles
model of Kachru is as yet considered by instructors and researchers as a significant commitment
concerning the spread and improvement of the English language around the world.

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Bio Profile
Mohammad Nurul Islam is a research scholar in the field of Varieties of English, Faculty of Languages
and Linguistics, University of Malaya, Malaysia. Moreover, he is an Assistant Professor in ELT, currently
working in the Department of English, Faculty of Languages and Translation at King Khalid University,
Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He has been teaching ELT and ESP at the tertiary level more than a
decade. His research interests include: ELT, ESP, and language testing. He has published many articles in
professional refereed journals. E-mail: nurulelt313@gmail.com

Azirah Hashim is a Professor at the Department of English Language, Faculty of Languages and
Linguistics, University of Malaya, Malaysia. Moreover, she is an Executive Director, Asia-Europe
Institute (AEI) and Director, Centre for ASEAN Regionalism (CARUM), University of Malaya 50603,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. She is the Vice President of International Association of Applied Linguistics
(AILA). E-mail: azirahh@um.edu.my

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