Predator-prey relationships are dynamic

They are influenced by climate dynamics, changes in food

availability for the prey species, and dynamics in other
areas of the food web

Predator-prey relationships also are dynamic through

evolutionary time

Often involve an evolutionary “arms race.” Natural

selection simultaneously driving the predators toward
greater hunting efficiency and the prey toward traits that
help them avoid being eaten.
briefly describe the decoy effect and why it is relevant
also in animals

according to the prey choice model when it’s

recommended to switch to the alternative prey?

where to forage? discuss one of the examples

presented in class

how long to stay (foraging) ? discuss one of

the examples presented in class

how animals reduce costs during foraging activity?

Briefly discuss both Clayton and Krebs studies (regarding
lifestyle and eye preference) and their implications

How can we measure heritability of lateralization? discuss

the detour test example in fish

Describe the Roger’s hypothesis on the

advantages of lateralization

Why doesn’t everyone have a lateralized brain?

The role of environmental factors in influencing

individual differences
Describe the functional response ‘type 3’ of predators when
proportion of preys is increasing

What factors control the hare-lynx population cycle?

Why do ungulates stot?

Death-feigning

Virginia opossum
(Didelphys virginiana)
394 x Chapter 8 n Predators and prey
Death-feigning

Heterodon platyrhinus feign death as one of anti-predator

Figure 8.21 Young hognosed snakes (Heterodon platyrhinus) took longer to stop feigning death when a stuffed
owl was present (a) or a human observer was gazing at them (b). See text. After Burghardt & Greene (1988).
responses in their repertoire. If making false strikes at the
Photograph of a dice snake (Natrix tessellata) feigning death courtesy of Peter Davies.

predator fail to discourage it, the snake rolls over on its

back and lays motionless with its mouth open and the
When disturbed by an interfering prod or peck, resting moths perform a vigorous wing-
flapping and body-rocking display. This causes a predator to hesitate for a few seconds
tongue
during which time outused the display activity to warm its flight muscles
the moth has
for takeoff. Other moths possess brightly coloured spots on their underwings, which
resemble vertebrate eyes. These ‘eye’ spots are much larger and more conspicuous than
those contributing to the false head effects in 8.3.4, and generally remain hidden until
AB_C08.qxd 9/17/07 8:14 PM Page 394

394 x Chapter 8 n
Death-feigning
Predators and prey

how long should the snake wait before

giving up its sham?

Burghardt & Greene (1988) tested newly

hatched snakes with a range of
predatory stimuli, which included a
stuffed owl and human observers either
staring at the snake

Snakes took longer to start moving again

in the presence of a stuffed owl or a
human observer staring at them than in
respective control (stimulus absent)
conditions.

Figure 8.21 Young hognosed snakes (Heterodon platyrhinus) took longer to stop feigning death when a stuffed
owl was present (a) or a human observer was gazing at them (b). See text. After Burghardt & Greene (1988).
Photograph of a dice snake (Natrix tessellata) feigning death courtesy of Peter Davies.

When disturbed by an interfering prod or peck, resting moths perform a vigorous wing-
flapping and body-rocking display. This causes a predator to hesitate for a few seconds
during which time the moth has used the display activity to warm its flight muscles
for takeoff. Other moths possess brightly coloured spots on their underwings, which
Stotting behavior in the
antelope is designed to
conspicuously show
predators that “I am fit
and healthy and
energetic…. I will be
able to outrun you….
So do not bother
pursuing me!”
Why do ungulates stot?
H1: Advertise unprofitability
H2: Alarm signal to offspring/others
H3: Social cohesion
H4: Confusion effect
 Table 8.1 Hypotheses to explain the function of stotting. From Caro (1986a).

Benefits to the individual

Signalling to the predator
1. Pursuit invitation
2. Predator detection
3. Pursuit deterrence
4. Prey is healthy
5. Startle
6. Confusion effect
Signalling to conspecifics
7. Social cohesion
8. Attract mother’s attention
Signalling not involved
9. Anti-ambush behavior
10. Play
Benefits to other individuals
11. Warn conspecifics

1997), a similar substance, so-called ‘Schreckstoff’ (von Frisch 1941), released by injured
fish may also trigger escape responses in companions (see Chivers & Smith 1998), but
there is no convincing evidence that it has a deterrent effect on predators. Indeed, it may
even attract them by suggesting an easy meal (Wisenden & Thiel 2002).
Be vigilant – don’t get eaten

Many prey constantly watching for predators, even

while sleeping

Vigilance behavior shapes morphology – eyes on side

of head

Effective level of vigilance increases in groups

What to do if you’re caught?

Geckos can drop

their tails when
threatened by a
predator
Death screams

Why do some prey scream loudly after being caught?

H1: It’s a response to pain receptors being activated
H2: It warns conspecifics (but it says the predator is
currently busy)
H3: It elicits parental help
H4: Screaming attracts other predators

Pike & minnows

When captured, minnows

release chemical that
attracts other predators
Presence of two pike and
one minnow increased the
time to swallow the minnow,
and a few times the minnow
escaped
Predator/Prey Arms Races

Red Queen Hypothesis

"Well, in our country," said Alice, still panting a little, "you'd generally
get to somewhere else — if you run very fast for a long time, as
we've been doing."

"A slow sort of country!" said the Queen. "Now, here, you see, it
takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place. If you
want to get somewhere else, you must run at least twice as fast as
that!"

For an evolutionary system, continuing

change is needed just so that one species
can maintain its fitness relative to the
species with which it is co-evolving.
 Predator/Prey Arms Races

Red Queen Hypothesis

Example: Passiflora and Heliconius

Passiflora Heliconius
before after