MENG2009 Lecture 4 11-12 S1 Strain Load Measurement

MENG2009
Industrial Instrumentation
Lecture 4
Strain & Load Measurement
MENG2009 Industrial Instrumentation Lecture 4 Strain & Force Measurement 2
Strain Measurement: Overview

• Basic laws governing strain gauges
• Composition of strain gauge material
• Types of strain gauges
• Gauge length
• Backing material
• Adhesives
• Temperature compensation
• Application of strain gauges
• Strain Gauge Worked Example
Load Measurement:
Measurement: Overview
• Introduction to Load Cells
– Types of load cells
– Comparison of load cells
• Installation of strain gauges on a load cell
• Sensitivity of a load cell
• Range of a load cell
• Applications of load cells
BASIC LAWS GOVERNING

STRAIN GAUGES
The Strain Gauge

• Strain gauge is a device that, when subjected to
a force and hence displacement, exhibits a
change in resistance.
• Detects and converts force or small mechanical
displacements into electrical signals.
• Used to measure strain directly or as a
secondary sensor on other sensors, e.g.
pressure or force measurements
The Strain Gauge

• In its most basic form, take a wire of length ‘L’
and cross sectional area ‘A’
F F
Single length of
Small extension wire
in response to
applied force
• Stretching of wire causes a change in its

resistance because of
– Dimensional change
– Piezo resistance (indicates dependence of resistivity
on strain)
The Strain Gauge: Basic Relationships

• Resistance R is given by ρL
where ρ = resistivity of the R=
material of the wire A
A( ρdL + Ldρ ) − ρLdA
• Differentiating: dR = 2
A
dL
• Axial strain: εa = ε =
L
dD
• Transverse strain: ε t =
D
εt
• Poisson’s ratio: ν =−
εa
Gauge Factor
• A figure of merit used in describing gauges is the
gauge factor, λ, given by:
dR dρ
R ρ
λ= = 1 + 2ν +
dL dL
L L
Resistance change Resistance change due Resistance change
due to change of to change of area (0 to due to piezo
length 0.5 for all material) resistance effect
dρ
ρ E = modulus of elasticity
= Π1 E
dL ∏1 = longitudinal piezo resistance coefficient
L
COMPOSITION OF STRAIN
GAUGE MATERIAL
Strain Gauge Materials

Strain Composition Gauge
Gauge Factor
Constantan 55% Cu, 45% Ni λ=2
or advance
Isoelastic 1 36% Ni, 8% Cr, 4% Mn, Si, λ=3.5
Molybenum, 52% Fe
Isoelastic 2 36% Ni, 8% Cr, 0.5% Molybenum, λ=3.6
55.5% Fe
Armour D 70% Fe, 20% Cr, 10% Al λ=2
Platinum- 92% Pt, 8% W λ=4
Tungsten
Nichrome V 80% Ni, 20% Cr λ=2.1
Semiconductor strain gauge λ=130
TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES

Types of Strain Gauge

• Strain gauges are constructed in a number of
different ways, using different technologies
1. Unbonded metal wire gauge
• Very rare!
2. Bonded metal wire gauge
• Very common!
3. Bonded metal foil gauge
• Uses PCB technology
4. Bonded semiconductor gauge
• Very sensitive
5. Diffused semiconductor gauge
• For specific applications
Bonded Metal Wire Gauge
• Extended conductor length, hence increased

resistance
• Bonding allows improved application of strain
gauge onto test specimen
Bonded Metal Foil Gauge

Major benefit over bonded metal wire is the variable
resistance reducing effect of transverse strain
End Loops
Grid
Active
Alignment
Grid
Marks
Length
End Loops
Backing and
Encapsulation
Solder Tabs
http://www.circuitstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/Strain-Gauge-working.gif
Semiconductor Strain Gauges

• Semi-conductor strain gauge is widely used
because of its high gauge factor
• Silicon is the basic material for making
semiconductor strain gauges.
– p-type strain gauge if doped with boron
– n-type strain gauge if doped with arsenic
• Resistance of p-type gauges increases with the
applied tensile strain and that of n-type gauges
decreases
Prof. Barua, Dept. Of Electrical Eng’g, IIT, Kharagpur, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUjBmV4wMtA


• Resistivity of a semiconductor material is given
by:
1
ρ=
qnη
where q = the charge of the electrons
n = number of charge carriers (depends on
doping)
η = mobility of charge carrier
• Resistivity of silicone (typical): 6.40x102 Ω.m
• Resistivity of copper: 1.68x10-8 Ω.m

• Strain gauge material shows a change in
resistivity with strain
– Change in resistivity is called the piezo resistive effect
– It results from a change in the mobility of the charge
carriers (η term in resistivity equation)
1
ρ=
qnη
Advantages Disadvantages
• High gauge factor is • High temperature

useful for measurement sensitivity
of µ strain • Difficult to get two gauges
• Small gauge length gives with identical gauge
a very small strain gauge factors (makes
sensor temperature
compensation difficult)
• Non linearity
• Mounting difficulties
• Performance deteriorates
in the presence of
moisture
GAUGE LENGTH, BACKING

MATERIAL & ADHESIVES
Gauge Length
• Proper choice of gauge length is an important

factor for some specific applications
• Strain is to be measured at the location where
stress is maximum
• The strain gauge averages the measured strain
over the gauge length
• The measurement can be erroneous due to
improper choice of gauge length
Backing Material
• Electrically isolates the metallic gauge from the
test specimen
• Transmits the applied strain to the sensor
• Provides the surface that is used for bonding the
gauge with the specimen surface where the
strain is to be measured
• Should have a wide temperature range
• Polyimide and glass reinforced phenolic are two
commonly used backing material
Adhesive
• The bond created by the adhesive serves as a
mechanical and thermal coupling between the
strain gauge and the test specimen
• The adhesive should accurately transmit the
strain given to the test specimen
• It should have thermal conduction and
expansion characteristics
• The adhesive should not shrink or expand
during the curing process otherwise a pseudo
strain will be developed in the gauge
• Epoxies, cellulose nitrate cement and ceramic
based cements are some of the adhesives
Prof. Barua, Dept. Of Electrical Eng’g, IIT, Kharagpur, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUjBmV4wMtA
TEMPERATURE
COMPENSATION
Temperature Compensation
• Changing temperature in the environment
around the strain gauge, or of the measured
piece, can cause the resistance of the gauge to
vary
• This creates a pseudo strain in the gauge
related to temperature not displacement
• Temperature effects are relevant for all strain
gauges but semiconductor gauges are
particularly sensitive
• Temperature effects can be corrected by
introducing a ‘dummy’ strain gauge that is
subjected to the same temperature conditions,
but not subject to the strain
a
Dummy Gauge Active Gauge
Not subjected to
strain
d Vo b
Fixed Resistor Fixed Resistor

c
a I1
I4 R1
Eex d Vo b
R3 R2
I2
I3 c
MENG2009 Industrial Instrumentation Lecture 4 Strain & Force Measurement a 27
I4 I1
Temperature Compensation R1
Eex d Vo b
• For the bridge to be balanced,
b and d must be at the same I3
R3 R2
I2
c
potential, so:
I1R1 = I4R4 I1 R1 I 4 R4
=
I2R2 = I3R3 I 2 R2 I 3 R3
• There is no current in the detector, so:
I1 = I 2 and I3 = I4
R1 R4 R2 R4 where Rx is R1 or
∴ = ⇒ Rx = strain gauge
R2 R3 R3
Either R2 or R4 can be the dummy gauge used
for temperature compensation
APPLICATION OF STRAIN
GAUGES
Strain Gauge: Applications
Industrial Press
Bridge Condition
Monitoring
Digital Scales Industrial Pressure

robotics sensors
STRAIN GAUGE WORKED

EXAMPLE
Worked Example
A steel bar of rectangular cross section (2 cm x
1 cm) is subjected to a tensile force of 20 kN. A
strain gauge is placed on the steel bar as shown
in the following figure. Find the change of
resistance of the strain gauge if it has a gauge
factor of 2 and the resistance of 120Ω in the
absence of axial load. The Young’s modulus of
elasticity of steel is equal to 2x108 kN/m2
F F
Worked Example
8 2
λ=2 E = 2×10 kN/m
F = 20 kN R = 120 Ω
2
A = 0.02 × 0.01 m
F 20
Stress in the bar σ a = = = 105 kN/m 2
A 0.02 × 0.01
5
σa 10 −4
Strain in the bar ε a = = 8
= 5 × 10
E 2 × 10
dR
dR dR = Rλε a
R =λ⇒ = λε a ⇒ −4
= 120 ⋅ 5 × 10 ⋅ 2
dL R
L = 0 .12 Ω
Worked Example
• A variation of 0.12Ω on a gauge with an
unloaded resistance of 120Ω.
– What does this say to you??
• The variation in resistance, therefore the output

measurement, will be very small.
• Small change means greater sensitivity to noise,
inaccuracy and other errors
• A Wheatstone bridge of various configurations
can be used to improve the sensitivity of the
gauge to small output values
OTHER WAYS TO MEASURE

STRAIN
Other Ways To Measure Strain

• Mechanically
– Extensometer
• Optically
– Create interference fringes due to strain
– High precision laser measurement
– High speed video capture
• Capacitatively and Inductively
– Proximity sensors
– Sensitive to vibration
– Complex circuitry
LOAD MEASUREMENT
Load Cells Introduction

• A Load Cell is a simple instrument that
measures force; generally used for weighing
(determining mass)
• Many use strain gauges
• It has a wide range
• It is linear
• It can operate in hostile environments
• Commonly used in weighbridges for trucks,
trains; weighing operations in manufacturing,
food & beverages, and process industries

• Historically, weight or mass measurement used
mechanical lever scales
– Accurate if properly calibrated and maintained

• Hydraulic and pneumatic scales were also used

• 1893: Wheatstone bridge invented
• 1940s: First bonded resistance strain gauges
were developed
• 1980s: Modern electronics made strain gauge
load cells technically and economically feasible
• Today: Strain gauges dominate the weighing
industry, and are accurate enough for almost all
industrial applications
Types of Load Cells
http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/loadcells.html
Types of Load Cells
Types of Load Cells
Load Cells Comparison

Load Cell Performance Comparison
Type Weight Accuracy Apps Strength Weakness
Range (FS)
Mechanical Load Cells
Hydraulic Up to 0.25% Tanks, bins Takes high Expensive,
Load Cells 10,000 klb and hoppers. impacts, complex.
Hazardous insensitive to
areas. temperature
Pneumatic Wide High Food Intrinsically Slow
Load Cells industry, safe. response.
hazardous Contains no Requires
areas fluids. clean, dry air
MENG2009
Load CellIndustrial Instrumentation
Performance Lecture 4 Strain & Force Measurement
Comparison 46
Type Weight Accura- Apps Strength Weakness

Range cy (FS)
Strain Gauge Load Cells
Bending 10-5k 0.03% Tanks, platform Low cost, simple Strain gauges
Beam Load lbs. scales, construction are exposed,
Cells require
protection
Shear Beam 10-5k 0.03% Tanks, platform High side load
Load Cells lbs. scales, off- rejection, better
center loads sealing and
protection
Canister Load to 500k 0.05% Truck, tank, track, Handles load No horizontal
Cells lbs. and hopper movements load protection
scales
Ring and 5- 500k Tanks, bins, All stainless steel No load
Pancake lbs. scales movement
Load Cells allowed
Button and 0-50k lbs 1% Small scales Small, Loads must be
washer 0-200 inexpensive centered, no
Load Cells lbs. typ. load
movement
permitted
MENG2009
Load CellIndustrial Instrumentation
Performance Lecture 4 Strain & Force Measurement
Comparison 47
Type Weight Accura- Apps Strength Weakness

Range cy (FS)
Other Load Cells
Helical 0-40k 0.2% Platform, forklift, Handles off-axis
lbs. wheel load, loads,
automotive seat overloads,
weight shocks
Fiber optic 0.1% Electrical Immune to
transmission RFI/EMI and
cables, stud or high temps,
bolt mounts intrinsically safe
Piezo- 0.03% Extremely High cost,
resistive sensitive, high nonlinear
signal output output
level
Column Type Load Cell

• A simple, uniaxial column type load cell can be
considered
• Load could be either compressive or tensile
P
• Strain gauges 1 and 3 are

Strain subjected to axial strain
Gauge 2
and gauges 2 and 3 are
subjected to traverse strain
Strain
Gauge 1 • Strains gauges are initially
balanced in a Wheatstone
bridge
P

Strain
Gauge 4 Strain
P Gauge 3
eo
Strain
Gauge 2
Strain
Gauge 1
P Vex

• If the Wheatstone bridge is initially balanced and
all strain gauge resistances are equal
(R1R3 = R2R4)
then the output voltage, e0 = 0
• When load is applied, strain is exerted on the
gauges and resistances and values for
R1, R2, R3 & R4 are varied by amounts
∆R1, ∆ R2, ∆ R3 & ∆ R4
• Now a value of output voltage is given by:
Where:
r  ∆R1 ∆R2 ∆R3 ∆R4  R2
eo =  − + − Vex r=
(1 + r )2
 R1 R2 R3 R4  R1
Axial strain, P
ε ax =
AE
Transverse strain, νP
ε tr = −
AE
A = Cross-sectional area of the link (column)

E = Modulus of elasticity of the link material
ν = Poisson’s ratio of link material
dR
Recall that: R
λ=
dL
L
So:
∆R1 ∆R3 λP Substitute
= = λε ax =
R1 R3 AE into
equation
∆R2 ∆R4 νλP
= = λε tr = − for eo
R2 R4 AE
Where λ = Gauge Factor of the strain gauges

used in the load cell

• Now we can express output voltage eo in terms
of load P assuming that the axial & transverse
strain gauges are of the same base resistance
(R1 = R2):
1  2λP 2νλP  λP(1 + v)Vex
eo = 2  + Vex =
2  AE AE  2 AE
2 AE
∴ P = λ (1 +ν )V eo = Ceo
ex
Calibration constant
Where λ = Gauge Factor of the strain gauges
used in the load cell

• Therefore, the load P is linearly proportional to
the output voltage eo and the calibration
constant, C is given by:
2 AE
C=
λ (1 +ν )Vex
• The sensitivity of the load cell-Wheatstone
bridge is given by:
eo 1 λ (1 +ν )Vex
S= = =
P C 2 AE
• How can sensitivity be increased?

• This arrangement give a sensitivity 2(1+ν) times
greater than that achieved with a single active
axial gauge in the bridge
• It also provides temperature compensation since
all four gauges are at the same temperature
• The equation for S indicates sensitivity of the
column type load cell depends on:
– cross-sectional area (A)
– modulus of elasticity and Poission’s ratio (E and ν) of
the column material
– gauge factor of the strain gauge (λ)
– the excitation voltage of the bridge (Vex)

• The range of the column type load cell is given
by:
Pmax = S fs A
Where Sfs = fatigue strength of the material load cell
• Comparing this with the equation for S, (A is in

the denominator), increasing A to give increased
maximum load will lead to a reduction in
sensitivity.
– High sensitivity is associated with low range
– Low sensitivity is associated with high range

• We have, at maximum load:
eo λ (1 +ν )Vex  eo  λS fs (1 +ν )
= ⇒   =
S fs A 2 AE  Vex  max 2E
• Load cells are usually fabricated from steel with:

E = 2.0684 x 1011 N/m2
ν = 0.3
Sfs = 5.516 x 108 N/m2
λ=2 (for advance)
• Therefore:  eo 
  = 3.47 mV/V
 Eex  max

• Considerations when using column type load
cells:
– Deflection under full load is of the order of 0.025 mm
to 0.38 mm because it has a high stiffness
– This means that the natural frequency of the load cell
is not important
– The natural frequency will in fact be determined by
the force carrying elements (e.g. Weighbridge etc.)
• To achieve high accuracy, additional
temperature compensation will be required, as
shown below:
Rx and Ry are temperature
sensitive resistors
Rx & Ry compensate with

slightly different temperature
co-efficient of resistance
Rz is a non-temperature
sensitive resistor that will
provide the desired sensitivity
Cantilever Beam Type Load Cell
P
x
1 h
3
w
Orientation of all strain gauges is in axial direction
Strain gauges 1 & 3 in tension on upper surface

Strain gauges 2 & 4 in compression on lower surface
Unstrained resistance of gauges is R1 = R2 = R3 = R4

• The load P produces a moment of P.x
• The strain developed at the gauges is given by:
6 Px
ε 1 = −ε 2 = ε 3 = −ε 4 =
Ewh 2
Where, w = width of the cross-section of the beam
h = height of the cross-section of the beam
Therefore, the change of resistances in the gauges will

be given by:
∆R1 ∆R2 ∆R3 ∆R4 6λPx

=− = =− = ελ = 2
R1 R2 R3 R4 Ewh

• To determine the sensitivity of the gauge (from
Wheatstone bridge output voltage equation):
6λPxEex
eo =
Ewh 2
Ewh 2
∴ P= eo ⇒ P ∝ eo
6λxEex
• The sensitivity of the load cell-Wheatstone
bridge is given by:
eo 6λxEex
S= = 2
P Ewh

eo 6λxEex
S= = 2
P Ewh
• Sensitivity depends on:
– The shape of the beam (w, h)
– Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of the
beam (E)
– Gauge factor (λ)
– The point of application of the load (x)

• The range of the cantilever beam for
measurement of load is:
S fs wh 2
Pmax =
6x
• The voltage ratio at the maximum load:

 eo  λS fs
  =
 Eex  max E
INTELLIGENT LOAD CELLS

Intelligent Load Cells

• Intelligent load cells use a microcontroller to
complement a standard cell (Wheatstone
Bridge)
• They can be programmed to calculate and
directly output a value that is useful to the user
(e.g. weight, total cost if cost per unit is stored,
etc.)
• Cost per weight can be stored for different
substances, making the instrument very flexible
in its application
APPLICATIONS OF LOAD
CELLS
Load Cells: Applications

• Weighbridge

Tare Batch
Weighing Feeder
System System
Parr, A., Industrial Control Handbook (3rd Ed), p158


Belt
Weighing
System
M (from load cell) . V (from tacho generator)

Feed rate =
L (known value)

MENG2009 Lecture 4 11-12 S1 Strain Load Measurement

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MENG2009 Lecture 4 11-12 S1 Strain Load Measurement

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MENG2009

Strain Measurement: Overview

BASIC LAWS GOVERNING

The Strain Gauge

The Strain Gauge

• Stretching of wire causes a change in its

The Strain Gauge: Basic Relationships

Strain Gauge Materials

TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES

Types of Strain Gauge

Bonded Metal Wire Gauge

• Extended conductor length, hence increased

Bonded Metal Foil Gauge

Semiconductor Strain Gauges

Prof. Barua, Dept. Of Electrical Eng’g, IIT, Kharagpur, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lUjBmV4wMtA

Semiconductor Strain Gauges

Semiconductor Strain Gauges

Semiconductor Strain Gauges

• High gauge factor is • High temperature

GAUGE LENGTH, BACKING

• Proper choice of gauge length is an important

Fixed Resistor Fixed Resistor

Strain Gauge: Applications

Strain Gauge: Applications

Strain Gauge: Applications

Digital Scales Industrial Pressure

STRAIN GAUGE WORKED

• The variation in resistance, therefore the output

OTHER WAYS TO MEASURE

Other Ways To Measure Strain

Load Cells Introduction

Load Cells Introduction

– Accurate if properly calibrated and maintained

Load Cells Introduction

Types of Load Cells

Types of Load Cells

Types of Load Cells

Load Cells Comparison

Type Weight Accura- Apps Strength Weakness

Type Weight Accura- Apps Strength Weakness

Column Type Load Cell

• Strain gauges 1 and 3 are

Column Type Load Cell

Column Type Load Cell

Column Type Load Cell

A = Cross-sectional area of the link (column)

Column Type Load Cell

Where λ = Gauge Factor of the strain gauges

Column Type Load Cell

Column Type Load Cell

Column Type Load Cell

Column Type Load Cell

• Comparing this with the equation for S, (A is in

Column Type Load Cell

• Load cells are usually fabricated from steel with:

Column Type Load Cell

Rx & Ry compensate with

Cantilever Beam Type Load Cell

Orientation of all strain gauges is in axial direction

Strain gauges 1 & 3 in tension on upper surface

Cantilever Beam Type Load Cell

Therefore, the change of resistances in the gauges will