Topic 5 TPT Final

Official (Closed), Non‐Sensitive
BE8332 Transportation Engineering
COURSE : DCE 3 FT
MODULE NAME : TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
MODULE CODE : BE8332
TOPIC 5 : FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

____________________________________________________________________
Keywords: flexible pavement, rigid pavement, bitumen, asphalt, penetration‐grade
bitumen, cutback bitumen, bitumen emulsions, anionic emulsifier, cationic emulsifier,
penetration test, softening point test, viscosity test, flash and fire point tests, sieve
analysis, Los Angeles Abrasion test, mineral filler, asphaltic concrete, Marshall mix
design, Marshall Stability, Marshall Flow, % voids in the mineral aggregate, % voids
filled with binder, % voids in total mix, bitumen extraction test, bitumen ignition test,
wearing course, base course, sub‐base, subgrade, ESALs, AASHTO flexible pavement
method, structural number, CBR test, resilient modulus, reliability level, initial
serviceability index, terminal serviceability index, loss in serviceability, pavement
maintenance and rehabilitation, pavement roughness, pavement distress, pavement
deflection, skid resistance.
Objectives:
At the end of the lectures, the student should be able to:
• describe the various materials that make up asphalt concrete,
• describe and conduct standard tests for assessing the properties of bitumen and aggregates,
• describe and conduct standard tests for assessing the properties of the asphalt concrete,
• perform Marshall mix design to determine the optimum bitumen content,
• describe the structure of the typical flexible pavement in Singapore,
• determine the thickness of the various layers that make up the flexible pavement,
• describe the various types of distress and failure in flexible pavements,
• recommend general maintenance and rehabilitation actions for flexible pavements.
References:
Topic 5 – Flexible
Pavement Design 1
Garber, N.J., Hoel, L.A., 2009. Traffic and Highway Engineering. 4th Ed., Cengage
Learning. Toronto.
Land Transport Authority, 2010. Materials and Workmanship Specifications for Civil
& Structural Works (Revision A1, Jun 2010), Singapore.
Land Transport Authority, 2012. Code of Practice for Works on Public Streets (November 2012,
Revision 6) Singapore.
Mannering F.L., Washburn, S.S., 2013. Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis.
5th Ed., Hoboken.
5.1 PAVEMENT TYPES

In general, there are two types of pavement structures: flexible pavements and rigid
pavements. As with any structure, the underlying soil must ultimately carry the load
that is placed on it. A pavement’s function is to distribute the traffic load stresses to
the soil in subgrade layer at a magnitude that will not shear or distort the soil. When
soil is saturated with water, the bearing capacity can be very low, and in these cases it
is very important for pavement to distribute tire loads to the soil in such a way as to
prevent failure of the pavement structure
5.1.1 Flexible pavement

A flexible pavement is constructed with several layers (Figure 5.1). These thicknesses
vary with the type of axle loading, available materials and expected design life, which
is the number of years the pavement is expected to provide adequate service before
it must undergo major rehabilitation (Figure 5.2).
Pavement Design 2
Figure 5.1 – Typical flexible pavement cross section
Figure 5.2 – Distribution of load on a flexible pavement
5.1.1.1 Subgrade
Subgrade shall mean the layer defined as the 500mm of material immediately below
formation level. The subgrade soil is usually scarified and blended to provide a uniform
material before it is compacted to maximum density.
5.1.1.2 Sub‐base
The next layer is the sub‐base, which usually consists of natural sand, crushed rock or
crushed concrete or any other granular material. This material has better engineering
properties (higher modulus values) than the subgrade material in terms of its bearing
capacity. The material shall be well graded and lie within the grading limits of Table
5.1.
Table 5.1 – Gradation of sub‐base material
Source: Materials and Workmanship Specifications (Revision A1, Jun 2010), LTA
Pavement Design 3
If more than 10% of the material is retained on the 20mm sieve, the whole material
shall be assumed without test to have a CBR value of 30% or more. If 10% or less of
the material is retained on the 20 mm sieve, the fraction that passes that sieve shall
satisfy the CBR requirements of 30% (soaked value).
Milled waste, which is asphaltic concrete machine‐milled from existing road, could be
used as sub‐base material. Grading and CBR tests are not required for milled waste.
However, 100% of the material shall pass the 63 mm sieve.
Recycled Aggregates (RA), which is a product from the processing of Construction and
Demolition (C&D) wastes, could be used as sub‐base material. The processed RA used
shall be obtained from approved C&D waste processing plant and the material shall
contain at least 60% of recycled concrete aggregates, with not more than 40% of
masonry/bricks and/or not more than 10% of other foreign materials such as wood,
asphalt, glass, plastic and metals. In addition, the fraction of material which passes the
20 mm sieve shall satisfy the CBR requirements of 30% (soaked value).
5.1.1.3 Base course

The next layer is the base course and is also often made of coarse granite aggregates
(of a higher strength than those used in the sub‐base).The coarse granite aggregates
shall be either crushed stone or crushed gravel free from excess flat, elongated, or
Pavement Design 4
disintegrated pieces, dirt or other objectionable matter. The coarse aggregate shall
have a percentage of wear of not more than 45 at 500 revolutions as determined by
Los Angeles Test, and shall meet the gradation requirements of Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 – Gradation of coarse aggregate
The fine aggregate shall be screenings obtained from crushed stone, gravel or other similar
accepted materials.
5.1.1.4 Wearing course

The top layer of a flexible pavement is referred to as the wearing course. It is usually
made of asphaltic concrete. The purpose of the wearing course is to protect the
base course from wheel abrasion and waterproof the entire pavement structure. It
also provides a skid‐resistant surface that is important for safe vehicle stops. The
materials used in the asphaltic concrete are: a) Aggregates
Aggregates shall consist of crushed stone, crushed gravel or crushed slag with or
without and or other inert finely divided mineral aggregate. Based on sieve analysis,
aggregates shall be classified as shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 – Aggregates classification

Pavement Design 5
i) Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate shall consist of sound, tough, durable particles, free from adherent
coatings. When tested in accordance with ASTM C131 and SS73:74, the L.A. Abrasion
Value (500 revolutions) shall not be more than 40% and 35% wear respectively. ii)
Fine Aggregate
Fine aggregate shall consist of clean, sound durable, angular particles produced by
crushing stone, slag or gravel and shall be free from coatings of clay, silt, clay balls or
other deleterious matter.
iii) Filler
Filler shall meet the requirements of ASTM D242. b)
Bitumen Emulsion
The bitumen emulsion shall be homogeneous after thorough mixing, for at least 30
days after delivery. The bitumen emulsion shall be rapid setting cationic bitumen
emulsion.
c) Bitumen
All bitumen shall be petroleum bitumen of 60/70 penetration grade. No mineral matter
other than that naturally contained in such bitumen shall be present. The bitumen shall
be homogeneous, free from water and shall not foam when heated to
1750C.
d) Admixture
The use of any admixture added to the asphaltic concrete mix shall be acceptable. e)
Water
Pavement Design 6
Water used in diluting the bitumen emulsion or wetting the wheels of rollers shall be
clean and free from detrimental impurities. The water shall be obtained from a public
supply where possible.
5.1.1.5 Advantages of flexible pavement

• Lower construction cost
• Adaptability to stage construction
• Good point load carrying capacity
• Ease of maintenance and repair
• Ability to accommodate movement of under laying layers due to climatic changes or load
deformation
• No thermal stresses are induced as the pavement have the ability to contract and expand
freely
5.1.1.6 Disadvantages of flexible pavement

• Low tolerance to temperature change
• Have low flexural strength
• Deterioration and rutting due to cyclic loading
• Service life is highly dependent on the strength of the sub grade
• Damage by fuels, oils and chemicals
• High maintenance costs
• Shorter life span under heavy use
• Weak edges that may require curbs or edge devices
• Rolling of the surfacing is needed
5.1.2 Rigid pavement

A rigid pavement is constructed with Portland cement concrete and aggregates as
shown in Figure 5.3. As with flexible pavement, the subgrade is often scarified,
blended and compacted to maximum density. In rigid pavement, the base course layer
is optional, depending on the engineering properties of the subgrade. If the subgrade
Pavement Design 7
soil is poor and erodible, then it is advisable to use a base course layer. However, if
the soil has good engineering properties and drains well, a base course layer need not
be used. The top layer (wearing course) is the Portland cement concrete slab.
Transverse contraction joints are built into the pavement to control shrinkage of the
concrete during the curing process. Load transfer devices, such as dowel bars, are
placed in the joints to minimise deflections and reduce stresses near the edge of the
slabs (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.3 – Typical rigid pavement cross section
Figure 5.4 – beam action of a rigid pavement
5.1.2.1 Advantages of rigid pavement

• Have high flexural strength
Pavement Design 8
• Life span is more as compare to flexible pavement

• Low maintenance costs
• Long life with extreme durability
• High value as a base for future resurfacing with asphalt
• Load distribution over a wide area, decreasing base and sub grade requirements
• Strength of the road is less dependent on the strength of the sub grade
• Ability to be placed directly on poor soils
• No damage from oils and greases.
• Strong edges
• Rolling of the surfacing in not needed
5.1.2.2 Disadvantages of rigid pavement

• High initial costs
• Thermal stresses are more vulnerable to be induced as the ability to contract and expand
is very less in concrete
• Joints required for contraction and expansion
• Generally rough riding quality
• High repair costs
5.2 BITUMEN AND ASPHALT
5.2.1 Bitumen
• Black or brown in colour.
• Insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulphide.
• Good adhesive and cohesive strength.
• Good for waterproofing works.
• Soften with the rise in temperature.
5.2.2 Asphalt
• Mixture of bitumen and aggregates.
Pavement Design 9
5.3 TYPES OF BITUMENS

In Singapore, most bitumen are obtained as a by product in the distillation of petroleum.
5.3.1 Penetration‐grade bitumen

• obtained from the fractional distillation of petroleum.
• varying consistency i.e. hardness.
• classified by penetration test. The penetration number reflects the hardness of the
bitumen. Range of the penetration number 15 pen (hardest) to 450 pen (softest)
• Soft is ductile but weak, hard is brittle but strong.
• most commonly used locally is bitumen of penetration number 60 pen to
70 pen
• possible to blend the hard and soft bitumens to obtain bitumen of intermediate
grades.
• Softens when heated. This is why bitumen is heated before used in road construction.
5.3.2 Cutback bitumen

• liquid bitumens which are produced by fluxing the penetration grade bitumens
with a suitable solvent so that the binder can be used at ambient temperature.
• The liquid bitumen will harden back to solid as the solvent evaporates. Rate of
hardening is dependent on the volatility of the solvent.
• cutbacks can be classified into three main types namely: i) rapid
hardening (gasoline)
ii) medium hardening (kerosene)
iii) slow hardening (diesel)
• viscosity depends on the amount of fluxing oil used( up to 30%).
• Usually softer than the penetration grade bitumen because of the trapped
solvent in the bitumen.
Pavement Design 10
5.3.3 Bitumen emulsions

• are produced by dispersing minute particles of penetration grade bitumen in
water containing the emulsifying agent.
• two groups of emulsifying agents are used: anionic and cationic.
5.3.3.1 Anionic emulsifier

• is alkaline in nature.
• When it is dissolved the negative ions are absorbed by the bitumen particles to
form a film with a negative electric charge. This prevents the particles from
coalescing.
• These negative charges assist the bitumen in bonding to the aggregates, which
have a positive charge on their surface. E.g., Limestone
5.3.3.2 Cationic emulsifier

• Acidic in nature.
• For acidic rocks which carry a negative charge on their surface. E.g., quartzite,
porphyry.
5.4 TESTS FOR BITUMEN
(i) Penetration Test.
(ii) Softening Point Test.
(iii) Viscosity Test.
(iv) Flash and Fire Point Test.
5.4.1 Penetration test

• How far the standard steel needle will penetrate vertically into the binder.
250C, 100 g for 5 seconds (Figure 5.5).
• result expressed in units of penetration. 1 unit is 1/10 mm.
• < 20 penetration cracking.
• > 30 little problem with cracking.
Pavement Design 11
• cold climate, higher penetration grade.
Figure 5.5 – Penetrometer for Bitumen Penetration Test

5.4.2 Viscosity tests
• Measures the time in seconds for a fixed quantity of binder liquid to flow from a
cup through a standard orifice.
• Too low viscosity, it may flow off the stone, bleeding or low binding power. Too
high the mixture will have low workability.
5.4.3 Softening point test
• Ring and ball test.
• Placing a 9.35 mm steel ball on a binder sample placed in a steel ring and immersed
in a water bath. Apply heat until the steel sphere fall through a height of 2.5 cm. The
temperature is known as the softening point.
• higher softening is normally less susceptible to temperature changes.
5.4.4 Flash and fire point tests
• Heating the bitumen at the uniform rate and passing a small flame across the
surface at constant intervals.
• The temperature at which the binder first burn with a brief blue flame is the flash
point and the temperature at which the flame continues to burn for at least 5
seconds is the fire point.
• For safety
• Minimum 2320C
Table 5.4 shows the requirements for bitumen used in the flexible pavement.
Pavement Design 12
Table 5.4 – Requirements for bitumen Source: Materials and Workmanship

Specifications (Revision A1, Jun 2010), LTA
5.5 ROADMAKING AGGREGATES

Aggregate comprises approximately 95% of the asphalt mixtures. It has a major effect on the
performance of the mix.
Well‐graded aggregate fits together more tightly during compaction, resulting in a lower
asphalt content and improved stability and durability.
5.5.1 Source of aggregates

Almost all road‐making aggregates are obtained from either natural rocks or from slags
derived from metallurgical processes such as steel slags.
Pavement Design 13
5.5.2 Properties of aggregates

• Able to withstand the stress due to traffic wheel loads without crushing.
• Able to resist the abrasion, wear and tear from the traffic loadings
Grading and the maximum size of the aggregate.
5.5.3 Testing of Aggregates

(i) Sieve analysis
(ii) Los Angeles Abrasion Test (Figure 5.6)
Figure 5.6 – Apparatus for Los Angeles Test
5.5.4 Mineral Filler

• Dust having particle size < 75 micron or 0.075 mm
• Should not contain clay or organic matter.
• Plastic index <4
• The amount of filler can greatly affect the overall mix quality.
• Filler tends to
‐ fill the voids and reduce the optimum bitumen content
‐ increase the density of mix
‐ decrease the voids in mix
‐ increase stability
Pavement Design 14
5.6 DESIGN FOR BITUMINOUS MIX

5.6.1 Requirements of Mix
(i) Stability
Maximum compressive load that can be withstood before failure.
(ii) Flexibility
Resistance to cracking due to persistent loading, repeated cycles of flexing and
volume changes.
(iii) Durability
Resistance to moisture and weathering.
(iv) Workability
Ease of working, spreading and compacting.
(v) Safety
Resistance to skidding (for wearing course).
(vi) Stiffness
To provide an effective distribution of traffic loading (high modulus of elasticity required.
(vii) Impermeability
To prevent water from penetrating to the base.
5.6.2 Mix design

5.6.2.1 Dense Mix
The mix shall comply with the materials and workmanship specifications in Table 5.5. Table
5.5 – Mix specifications
Pavement Design 15
5.6.2.2 Porous Asphalt

The materials use shall comply with the specifications in Table 5.6.
5.6.2.3 Open Graded Asphalt

The materials use shall comply with the specifications in Table 5.6.
5.6.2.4 Stone Mastic Asphalt

Normal asphaltic concrete is economical because of its low bitumen content. This
however also makes it noisier because there is insufficient bitumen to cushion the
vehicle wheels. The noise can of course be reduced by having more bitumen in the
mix. However bitumen tends to leak out from a bitumen rich mix. The leaked bitumen
is wasted. Stone mastic asphalt contains fibres which act as blotting paper to retain
the bitumen.
Pavement Design 16
High bitumen content results in a lower air void level and a correspondingly thicker
bitumen coating on the stone. The exposure of the bitumen to air is thus reduced. Its
oxidation rate is also correspondingly reduced, making it more durable. The materials
use shall comply with the specifications in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6 – Specifications for special road mixes
5.6.3 Tests on bituminous mixes

(i) Bitumen Extraction Test.
(ii) Bitumen Ignition Test.
These two test serve the same purpose, namely to determine the bitumen content of an
asphalt mix sample. They can act as a quality control to ensure that the correct bitumen
amount was used in the mix. After the bitumen has been extracted or burnt, the
Pavement Design 17
remaining aggregate sample can be used for a sieve analysis to determine the aggregate
gradation as well.
5.6.4 MARSHALL MIX DESIGN METHOD

The Marshall Mix Design Method is a simple method of selecting the bitumen content
to give a mix with an optimum combination of strength and flexibility (Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7 – Marshall Test Machine
Procedures
STEP 1 ‐ Specimen preparation
Determine beforehand the type and amount of aggregates to use. The amount of
bitumen is however varied to produce a range of specimens with different bitumen
content are prepared.
STEP 2 ‐ Determine specimen volume.

Calculate the % Voids in Total Mix (% VTM), % Voids in mineral aggregate framework (%
VMA) and % Voids filled with binder (% VFB).
Volume of air void Volume of sample
Pavement Design 18
% voids in total mix (VTM) =

The voids in total mix (VTM) is the ratio of the air void volume to the total volume of the
asphalt concrete.
Volume of air void Volume of bitumen
% voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) =
Volume of sample
The percent voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) is the percentage of void spaces
between the granular particles in the compacted paving mixture, including the air
voids and the volume occupied by the effective asphalt content (Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8 – Illustration of VMA in a Compacted Mix Specimen
When VMA is not adequate, two possible problems are: (A) When enough asphalt to
coat the aggregate is added, low air voids and bleeding will result. (B) When not
enough asphalt is added, low durability will result.
volume of bitumen Volume of bitumen volume of air void

% voids filled with binder (VFB) =
Voids filled with binder is the voids in the mineral aggregate framework filled with the
bitumen. It consists of that portion of the initial voids in the aggregate (VMA) filled
with the non‐absorbed asphalt.
Pavement Design 19
A low VFB may result in a high air voids, and a high VFB may result in a low air voids. STEP 3 ‐
Test the specimens in the Marshall Test Machine and note its failure load
and Flow.
The magnitude of the failure load is due to both the strength of the compacted mix as
well as the thickness of the specimen. A Correction Factor is introduced to account for
the effect of the specimen thickness. This factor varies inversely with the thickness as
shown in Figure 5.9.
Stability (kN) = Failure Load (kN) X Correction Factor
Marshall Test Height Correction
2.5
1.5
0.5
40 50 60 70 80
Specimen Height (mm)
Figure 5.9 – Correction factor for Marshall Stability test
STEP 4 ‐ Repeat Steps 2 and 3 for the different specimens and prepare graphical plots
for Binder content Vs: Marshall Stability, Marshall Flow, VTM, VMA and unit
weight (Figure 5.10).
Pavement Design 20
Figure 5.10 – Marshall test property curve
STEP 5 ‐ Check the optimum binder content according to the Marshall Mix Criteria
stated in Table 5.7.
Pavement Design 21
Table 5.7 – Marshall design criteria Source: Materials and Workmanship Specifications
(Revision A1, Jun 2010), LTA
5.7 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR FORMULA ONE RACE IN SINGAPORE

Singapore’s 5.06 km Formula One street circuit is resurfaced to make it the toughest and
flattest stretch of road with the best grip.
The wearing course must be able to withstand high resistance to deformation, high
shear resistance and high skid resistance. Angular aggregates are held together by a
new stickier type of bitumen (a black tar‐like material) to ensure the circuit has the
finest finish of all roads in Singapore. The newly‐paved road provides vehicles 20%
better grip.
The road surface is different from those in permanent circuits. It has to cater to all
kinds of vehicles, including heavy buses and trucks as well as F1 cars capable of speeds
of 300 km/h.
5.7.1 Durability
It is expected to last more than the five‐year period for normal roads, although
resurfacing works may have to be repeated if the road is damaged by accidents or by
road‐digging.
Pavement Design 22
5.7.2 Stringent requirements

The surface unevenness cannot exceed 3 mm. A multi‐laser profiler is used to make sure it
meets quality standards.
Lane marking have to be the non‐slip type. Even so, at points where hard breaking of
F1 cars is expected, removable lane markings are applied. These will be peeled before
the race starts, as the cars must have maximum gap at these points.
Based on 5.5% binder content, there was no coating stripping or loss of adhesion.
Resilient Modulus Test (To test susceptibility to deformation) = 2157 (MPa @ 25oC) >
1800 (MPa @ 25oC) (minimum).
One of the internationally accepted standards to test skid resistance is the British
Pendulum Test (unit in British Pendulum Number (BPN)). The result of the test is 76 BPN >
60 BPN (minimum).
5.8 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

The primary function of the pavement structure is to reduce and distribute the surface
stresses (contact tire pressure) to an acceptable level at the subgrade (to a level that
prevents permanent deformation). A flexible pavement reduces the stresses by
distributing the traffic wheel loads over greater and greater areas, through the
individual layers, until the stress at the subgrade is at an acceptably low level (Figure
5.11).
Pavement Design 23
Figure 5.11 – Load distribution on a flexible pavement
The traffic loads are transmitted to the subgrade by aggregate‐to aggregate particle
contact. Confining pressures (lateral forces due to material weight) in the sub‐base
and base layers increase the bearing strength of these materials. A cone of distributed
loads reduces and spreads the stresses to the subgrade as shown in Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12 – Spread of wheel load pressure through pavement structure
The design of flexible pavement involves determination of the types and thicknesses
of various layers of wearing course, base course, sub‐base and subgrade.
There are several accepted flexible pavement design procedures available:

• AASHTO (The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) Design
method.
Pavement Design 24
• California (Hveem) Design method.

• Mechanistic‐Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) method.
• Road Note 29 method.
A traditional and widely accepted flexible pavement design procedures is presented
in the AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures in 1993 which is published by
the AASHTO.
5.8 AASHTO FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD

The 1993 version provides a Flexible Pavement Nomograph, shown as Figure 5.13, to
determine the structural number, a combined structural capacity required for a
pavement. The method incorporates various design inputs including:
• traffic load,
• reliability,
• environmental effects
• serviceability, and
• soil resilient modulus.
The combination of the layer thicknesses and property of the materials (layer
coefficients) constituting the pavement layers are then determined from the
structural number.
Pavement Design 25
Pavement Design 26
Figure 5.13 ‐ AAHSTO Flexible Pavement Nomograph

5.8.1 Traffic load
The total load applications due to all mixed traffic within the design period are
converted to the 18‐kip equivalent single‐axle load (ESAL). ESAL is defined as a mixed
traffic stream of different axle loads and axle configurations is converted into a design
traffic number by converting each expected axle load into an equivalent number of
18‐kip (18000‐pound or 80.1kN) single‐axle loads.
The use of an 18,000‐lb axle load is based on the results of experiments that have
shown the effect of any load on the performance of a pavement can be represented
in terms of the number of single applications of an 18,000‐lb single axle (ESPLs). The
equivalence factors used are based on the terminal serviceability index (TSI) to be
used in the design and the structural number (SN). The axle‐load equivalence factors
for flexible pavement design, with a TSI of 2.5 are presented in Tables 5.8
(for single axles), 5.9 (for tandem axles) and 5.10 (for triple axles).
The total ESALs applied on the roadway during its design period can be determined
only after the design period and traffic growth factors are known. The design period
is the number of years the pavement will effectively continue to carry the traffic load
without requiring any overlay. Since traffic volume does not remain constant over the
design period of the pavement, it is essential that the rate of growth be determined
and applied when calculating the total ESALs. The growth factors for different growth
rates and design periods can be obtained from the equation: Gm =
(1 r)n 1
.
r
The total volume of traffic (or total ESALs) expected during the design period is
T = Gm x T1
(1 r)n 1
T=[ ] T1
r
Pavement Design 27
Where, r = i / 100 and is not zero. If annual growth is zero, growth factor = design
period.
i = growth rate. n =
design period, years.
T1= traffic volume during the first year.
Pavement Design 28
Table
5.8
Topic 5 – Flexible Pavement Design 29

Table
5.9

Table
5.10

Table

Table

5.8.2 Reliability
The concept of incorporating the reliability factors into the design procedures was
developed to ensure that various design alternatives would allow for inherent design
and construction variabilities and perform as they were intended in the design period.
The reliability design factor accounts for chance variations in both traffic prediction
and the performance prediction; therefore it provides a predetermined level of
assurance (R) that pavement sections will survive the period for which they were
designed. For a given reliability level, the reliability factor is a function of the overall
standard deviation (So), which accounts for standard deviation in materials and
construction, the change variation in the traffic prediction and the normal variation in
pavement performance. Typical values of So are on the order of 0.30 to 0.50. Highways
and major arterials which are costly to reconstruct (have their pavement
rehabilitated) because of resulting traffic delay and disruption, require a high
reliability level, whereas local access roads, which will have lower impacts on users in
the event of pavement rehabilitation, do not. Typically reliability values for highways
are 90% or higher, whereas local access roads can have a reliability as low as 50%.
5.8.3 Environmental effects

The long‐term effects of temperature, moisture and material aging on pavement
performance could not be directly accounted for from the road test data. Also, if the
effects of swell clay of a subgrade soil on the performance of the pavement are
significant, the loss of serviceability over the design period should be estimated and
added to that due to traffic loads.
5.8.4 Serviceability
Initial serviceability and terminal serviceability indexes must be established to
compute the loss in serviceability (∆PSI).
The initial serviceability index is a function of pavement construction quality. Typical

value from the AASHTO road test was 4.2 for flexible pavement.

The terminal serviceability index is the lowest index that is tolerable for a pavement
before it requires rehabilitation. A terminal index of 2.5 is suggested by AASHTO Guide
for major highway pavements, whereas a value of 2.0 suffices for other pavements.
The amount of serviceability loss over the lifespan of the pavement, ∆PSI, is
determines during the pavement design process. The engineer must decide on the
final PSI level for a particular pavement. Loss of serviceability is caused by pavement
roughness, cracking, patching and rutting. As pavement distress increases,
serviceability decreases. If the design is for a pavement with heavy traffic loads, then
the serviceability loss may only be 1.2, whereas a low‐volume road can be allowed to
deteriorate further, with a possible total serviceability loss of 2.7 or more.
5.8.5 Soil resilient modulus

The soil resilient modulus, MR, is used to reflect the engineering properties of the
subgrade soil. It is a measure of the ability of a soil or granular base to resist permanent
deformation under repeated loading. The resilient modulus test is used to determine
the properties of the soil under this repeated load.
Many soils are stress‐dependent. Each time a vehicle passes over pavement, stresses
are developed in the subgrade. After the load passes, the subgrade soil relaxes and the
stress is relieved. As the stress level increases, these soils will behave in a nonlinear
fashion. Fine‐grain soils tend to be stress softening, whereas granular soils tend to be
stress‐hardening.
A relationship, between MR and the California Bearing Ratio (CBR), provides a very
basic approximately of MR (in lb / in2) from the known CBR.
MR = 1500 x CBR

The coefficient of 1500 is used for the CBR values less than 10. Caution must be
exercised in applying this equation to higher CBRs because the coefficient has range
of 750 to 3,000.
The CBR is determined from a standard laboratory test, in which a specific size and
weight piston is loaded and applied to the soil. The deflection of the soil sample is used
to determine the CBR. This test method is used to evaluate the potential strength of
subgrade soil, sub‐base and base course material, including recycled materials for use
in road pavements design.
The Land Transport Authority (LTA) specifies the soil used for the subgrade shall have
a soaked CBR value of not less than 6%.
5.8.6 Determination of the required structural number

Figure 5.12 represents the nomograph for determining the design structural number
(SN) required for the specific input conditions. The nomograph is constructed from
the equation shown on top pf the figure.
The required inputs are:

- Estimated future traffic (W18 or total ESAL)
- Reliability (R)
- Overall standard deviation (So)
- Effective roadbed soil resilient modulus (MR)
- Loss in serviceability (∆PSI)
With the input data in the example given in Figure 5.13, an SN = 5.0 can be determined
from the figure or from the equation.

The Structural Number is an index number that represents the overall pavement
system structural requirements needed to sustain the design traffic loading for the
design period.
5.8.7 Selection of pavement thickness designs
Once the structural number is determined, it is necessary to determine the thickness
of the various layers in a flexible pavement that will provide the required load‐carrying
capacity that corresponding to this design structural number, according to the
following equation:
SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3
Where,
a1, a2, a3 = layer coefficients of the wearing course, base course and sub‐base
respectively.
D1, D2, D3 = thickness of the wearing course, base course and sub‐base in inches,
respectively. To work in SI unit, convert 1 inch = 25.4mm.
m2, m3 = drainage coefficients for the base course and sub‐base respectively.
Values for the layer coefficients for various types of materials are presented in
Table 5.11.
Table 5.11 – Layer coefficients
Pavement component Coefficient
Wearing surface
Sand‐mix asphalt concrete 0.35
Hot‐mix asphalt concrete 0.44
Base
Crushed stone 0.14
Dense‐graded crushed stone 0.18
Soil cement 0.20
Emulsion / aggregate‐bituminous 0.30

Portland cement/aggregate 0.40
Lime‐pozzolan/aggregate 0.40
Hot‐mix asphalt concrete 0.40
Subbase
Crushed stone 0.11

Drainage coefficients are used to modify the thickness of the lower pavement layers
(base and sub‐base) to take into account a material’s drainage characteristics. The
coefficients depend on the quality of drainage and percentage of time the pavement
structure is saturated. The quality of drainage is measured by the length of time it
takes for water to be removed from the base or sub‐base. A value of 1.0 for a drainage
coefficient represents a material with good drainage characteristics (a sandy material)
A soil such as clay does not drain very well and will have a lower drainage coefficient
(less than 1.0) than a sandy material. Table 5.12 presents the recommended drainage
coefficients in flexible pavements.
Table 5.12 – Recommended drainage
coefficients
Notes:
Quality of drainage Water removed within
Excellent 2 hours
Good 1 day
Fair 1 week
Poor 1 month

Very poor (water will not drain)
5.8.10 General procedure for selection of layer thickness

The procedure for selecting the pavement layer thickness usually starts from the top,
as shown in Figure 5.14.
Figure 5.14 – procedures for determining flexible pavement thicknesses of layers.
(a) Using the values of W18, R, So, ∆PSI and base MR, determine the SN1 required to
protect the base, and compute the thickness of layer (D1):
D1 ≥ SN1 / a1
For practical reasons, the chosen thickness may not be exactly equal to the computed
thickness. The layer thickness is usually rounded up to the nearest onehalf inch.
Subsequent calculations should use the values for D and SN actually used rather than
the calculated value. The values are designated by an asterisk (*) in the equations.
(b) Using the value of sub‐base MR, determine the SN2 required to protect the
subbase, and compute the thickness of layer (D2):

D2 ≥ (SN2 ‐ SN1*) / a2m2

(c) Using the value of subgrade MR, determine the SN3 required to protect the
subgrade, and compute the thickness of layer (D3):
D3 ≥ (SN3 ‐ SN1* ‐ SN2*) / a3m3
5.9 PAVEMENT MAINTENANCE AND REHABILITATION

Pavements are subject to varying degrees of distress short of outright failure that
reduces their serviceability. Pavement maintenance and rehabilitation programs are
intended to restore ride quality and maintain the structural integrity of the pavement
over its full design life. Because pavement maintenance and rehabilitation is a major
concern of most highway agencies, many have instituted formalised pavement
management systems which involve assessing pavement conditions, analysing
pavement distress, identifying measures, and prioritizing maintenance and
rehabilitation projects.
Pavement management is a systematic process for maintaining, upgrading and
operating physical pavement assets in a cost‐effective manner. The process involves
the following steps for a given pavement section: i. Assess present pavement
condition.
ii. Predict future condition.
iii. Conduct an alternative analysis, and iv. Select an
appropriate rehabilitation strategy.
5.9.1 Methods for determining roadway condition

Four characteristics of pavement condition used in evaluating pavement
rehabilitation needs are: - Pavement roughness
- Pavement distress (surface condition)
- Pavement deflection (structural failure) - Skid resistance
(safety)

5.9.1.1 Pavement roughness

It refers to irregularities in the pavement surface that affect the smoothness of the
ride. Equipment for measuring roughness is classified into two basic categories:
response type and profilometers.
Response‐type equipment does not measure the actual profile of the road but rather
the response of the vehicle to surface roughness. Equipment used includes:
• Mays Ride Meter (MRM).
• Bureau of public Roads (BPR) Roughmeter, and
• Cox Road Meter.
Profilometers are devices that measure the true profile of the roadway and provide
accurate and complete reproductions of the pavement profile. Profilometers also
eliminate the need for the time‐consuming and labour‐intensive calibration required
for response‐type equipment performance.
There are several types of profilometers. Acoustic or optic and laser devices are used
for measuring the distance between the pavement surface and the vehicle, dp.
Acoustic systems, such as Surface Dynamics Profilometer, are widely used because of
their lower cost and the reliability and adequacy of results. Figure 5.15 illustrates a
Surface Dynamics Profilometer.

Figure 5.15 ‐ Surface Dynamics Profilometer
5.9.1.2 Pavement distress

It refers to the condition of a pavement surface in terms of its general appearance. A
perfect pavement is level and has a continuous and unbroken surface. In contrast, a
distressed pavement may be fractured, distorted or disintegrated.
Asphalt concrete pavements are subject to a variety of types of pavement distress or
failure. These include:
- Fractures can be seen as cracks or as spalling (chipping of the pavement surface).
• Alligator cracking. A series of interconnected or interlaced cracks caused by
fatigue failure of the pavement surface under repeated traffic loading.
• Block cracking. Cracks forming large interconnected polygons, usually with
sharp corners or angles. It is not load‐associated, but generally caused by
shrinkage of the asphalt pavement due to an inability of asphalt binder to
expand and contract with temperature cycles. This can be because the mix was
mixed and placed too dry; Fine aggregate mix with low penetration asphalt &
absorptive aggregates; poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design; or aging
of asphalt binder.
• Transverse cracking. Cracks approximately at right angles to the pavement
centreline. These may be caused by shrinkage or differential thermal stress of
the asphalt concrete, or may be reflective cracks.
• Longitudinal cracking. Cracks approximately parallel to the pavement
centreline. These are caused by poorly constructed construction joints and
shrinkage of the asphalt concrete surface; they may also be reflective cracks.
• Potholes are caused when moisture enters a crack in the pavement, then
freezes and expands in cold temperatures. The expansion puts pressure on the
crack, causing the asphalt to break away, resulting in a pothole.
In Singapore, potholes are usually formed after water seeps into cracks, which
are the result of pressure applied onto the road by traffic. The continuous
movement of vehicles causes the water to seep deeper, widening the cracks The

age of the road surface, traffic load and volume are factors that make some
section of the more than 9,000km of roads in Singapore more susceptible. The
persistent rain in January not only led to more potholes, but also prevented
workers from fixing them as potholes cannot be patched in wet weather.
- A pavement distortion may be evidenced by ruts or corrugation of the surface.

• Rutting is a longitudinal surface depression typically along the wheel paths of a
road. It is caused by deformation or consolidation of any of the pavement layers
or subgrade. It can be caused by insufficient pavement thickness, lack of
compaction, and weak asphalt mixtures.
• Corrugation is a series of closely‐spaced ridges and valleys (ripples) occurring at
regular intervals. The ridges are perpendicular to the traffic direction. This may
be the result of too much asphalt, too much fine aggregate, improper gradation,
or round or smooth textured coarse aggregate in the mix.
- Pavement disintegration can be observed as raveling (loosening of pavement
structure), stripping of the pavement from the sub‐base and surface polishing
(loss of the original surface texture due to traffic action).
• Raveling. Wearing away of the pavement surface caused by the dislodging of
aggregate particles and binder. This is usually a result of insufficient asphalt
binder in the mix or stripping of asphalt from particles of aggregate.
• Drip track ravelling. Progressive disintegration of the surface between the
wheel paths caused by dripping of gasoline or oil from vehicles.
• Bleeding or flushing. The exuding of bitumen onto the pavement surface,
causing a reduction in skid resistance. Bleeding is generally caused by excessive
amounts of bituminous material in the mix and/or low air voids content. It
occurs when bituminous fills the void in the mix during hot weather and then
exudes out the surface of the pavement.
Maintenance and rehabilitation actions for asphalt concrete pavements included

bituminous seal coats of various types which are intended to seal cracks and restore

skid resistance, asphalt concrete overlays, and recycling of asphalt concrete

pavements. In addition, failure confined to small areas, such as isolated potholes, may
be patched.
5.9.1.3 Repair of Potholes

Land Transport Authority (LTA) uses three methods to patch potholes.
1. Hot In‐Place Resurfacing
i) An area of one square metre (1m2) around the potholes is marked out. This is
roughly the size of a machine that is used to heat up and soften the road
surface.
ii) The road surface, which is about 50mm deep, is heated to 150 degree C. iii)
Rakes and shovels are used to loosen and remove the old asphalt. iv) New
asphalt is added and a bitumen emulsion is used as a bonding agent. v) The
patched road is compacted using a road roller.
Such repair work is routine for the LTA, which deals with about 200 potholes a month
during the dry season, and 800 to 1,000 a month during the wet season.
2) Conventional method
If the potholes is deep, LTA uses a more conventional repair method.
i) This involves hacking away the road surface using a power saw and a drill.
ii) An emulsion is used as a bonding agent as fresh asphalt is added. iii) The
fresh asphalt is then compacted using a road roller.
3) Quick patches
Quick patches are a temporary fix used by LTA during the rainy session.
i) Fresh asphalt and the bonding agent are added directly into the pothole. The road
around the pothole is left largely untouched.
ii) The fresh asphalt is compacted usigna road roller. When the weather permits,
LTA will permanently patch the road surface.

This method is not always effective as incessant rainfall makes it harder for the asphalt
to bond with the wet road surface. The irregular edges of the patch also make it easier
for water to seep in. this method takes less than 30 minutes to complete, compared
with the two to three hours needed for the usual methods. These quick patches
method last only about six months, are less effective, and the flaw will still need to be
permanently patched up later. The contractor teams are able to handle between 70
and 100 potholes daily.
5.9.1.4 Pavement deflection

The structural adequacy of a pavement is measured either by non‐destructive means
which measure deflection under static or dynamic loading, or by destructive tests,
which involve removing sections of the pavement and testing these in the laboratory.
5.9.1.5 Skid resistance

The principal measure of pavement safety is its skid resistance. Skid resistance data
are collected to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of a pavement or reducing
skid‐related accidents. Skid data are used by highway agencies to identify pavement
sections with low skid resistance, to develop priorities for rehabilitation, and to
evaluate the effectiveness of various pavement mixtures and surface types. Table
5.13 lists the suggested minimum values of skid resistance.

Table 5.13 – Suggested minimum values of skid resistance

(Measured with the portable tester)
Prepared by: Loo Ching Nong

Date: March 2022
Updated by: Loo Ching Nong
Date: March 2023

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BE8332 Transportation Engineering

MODULE NAME : TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

MODULE CODE : BE8332

TOPIC 5 : FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

BE8332 Transportation Engineering

5.1 PAVEMENT TYPES

5.1.1 Flexible pavement

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Figure 5.1 – Typical flexible pavement cross section

Figure 5.2 – Distribution of load on a flexible pavement

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5.1.1.3 Base course

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5.1.1.4 Wearing course

Table 5.3 – Aggregates classification

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5.1.1.5 Advantages of flexible pavement

5.1.1.6 Disadvantages of flexible pavement

5.1.2 Rigid pavement

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Figure 5.3 – Typical rigid pavement cross section

Figure 5.4 – beam action of a rigid pavement

5.1.2.1 Advantages of rigid pavement

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• Life span is more as compare to flexible pavement

5.1.2.2 Disadvantages of rigid pavement

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5.3 TYPES OF BITUMENS

5.3.1 Penetration‐grade bitumen

5.3.2 Cutback bitumen

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5.3.3 Bitumen emulsions

5.3.3.1 Anionic emulsifier

5.3.3.2 Cationic emulsifier

5.4.1 Penetration test

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• cold climate, higher penetration grade.

Figure 5.5 – Penetrometer for Bitumen Penetration Test

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Table 5.4 – Requirements for bitumen Source: Materials and Workmanship

5.5 ROADMAKING AGGREGATES

5.5.1 Source of aggregates

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5.5.2 Properties of aggregates

5.5.3 Testing of Aggregates

Figure 5.6 – Apparatus for Los Angeles Test

5.5.4 Mineral Filler

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5.6 DESIGN FOR BITUMINOUS MIX

5.6.2 Mix design

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5.6.2.2 Porous Asphalt

5.6.2.3 Open Graded Asphalt

5.6.2.4 Stone Mastic Asphalt

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5.6.3 Tests on bituminous mixes

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5.6.4 MARSHALL MIX DESIGN METHOD

Figure 5.7 – Marshall Test Machine

STEP 2 ‐ Determine specimen volume.