Darji_Arya_AT1_2022

Engineering Report
Civil Structure Project and Report.

Class: Engineering studies A

Contents
Introduction
...................................................................................................................
......................................... 3
Engineering Design
...................................................................................................................
.............................. 3
Warren Truss Bridge
.................................................................................................................
.......................... 3
Comparison
..............................................................................................................
....................................... 3
Factor of Safety.
.................................................................................................................
................................. 4
Engineering Stress & True Stress
.................................................................................................................
....... 4
Recommendations
...................................................................................................................
............................... 6
Common design Enhancements (I Beam)
........................................................................................................... 6
Method of sections/Reactions
...................................................................................................................
............. 7
Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram
......................................................................................................... 10
Engineering
Properties...................................................................................................
....................................... 12
Engineering Materials
...................................................................................................................
........................ 12
Suitability of Steel:
.................................................................................................................
........................... 12
 Advantages of steel:
..............................................................................................................
........................ 13
Disadvantages of steel:
..............................................................................................................
................... 13
Strength to weight ratio of steel
.................................................................................................................
.... 13
Suitability of
Concrete..................................................................................................
..................................... 14
Advatages of Concrete:
..............................................................................................................
................... 15
Disadvatages of Concrete:
..............................................................................................................
.............. 15
Properties of concrete
..............................................................................................................
.................... 16
Rebar
.................................................................................................................
................................................ 17
Tpes of Rebar
..............................................................................................................
.................................. 17
Testing of Concrete
.................................................................................................................
.......................... 19
Crack Theory
.................................................................................................................
.................................... 19
Crack Formation and
Growth.....................................................................................................
....................... 19
Failure due to cracking
.................................................................................................................
..................... 19
Repair and elimination of failure due to cracking
 ............................................................................................ 20
Corrosion
.................................................................................................................
.......................................... 20
Types of Corrosions
..............................................................................................................
......................... 20
Benefits of Corrosion
..............................................................................................................
...................... 22
Protecting civil structures from corrosion
.................................................................................................... 22

Introduction
This engineering report will give you an insight of how truss bridges are
created and analysed by taking its maximum and minimum loads, the
structure of truss bridge, the material of truss bridge, the safety of truss,
engineering tress and true stress into consideration. This report will also
analyse various types of truss bridges and in particular, Warren truss
bridge will be analysed in depth. Furthermore, this report will also
investigate the shear force diagram and bending moment diagram.
Overall, this report will analyse the main concepts of truss bridges
including its materials and how/why they are used in real life
projects/constructions.

Engineering Design
Warren Truss Bridge
The Warren Truss is a popular design for real and model bridges both.
However, the actual history and origins are a little hazy. Many ascribe
the term "Warren Truss" to a design registered by James Warren in 1848
(in England). The Warren Truss distributes the loads on the bridge by
using equilateral triangles. Only compression and tension forces are
present in equilateral triangles. Surprisingly, as a load (such as a car or
train) passes across the bridge, the pressures on a component can
sometimes shift from compression to tension. Members near the
bridge's centre are most affected. For both simple and continuous
trusses, the Warren truss is perhaps the most frequent. No vertical
components are employed for shorter spans, giving the construction a
basic appearance. Vertical members are inserted to provide extra
strength over longer spans. Warren trusses are commonly utilised for
spans of 50 to 100 metres.
Advantages
- One of the primary benefits of a warren truss bridge is its capacity to
load uniformly across a number of different members; however,
this is typically used when the structure is subjected to a
distributed load.
- The warren truss design has ridged triangles, which makes it
extremely sturdy.
- Warren truss bridges may be built piece by piece, which reduces the
cost over traditional ones, which require the full framework to be
put up before building. This also increases the amount of different
ways the bridge may be built, allowing for a larger variety of
designs.
- Warren truss bridges take less material to construct than most other
bridge designs, this is because the bridge is open, the view is not
obstructed.
Disadvantage
- A lot of material can be lost if the bridge is not well planned,
because some of the elements will not contribute the bridge in any
manner.
- Bridges built over a lengthy span have several deflection problems
that must be rectified during the construction phase.
- Estimating load-bearing capability of Warren truss bridge can be
difficult.
- A warren truss bridges joints and fittings must be tested on regular
basis, and maintenance can be costly.
- Many people find these bridges to be visually unappealing.

Comparison
Warren Truss vs Neville Truss:
To distribute the weights in the bridge, the warren Truss uses equilateral
triangles. In contrast, the Neville Truss uses isosceles triangles. The
strains in Warren In equilateral triangles, trusses are reduced to
compression and tension. Surprisingly, when a load (such as a car or
train) passes across the bridge, the forces acting on the member may
change from compression to tension. This is especially true for
members near the bridge’s centre.
Warren Truss Pratt Truss:
Isosceles or equilateral triangles make up the Warren truss. Warren
Truss verticals are implanted to increase the span length of the truss
bridge. The diagonal members of a Pratt Truss are slanted down
towards the middle of the bridge span (excluding the end diagonals).
When exposed to external stresses, diagonal elements cause tension,
whereas vertical members deal with compressive pressures. As result
thinner and lighter steel or iron can be utilized for diagonal members,
resulting in a more efficient structure.

Why is Warren Truss so strong?

This is because of the interconnected triangle structure; truss bridges
have a massive load-bearing capability. The structure successfully
balances both compression and tension by dispersing the load from the
highway over its clever design.

What is a Warren truss used for?

A Warren truss is a load-bearing structure used in a variety of
construction applications. Architects and engineers employ trusses as
structural components in both residential and public works architecture.
Professional engineers regularly employ the Warren truss in bridge
building.

How far can a warren truss span?

In today's world, the Warren truss is the most often utilised. Truss
bridges normally have a span length of 50 to 110 metres, but the
Quebec Bridge, built in 1917 in Canada, has a span of 549 metres,
making it the world's longest truss bridge.

Factor of Safety.
Factor of safety is the ratio of safe working tress to either yield stress or
ultimate tensile stress, depending on the type of material. It is a very
important consideration in designing equipment. Note: Factor of safety
is always greater than 1 since the allowable stress is always less than
the ultimate failure stress through the formula; Load Factor of
safety=Ultimate Load (Strength)/Allowable Load (Stress). Since the
material of my bridge design is steel. The factor of safety of structural
steel in bridges is between 5 – 7. Therefore, the factor of safety of my
truss design is between 5 – 7.

Engineering Stress & True Stress

Even if the cross-sectional area shrinks before collapse, engineering
stress is computed by dividing the load by the original cross-sectional
area. This type of stress is also known as nominal stress. True stress is
calculated by dividing the applied load by the actual cross-sectional
area (the changing area over time) of the specimen at that load. In
mathematical terms the engineering stress is calculated by dividing F by
the deformed specimen's cross-sectional area A0. After yield has started
directly proportional to force (F) declines during the necking phase,
engineering stress becomes obvious in ductile materials. The true stress
(t), which is proportional to F but inversely proportional to A, seems to
increase until the specimen ruptures.
Recommendations
A modified Warren truss
might be used, with
additional members added to
give a node at purlin places,
for example. Warren trusses
are often employed in buildings with a span of 20 to 100 metres. The
horizontal truss of gantry/crane girders is likewise made of this sort of
truss.
Advantages
- A warren truss bridge's capacity to load equally over a number of
distinct members is one of its key advantages; nonetheless, this is often
employed when the structure is subjected to a scattered load. The ridged
triangles of the Warren truss design make it highly strong.
- Warren truss bridges may be built in sections, saving money over
typical bridges that require the entire structure to be installed before
construction. This also expands the number of alternative ways the
bridge may be constructed, giving for a wider range of design options.
- Warren truss bridges employ less material than most other bridge
designs since the bridge is open, with no obstructions to the view.

Common design Enhancements (I Beam)

I beam, also known as H, W, wide, universal beam, or rolling joist, is a
structural steel form used in constructions. They're made to perform a
crucial position in structures as a support member. These beams are
capable of withstanding a wide range of loads. Two long-drawn-out
planes called flange are joined by a perpendicular component called
web to form an I beam. This structural member's whole body features
an I or H-shaped cross-section.
I beam come in a variety of sizes, thicknesses, widths, and other
specifications to suit a variety of applications.
The following elements should be considered while making decisions:
- Deflection: The thickness of the material should be sufficient to
minimise deflection.
- Vibration: When choosing, try for as little vibration as possible. In
this case, the beam's rigidity and mass are critical.
- Bending: The bulk body must be capable of withstanding yield
stresses. Bending occurs otherwise.
- Buckling: Torsional stresses force I beams to buckle, which might
result in unfavourable outcomes. Flanges should be chosen with
care.
- Tension: To avoid rippling or buckling under strain, use and I beam
with the proper web thickness.

I beams are widely utilised in the steel

construction industry for a variety of purposes.
Generally, these beams are employed in frames
and critical support parts. The use of steel I
beams ensures a sturdy and supporting
construction. The utilisation of these beams can
save money since they eliminate the need for as
many support components as possible. Their
adaptability and dependability make them
invaluable to any contractor or engineer.
Because they are simple and practical, I beams
are commonly utilised in building. One of its
finest distinctive qualities is their unidirectional
bending tendency. The web component is in
charge of resisting shear loads, whereas the flanges are in charge of
resisting bending. They can withstand a wide range of loads without
buckling. I form can be deemed cost-effective since it does not
necessitate the use of a lot of steel. There are many ways to increase
bending stress of an I Beam, one way is by increasing the bending
capacity, this can be done when we increase the second moment of
inertia, an easy and effective way to do this is fasten additional plates to
the beam usually the flanges.
Advantages of I Beam:
- Large lateral stiffness and a wide flange. Bending resistance is high.

- It has the benefits of cheap cost, high accuracy, low residual stress,
no expensive welding materials, and weld detection, and saves
around 30% of the manufacturing cost of steel structures when
compared to general section steel.
- When compared to concrete structures, I-shaped steel structures may
increase the area of use by 6%, while lowering the weight of the
structure by 20% to 30% and lowering the internal force of the
structure design.
- Durable: Another remarkable feature of I-beams is their ability to
resist ageing. Termites, mould, or mildew cannot infest I-beams, as
they cannot infest typical wood beams. As a result, they don't split
or crack as they age. During the rainy season, they also don't twist,
rot, or expand. Standards and regulations in the manufacturing of
Ibeams ensure that I-beam requirements are consistent across the
world. Trees are used to make wood beams. As a result, regardless
of cutting criteria, having the same qualities in all places is nearly
impossible.
- Adaptable: I-beam structures are also easy to change since they are
easily available for essential additions or modifications, such as
renovations or size expansions. Because wood beams are not
flexible, they may readily be replaced with I-beams during
restorations.

Disadvantages of I Beam:
- Rusting: Steel I beam have the undesirable feature of retaining
moisture and humidity. Wood beams are preferable to steel I-
beams in this region because they absorb moisture. Moisture
retention can lead to corrosion issues, which can lead to a rise in
maintenance expenses.
- Weight: Steel beams are significantly heavier than wood beams. It's
true that the heavier a building material is, the harder it is to deal
with it. Steel I beam are more difficult to construct in this scenario
due to their weight.
- Poor fire resistance: When I-section steel beams are in a fire, lateral-
torsional buckling occurs, according to a civil engineering
experiment conducted at Qingdao technical university in China to
study the behaviour of steel beams under fire. As a result, its
stiffness is reduced.

Method of sections/Reactions
The method of section is one of many methods to analyse the internal
forces of a truss. This is used when not all the internal forces in the
members are required. The method of sections allows you to analyse a
particular member, so you won’t need to analyse the whole truss. The
sectioning method employs a cutting plane that runs across three truss
elements. One of these individuals must be the subject of the
investigation. As a result, just one piece of the truss is considered.
Three forces must be applied to the three cut members in order for this
section of the truss to stay balanced. This was accomplished by
specifying the forces as one, two, and three in the computation below.
These forces will act along the members' axis and are usually thought to
be tensile forces. Take the moments of the location where the other two
cut members connect to get the magnitude of the force in the cut
member. This will take these two members out of the equation because
they both pass through the point and have no turning effect around it. In
the calculations, only external forces acting on the segment of the truss
under consideration are employed. A zero force member has been
calculated. A zero force member is a truss member (a single truss
segment) that is at rest under a particular load: neither in tension nor
compression. A zero force member is frequently seen in trusses at pins
(internal connections) when no external load is applied and three or
fewer truss members meet. Analysing the forces exerted on a single pin
in a physical system can be used to identify fundamental zero force
members.
 Mechalalsechine/Brockione
Methodofsections.
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=1.667KN :.AC=3:33310

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Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram

Shear force
A shear force is applied parallel or tangential to a face of a material as
opposed to a normal force which is applied perpendicularly. A shear
force causes one part of a material to slide past the adjacent part of the
material. As you can see the Shear force diagram, I have is positive
since the right portion tends to move down.

Bending Moment
The moment of a force is the product of the force multiplied by the
lever arm (which must be the shortest distance between the force and
the pivot point.) My bending moment is positive as the two forces are
on the top and the reaction forces are directing towards the positive
(upwards). This forms a sagging bending moment.

Maximum bending Stress

THe neutral axis an out of fibre stress: when a beam is subjected to
bending, not all of the beam undergoes the same types of stress. when it
beam undergoes positive bending, the upper services will be in
compression and the lower surface is will be intention this means that
there must be a section of beam that is undergoing no stress this is cold
the neutral axis the greater the distance from the neutral axis, the greater
the stress present. The relationship between bending stress and other
characteristics may be expressed as the bending moment in section
multiplied by the distance from neutral axis over the second moment of
area. the radius of curvature is a measure of the curve the beam takes on
when loaded. The smaller the valley, the more bowed the beam is. It is
not constant and is affected by the bending moment at that point of the
beam. The second moment of area is a measure of the resistance of a
beam to bending. The formula for the second moment of area for most
cross sectional shapes is very complex. The value of the second
moment of area will always be provided in the examination situations.
for example, for my designed bridge the maximum bending moment is
1kNm and so for instance the distance from the neutral axis for example
is 0.1 metres. If this is substituted in the formula below with the second
moment of area, the maximum bending stress will be calculated.

Engineering Properties
Stiffness: The degree to which an object resists deformation when
subjected to a force.
Elasticity: A term used to describe how flexible something is. The
ability of a material to deform in a nonpermanent manner, i.e., when the
stress load is removed from the material, it will return to its original
shape. Hardness: A measure of the resistance to localised plastic
deformation induced by either mechanical indentation or abrasion.
Ductility: A material's physical property that allows it to be hammered
thin or stretched into wire without breaking.
Malleability: The ability of a substance to deform under pressure
(compressive stress).
Toughness: A material's ability to absorb energy and deform plastically
with fracturing.
Resilience: The ability of a substance or object to return to its original
shape after being damaged.
Young's Modulus: A mechanical property that measures a solid
material's stiffness.
Tensile Strength: The maximum stress that a material can withstand
while being stretched or pulled (compression or tension) before
breaking.
Yield Strength: The point on a stress-strain curve that indicates the end
of elastic deformation and the start of plastic deformation.
Concrete Steel
Stiffness low Low
Elasticity low High
Hardness
Ductility
Malleability
Toughness
Resilience
Young’s
Modulus
Tensile
Strength
Yield Strength
High High

Yes High
 Yes High

low High

High High

Low High

Low High

Medium Low

Engineering Materials
Suitability of Steel:
Steel has been utilized in construction since many generations. Steel is
an iron-carbon alloy with less than 2% carbon and 1% manganese, as
well as trace amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, and oxygen.
Steel is additionally protected from high and low temperatures which is
ideal for industries which manufacture vehicles such as a train, due to
this Steel has been utilized in nearly all types of bridges. Contingent
upon the evaluation of steel, some will hold high strength at high
temperatures while others will really keep up high mechanical
properties at very low temperatures. Steel likewise has an extremely
solid shear and high rigidity which represents its strength.
- Carbon content: 0.45% to 1.5% - Toughness: High
- Elasticity: High - Young’s Modulus: 190 - 215 GPa
- Hardness: 64 HRC - Stiffness: low
- Ductility: Yes - Tensile Strength: 420 MPa
- Malleability: Yes - Yield Strength: 350 MPa
- Density: 7.7-8.03 x10 kg/m
3 3

Justification of Steel
Advantages of steel:
- Reliability: Steel constructions have a high
level of dependability. Consistency and
homogeneity in qualities, superior quality
control due to industrial fabrication,
significant elasticity, and ductility are all factors for its reliability.
When various specimens of a particular type of steel are tested in the
lab for yield stress, ultimate strengths, and elongations, the variance
is significantly less than with other materials such as concrete and
wood.
- Industrial behaviour: In factories, rolled steel pieces are made. In
addition, the members may be cut and prepped for assembly in
factories, with just the assembly of these components taking place
on-site, using rivets or bolts and welding separate components
together. Parts of the structure are sometimes constructed in
factories, indicating a high degree of prefabrication adaptability.
- Lesser Construction Time / Greater Erection Speed: Steel building is
characterised by its industrial characteristics. The work is moving
along quickly, resulting in cost-effective buildings. The rationale for
this is that these structures can be used sooner. The savings in labour
costs and overhead adjustments, as well as the advantages gained
from the building's early usage, all add to the economy.
- Elasticity: Steel follows Hooke's rule up to quite large stresses,
therefore it acts more like the design assumption than most other
materials. The stress produced stays proportionate to the strain
applied, resulting in a straight line on the stress-strain diagram.
Because steel sections do not break or tear before reaching their
ultimate load, the moments of inertia of a steel structure may be
computed with certainty.
For a reinforced concrete building, the moments of inertia produced
are quite ambiguous.
Disadvantages of steel:
- Steel constructions are prone to buckling. Buckling becomes more
likely as the length of the steel segment grows.
- Steel is only available at the steel facilities where it is manufactured
and must be carried great distances to the construction site, unlike
concrete or other materials that may be available right on the
construction site.
- Costly paints must be established from time to time due to rust in steel
so that resistance to extreme conditions increases.
- Despite the fact that steel is a flexible material, field repairs might be
difficult if one or more components do not fit well. A substantial
percentage of the metal structure follows tight quality assurance
methods to ensure that all components of a system fit together
correctly. In reality, however, this is not achievable. Once produced,
it is impossible to mould or cut it into the desired shape on-site.
- Steel can't be moulded into any shape you choose. It has to be used in
structures where regions already exist.
- Steel conducts heat well, ignites materials it comes into contact with,
and frequently starts fires that swiftly spread to other parts of a
structure.
Strength to weight ratio of steel
The strength-to-weight ratio of a material is simply the strength of the
material divided by the mass (also known as weight on planet Earth) of
the material.
To be more precise, specific strength is the strength of a substance
divided by its density. Let's call this feature the strength-to-weight ratio
for the sake of simplicity. For steel the specific strength is the strength
of steel over the density of steel.
Strength = 420MPa
Density = 7.7 - 8.03 x10 kg/m (average = 7.865x10 kg/m )
3 3 3 3

Specific Strength = 420x10 /7.865x10

6 3

= 53.40114431 kPa/kg

Application: In today's production, steel is widely utilized. It is

imposed as handrails, counter tops, and backsplashes on the exteriors of
large, high-impact structures, and it's even used on the interiors as
handrails, counter tops, and backsplashes. It is also used in automobile
exhaust systems, trim, and grilles. Custom steel levels, as well as high-
grade steel, have been produced for use in the energy and heavy
industry, as well as storage tanks, pumps, tubing, and other
components. Not only that 55% of steel is used in the construction
industry all around the world. Modern civilisations are built on steel as
well. From homes to machineries, tools, and roofs, it is employed for
almost every structural function. Steel is the foundation of design for
skyscrapers and contemporary homes in the building industry.

Microstructure:

Suitability of Concrete
The most well-known substance used in building is concrete. It is a
combination of various different elements, including cement, crushed
stones, fine aggregate, and water, and does not exist as a standalone
building material. This is why ready-mix concrete has grown extremely
popular in recent years as a way to speed up and improve the
construction process. During the construction of a structure, concrete is
utilised to give strength, durability, and adaptability. Concrete's
exceptional characteristics have made it a popular and longlasting
choice among building businesses for both commercial and residential
projects. Concrete's many qualities make it an ideal and widely used
construction material. Concrete comes in a variety of sorts and quality,
which may be purchased from concrete suppliers.
Concrete has a number of qualities that make it particularly useful in
construction, that is:
1. Strength: Concrete has been employed by house developers and
construction organisations for decades because of its strength.
Concrete is a strong material that can sustain both tensile and
compressive pressures without breaking.
Concrete with a well-graded mixture is substantially more durable
than concrete with a poorly-graded combination. Because
construction businesses can now rely on trusted concrete suppliers
to supply the finest immediately accessible concrete mixes, the
usage of ready mix concrete has grown increasingly popular in the
construction industry.
Concrete's strength has made it indispensable in the construction of
structures such as buildings, foundations, water treatment facilities,
factors, huge industrial sectors, and a variety of other structures.
The concrete's strength may be adjusted to meet the needs of the
construction project.
2. Durability: Concrete is a long-lasting material that can withstand
extreme weather and natural calamities. Extreme weather,
corrosion, chemical reactions, fire, erosion, compressive and
tensile stress, and abrasion are all resistant to it. As a consequence,
the concrete's structural integrity will not be compromised for a
lengthy period of time, making it ideal for use in any other location
on the planet. Concrete's great resilience makes it a long-lasting
building material. The first concrete was
made in 500 BC, demonstrating that concrete is extremely long-
lasting. In fact, we can still see concrete from the past. Because of
the long life of this popular material, it is used in the construction
of permanent constructions like as bridges and dams.
3. Versatility: Concrete may be found in a variety of building
materials. Because of its adaptability, construction firms may
easily utilise it to create roads, highways, sides, garages, and other
structures. Its strength may be adjusted to meet the needs of the
construction. It may also be sliced into various shapes and sizes to
make one-of-a-kind decorations.
Advatages of Concrete:
- Because it is recyclable and reusable, it can withstand natural
calamities such as floods, extending its lifespan even further.
- The basic components for the combination need minimal
transportation because they are often obtained from local sources.
- Strong Durable and low maintainance: Concrete outlasts other
building materials by decades and actually strengthens with time.
This lowers the overall cost of ownership while also reducing the
 environmental effect of more regular maintenance or
reconstruction.
- Resilient: Concrete is impervious to fire, corrosion, and decay. It is
fire, wind, water, vibration, and earthquake resistant, ensuring
people's safety while lowering expenses. Concrete constructions
have shown to be the most robust in the aftermath of major
weather disasters.
- Concrete Hardens at ambient temperature: At room temperature or
ambient temperature, concrete sets, hardens, and gains strength.
Because cement is a low-temperature bonded inorganic substance,
this is the case. As a result, concrete may be utilised regardless of
the weather and can be enhanced with admixtures if necessary.
- Ability to be cast into shape: Fresh concrete has a liquid condition
and is flowable. Concrete can then be poured into different
formworks or shuttering configurations on the building site to
create the necessary forms and sizes. By altering the mix, concrete
may be cast into complicated forms and patterns.
- Application in reinforced concrete: Concrete has a coefficient of
thermal expansion that is equivalent to steel. "Steel has a hardness
of 1.2105, whereas concrete has a hardness of 1.0–1.5105."
Because of the presence of CH and other alkalis in concrete, steel
is protected against corrosion in corrosive situations. Furthermore,
reinforced concrete parts and structures benefit from concrete's
compressive strength.
- Low or zero maintenaince required: Unlike steel or timber buildings,
where weathering is unavoidable, concrete structures do not need
to be coated or painted on a regular basis to preserve them from the
elements. Concrete's coatings will be updated and refinished on a
regular basis, lowering the expense of maintenance compared to
steel or wood.
Disadvatages of Concrete:
- Low tensile strength: Concrete's compression and tensile strengths
are not the same. Concrete's tensile strength is just a tenth of its
compressive strength. To boost the tensile strength of concrete,
fibres and other polymers are added.
- Conctrete has low toughness: Toughness refers to a material's ability
to absorb impact energy. It's the space between the load
displacement curve and the ground. Another disadvantage of
concrete is that it has a substantially lower toughness than steel.
Concrete is just 1-2 percent as tough as steel.
Concrete that has been reinforced with fibres has a higher tensile
strength.
 - Concrete has low specific strength: Specific strength is defined as
the ratio of strength to density. Normal grade concrete has a
specific strength of half that of steel, i.e. 20. Decreased density and
increased strength regulate specific strength. Concrete's limits are
mitigated by lightweight and highstrength concrete.

Properties of concrete
One of the most common property of concrete is strength. But its is
plit into four different forms:
Strength
1. Compressive: Concrete's compressive strength is regarded as one of
its most critical structural qualities. Concrete is graded according
to a set of industrial standards. These classifications are based on
the material's compressive strength when a cube or cylinder is
formed from a sample. The strength of the cylinder specimen
should be three quarters that of the cube, according to the British
Standard.
2. Tensile: Ordinary concrete has a low tensile strength, ranging from
seven to ten percent of the compressive strength. The units of force
per cross-sectional area are used to calculate it.
3. Flextural: In conventional concrete, flexural strength is nearly
entirely determined by tensile strength. It is a measurement of the
resistance of an unreinforced concrete beam or slab to bending
failure.
4. Shear: The compressive strength of short columns is determined by
this real factor. In shear, the average strength of concrete mixes
ranges from half of the compressive strength if the mixture is
strong to 0.8 of the compressive strength if the mixture is deemed
lean.
Workability
The degree of compaction has a significant impact on the strength of
a concrete mix. As a result, it's critical that the mix's uniformity
ensures that the concrete can be delivered, erected, and completed
swiftly and without segregation. Concrete mixes that can accomplish
this are known as "workable" mixtures, and the following elements
influence their status:
- Combine the ingredients in equal parts.

- Aggregate size and form

- Aggregate grading and surface texture

- The use of admixtures is based on the amount of water in the

combination.
- Supplementary materials are used
 - Temperature \sTime
A slump test is frequently used to measure the workability of
concrete as a property. This metric determines how easily a mixture
flows and can reveal if a batch has been incorrectly mixed.
Elastic property
The elasticity of concrete varies depending on the richness of the
mix, the age of the concrete, and the stress intensity.

Fatugue Property
Ordinary concrete will show fatigue when exposed to flexure. An
already-established endurance limit indicates the ability of concrete
to withstand flexure. The value of this limit is determined by the
number of repetitions and the strength of the individual.

Compression of
Concrete
Concrete's compressive
strength, or capacity to
endure huge weights or
pressures, is considerable.
It also gets stronger as it
gets older. Concrete will
harden or set in a few
days and solidify in a few hours, but it will continue to acquire
strength for at least 28 days. Some extremely thick concrete
constructions, such as dams, may acquire strength for months or even
years.

Tensile of Concrete
Tensile strength, or the capacity to bear pressing or stretching, is
essentially non-existent in concrete. Place a board in the middle of
two supports and press down on it. It will flex. The board's top is
compressed, while the bottom, which bends, is under stress. Concrete
can withstand compression, but it will crack when put under strain.
Tension causes concrete cracks in roadways and slabs; differing
weights in various regions induce tensile stresses.

Tension-Compression Ratio
Concrete has a tension-to-compression ratio of roughly 10% to 15%.
That is, it can endure a pushing force or compression 10 times greater
 than the pulling force or tension. Although both strengths improve
with age, the ratio remains constant. The compression strength of
Portland cement concrete less than a year old is 1,000 psi, while the
tension strength is 200 psi. The compression psi of concrete older
than a year is 2,000 pounds, whereas the tension psi is 400 pounds.

Reinforcement Method
- Post tensioning is a concrete reinforcing technique. Before the
concrete is poured, posttensioning tendons, which are
prestressing steel cables within plastic ducts or sleeves, are put
in the forms. The wires are then drawn tight, or tensioned, and
fastened to the concrete's outside edges once the concrete has
achieved strength but before the service loads are applied. When
these post tensioned steel tendons are strained, the concrete is
compressed, or compacted, which enhances the concrete's
compressive strength while also increasing the tensile strength
of the steel tendons that are pulled. As a result, the concrete's
overall strength improves.
- Prestressing is a kind of post-tensioning. Prestressing simply
means that the steel is strained (pulled or tensioned) before the
concrete is subjected to service loads. In most precast,
prestressed concrete structures, the steel is removed before the
concrete is poured. The tension is introduced after the concrete
is poured, but it is still strained before the loads are applied,
therefore it is still prestressed. Restressed concrete is made by
pouring concrete over a series of steel rods that have been
tensioned prior to pouring to increase the performance of
reinforced concrete. When the concrete hardens, the rods are
freed and attempt to return to their original condition,
compressing the concrete.
Spalling in Concrete
Spalling, or concrete cancer, occurs when the reinforced steel corrodes.
When steel corrodes, it exapnds and causes the concrete to crack.
Careful design and not placing reinforcing too close to the surface can
reduce spalling.

Rebar
Steel reinforcing bars, also known as rebars, are used to increase the
tensile strength of concrete, which is low in tension but high in
compression. Steel is only used as rebar because its elongation (thermal
expansion coefficient) is approximately comparable as that of concrete
at high temperatures.
Tpes of Rebar
1. Mild Steel Bar: The mild steel bars have a simple and round form to
their surface. They come in a range of diameters from 6 mm to 50
mm. Dowels at expansion joints, where bars must move in a metal
or paper sleeve, contraction joints in highways and runways, and
column spirals are all examples of how they're employed in
concrete. They may be sliced and bent without causing harm. Mild
steel bar is not recommended for structural constructions such as
bridges and other large structures due to poor concrete-steel
bonding, slippage, and strength.
2. Deformed Steel Bar: Deformed steel bars feature ribs, lugs, and
indentation on the surface, which decreases the primary problem of
mild steel bar sliding and allows for effective bonding between
concrete and rebar. When compared to other rebars, it has a higher
tensile strength. These bars are available in diameters ranging from
6 mm to 50 mm.
3. European Rebar: Manganese is used in European rebar, which
allows it to flex readily. They're not recommended for usage in
locations prone to strong meteorological or geological events like
earthquakes, hurricanes, or tornadoes. This rebar is inexpensive.
4. Carbon Steel Rebar: It is constructed of carbon steel and is usually
referred to as Black Bar because of its carbon colour. The most
significant disadvantage of this rebar is that it corrodes, which has
a negative impact on the concrete and structure. Black rebar is one
of the greatest alternatives because to its tensile strength ratio and
low cost.
5. Epoxy-Coated Rebar: Epoxy-coated rebar is black rebar that has
been coated with epoxy. It has the same tensile strength as steel but
is 70 to 1,700 times more corrosion resistant. The epoxy coating,
on the other hand, is extremely fragile. The more damage to the
coating, the less corrosion resistant it is.
6. Galvanized Rebar: Galvanized rebar is only forty times more
corrosion resistant than black rebar, but the coating on galvanised
rebar is more difficult to damage. It is more valuable than epoxy-
coated rebar in this regard. It is, however, roughly 40% more
costly than epoxy-coated rebar.
7. Carbon fibre is used to make glass-fibre-reinforced-polymer
(GFRP). Because it is comprised of fibre, it cannot be bent. It has a
high corrosion resistance and is more expensive than other rebars.
Overall Advantages of Rebar
- Steel has a high modulus of elasticity, with a value of 200GPa
(200 x 109 N/m2). This allows the steel to stretch in tension (up
to 200GPa) without breaking and then return to its original shape
 when the load is removed.
- Steel Ductility: Steel has a high ductility. Steel rebar, on the other
hand, will act ductile at larger loads.
- The capacity of a material to accept plastic deformations (i.e.
permanent changes in its dimensions) under stress before
breaking is known as ductility.
- Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: The coefficient of thermal
expansion of steel and concrete is almost same (change in
dimension due to temperatures). In high temperatures, both
concrete and steel will undergo the same length changes as a
result of this.
- Steel is resistant to abrasion during transit, storage, bundling, and
placement on a building site. If it sustains slight damage, it will
not have a substantial impact on its performance. It has adequate
strength to sustain a heavy impact load.
- Structural Steel Industry Has Adequate Manufacturing Capacity:
The structural steel industry has enough production capacity to
match the demands of the construction industry and is readily
accessible for any house building.
- Ready-to-assemble steel is also available these days. Cutting and
bending time is saved by using ready-made steel. This saves a lot
of time during construction and reduces the amount of steel
wasted during bending and cutting.
- Steel is easily recyclable.
Overall disadvantages of Rebar
- Steel is costly, which raises the cost of a construction significantly.
- Extremely High Temperatures: Steel has a proclivity for melting at
extremely high temperatures. One of the causes is that steel is
knotted rather than welded.
- Water penetrates and reacts with steel rebars, causing concrete to
crack as a result of insufficient concrete protection. Concrete
aggregates can occasionally react with steel, causing it to spall.
- Rust: Steel that is exposed to the elements rusts and weakens
reinforced concrete. When rust begins to form around steel
rebars, it exerts tremendous internal pressure on the surrounding
concrete, resulting in fissures.
- The material is not light in weight.
Testing of Concrete
Slump test
the slump test is used to cheque that the concrete is of appropriate
fluidity for casting. The concrete is past into a cylindrical mould, open
at the top and bottom. The mould is then placed on a board and the
concrete poured in. Upon removal of the mould, the conical wet
concrete that is remaining should slump slightly according to set
specifications. If it collapses, the concrete is too wet; if it breaks in half
then crumbles, it is too dry.
Compressive Test
concrete is strong in compression and after casting various specimens
will be taken and subjected to compression testing after specific time
intervals. If the concrete fails any of the tests, then the material was a
faulty mix and it may need to be recast.

Crack Theory
stress concentration can have a large impact on the behaviour of a
material object in service mechanical strength of a material is lower that
its theoretical strength GT irregularities in the surface that causes stress
concentrations and then cracks. The way cracks form and grow is
related to the applied stress and present strain energy. Strain energy is
proportional to the square of stress and inversely proportional to
Youngs modulus. When I crack begins to grow, the material is releasing
its strain energy and thus the strain energy present in the material will
have a large impact on the formation and propagation of cracks on the
material

Crack Formation and Growth

A material has two methods of failure: brittle failure and ductile failure.
The structure of the material depends on how it will fail the metal alloys
such as mouse still undergo ductile failure upon a point, so that extend
inland until brittle failure takes over. Brittle materials such as glass and
concrete do not undergo ductile failure; they undergo immediate brittle
failure. crack formation and growth is a method of brittle failure.
Cracking may be divided into 2 phases. It starts with undamaged
material through to the first appearance of microcracks and crack
propagation. Crack propagation is the face in which the crack grows in
size under cyclic loading to eventual failure.
Stress concentrations may occur due to:
- Weld defects

- quench cracking

- corrosion pitting

- machining marks

- mishandling damage

- arc strikes from welding

- inadequate radii at section changes

- casting defects such as porosity, shrinkage and inclusions

Failure due to cracking
Failure due to cracking is a brittle fracture mechanism. Some materials
are more likely to crack than others. The more brittle add material, the
shoulder is critical crack length will be. Once the critical crack length is
exceeded, then the failure is inevitable if stress levels are maintained.
Cracking of a material under cyclic loading may occur well below the
Yield stress. Cracking produced in this manner is called fatigue. Fatigue
is the most common form of materials failure. It has been estimated that
up to 80% of machinery failure is due to fatigue pushed up at fatigue
fracture always starts as a small crack. As a correct expense, the load
carrying cross section of the component is reduced which increases the
stress on this section. Failure occurs progressively over a number of
stress cycles. One of the most characteristic features found on fatigue
fracture surfaces is the presence of “beach” marks. These present the
successive positions of the advancing crack and are centred on a
common point that corresponds to the cracking origin.
Repair and elimination of failure due to cracking
In the event of crack in formation, stress concentration is important. If a
material is metallic, then an option to repair the crack is building to stop
this can, however, cause microstructural changes around the world that
may further weaken the material and the world may become a point of
stress concentration. The area may need to be heat treated to avoid
microstructure complications. In polymeric materials, it may be
possible to use adhesive technology to repair cracking. Is in a thermoset
and adhesives are not available, replacement is the only solution. If the
failure is in thermoplastic, polymer welding can be used which office
strengths close to parent material.
cracks can be illuminated from forming by designing items without
sharp corners. Another solution is to place interfaces within a material
for stop an interface is an area within a material, weaker than the
surrounding area that runs perpendicularly expected growth of the pack.
It reaches the interface but is blocked from passing it.
Corrosion
Corrosion is a hazardous and expensive condition. Buildings and
bridges can collapse as a result of it, oil pipelines can burst, chemical
facilities can leak, and restrooms can flood. Corroded electrical
connections may create fires and other issues, corroded medical
implants can cause blood poisoning, and air pollution has corroded
pieces of art all around the world. The safe disposal of radioactive
waste that must be held in containers for tens of thousands of years is
jeopardised by corrosion.
Electrochemical processes cause the most frequent types of corrosion.
When the majority or all of the atoms on the same metal surface are
oxidised, the entire surface is harmed. The majority of metals are
readily oxidised, meaning they lose electrons to oxygen (and other
chemicals) in the air or water. When oxygen is reduced (gains
electrons), it reacts with the metal to produce an oxide.
To predict the susceptibility of metals to corrosion, standard
electrochemical tests are performed to determine the electrode potential
in the environment. The galvanic series shows qualitatively the relative
activity of a variety of materials in seawater. The further apart two
materials are in such an electrochemical series, the greater will be the
potential difference between them.
Corrosion occurs in two general forms: general(uniform) and localised
(not-uniform). Localised corrosion occurs in many forms such as
galvanic, crevice, pitting, intergranular, selective etching, erosion
corrosion, stress corrosion and microbially-induced corrosion.

Types of Corrosions
Dry Corrosions
Dry corrosions occurs through chemical reactions of metals or alloys
with gasses, infuraces at high temperatures. This includes in steam
locomotive boilers and in hot water pipes. A principal cause is a
reaction of the metals with oxygen and other molecules in flue gasses.
Wet Corrosions
Wet corrosions occurs when a metal is placed into a fluid , usually an
electrolyte. An electrolyte ia solution containing ions. Some parts of the
metal will become anodic while other parts will become cathodic. The
locations of the cathode and the anode will continually cahnge resulting
in the uniform corrosion.

Galvanic Corrosion
Galvainc corrosion occurs when dissimilar metals are placed to gether
in the presence of a corrosive environment. Different metals have a
greater affinity to corrode than others, so one will becom cathodic and
the others will become anodic. A concentration cell occurs when there
is a differnce in concentration of electrolyte material. in a car door, for
example, stagnant water becomes low in dissolved oxygen which
causes a difference in oxygen levels and sets up a concentration cell.
High oxygen will create a cathode while the area of low oxygen will
become the anode. The result will be the eventual destruction of the car
door. This is why a plastic coating on the outside of a car door does not
prevent corrosion.

Crevice Corrosion
concentration cells take a particularly damaging form as crevice
corrosion. Crevice corrosion is there an electrolyte fills as crevice and
there are different oxygen levels between the top and bottom of the
crevice. Crevice corrosion can be problematic on any metal structure
where joints may create crevices.

Pitting
Pitting corrosion occurs due to non homogeneous nature of the metal
surface. It may be due to inclusions, potential differences between metal
constituant phases, distortions at grain boundaries or the presence of
surface deposits.

Corrosion in Stress Cells

stress cells are the result of high residual stress in parts of a metal
object. These areas of high stress tend to become anodic while those of
lower stress become Catholic. Often, a stressed metal worker road when
an unstretched piece in similar conditions will not corrode as readily.
Grain boundaries in meadows areas of high stress and thus a metal with
a fine grained is more likely to corrode internally than one with coarser
grains.
stresss may be caused by:
- faulty design

- vibration

- plastic deformation

- residual stresses from unequal cooling

- the presence of an ionically-conducting aquous phase in contact

with the material

stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of cracks in an

environment where a metal under tensile loads is simultaneously
subjected to a corrosive environment. Compressive forces may actually
provide some protection against stress corrosion cracking. It is more
common in alloys than pure metals and may lead to sudden or
unexpected failure due to difficulties involved in detection. Stress
corrosion cracking may be alleviated by:
- stress relieving heat treatments

- avoiding surface machining stresses

- applying external protective coatings

- peening surface treatments to induce surface compressive stresses

Intergranular Corrosion under some conditions, grain boundaries

specifically may be attacked quite often the rest of the material is left
unaffected.
Corrosive Environments factors
affecting the rates of corrosion
include:
- temperature

- velocity of corrosive media

- likelihood of deposits forming

- pull design creating crevices

- residual stresses within the metal

- microbial content of environment

- metal surface creating corrosion sites

- formation of stability of protective surface films

- availability of oxygen to enable reactions to proceed

- existence of anodic and cathodic sites on the metal in contact with

this electrolyte
- presence of ironically-conducting aquous phase in contact with the
metal

Benefits of Corrosion
Corrosion always occurs in metals at differing rates. Some metals like
steel form a porous layer hold the rust that alloys corrosion to continue.
Other metals like aluminium format protective film that makes the
surface of the metal passive and inert. Metals in this situation display
passivity. Passivity is it condition with a metal that should be reactive
appears inert. Examples of passive metals are aluminium, titanium and
chromium. stainless steel is a passive alloy Rust is the name given to
corrosion of steel it is the antithesis of the corrosion products on passive
metals. It is porous and flaky and exposes fresh corrodible and metal
beneath. Most steel structures must be protected from the atmosphere or
corrosive environments to ensure their longevity.

Protecting civil structures from corrosion

most steel structures such as bridges used to protective mechanisms to
stop corrosion: painting and glavanising. Glavanising involves dipping
the steel part into molten zinc which then covers the steel and protects it
from corrosion. The zinc coating very slowly create away overtime but
protect still before that point. Painting coats the steel to prevent
oxidation, but also wears away given time. Products such as zincalume,
which is an alloy of zinc and aluminium and colour bond, which uses a
zinc/aluminium alloy with a polyester coating on products used to
protect steel from corrosion.
Some sheet aluminium alloys used Alclad which is duralumin created
with pure aluminium the passive aluminium protects the more
corrosive-suceptible alloy. Aluminium alloy window frames are
normally anodized which involves creating a thick oxide layer to further
enhance the oxide aluminium that naturally forms.
Cathodic protection involves making the the object cathodic, and thus
preventing it from corroding. Sacrificial anodes are blocks of another
metal that are bolted to steal or other reactive materials that causes the
steel to become Catholic. Sacrificial annoyed must be more reactive
than the metal they are protecting so are usually made of zinc,
aluminium or magnesium. They are used on boat hulls to prevent this
steel hull from corroding. Impressed current protection systems (ICCP)
use a current to reverse the standard electric flow associated with
corrosion. By reversing the current flow the structure becomes cathodic.
It is used in pipelines and long structures where sacrificial anodes
would be ineffective.

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https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/density-specific-weight-gravity-d_290.html [Accessed 3 Dec.
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