ACI CCS-1 (1994) Slabs On Grade-Second Edition

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Copyright American Concrete Institute

Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale, 01/23/2006 01:33:38 MST
A C 1 CCS-1 74 0662947 0 5 1 8 4 2 1 9 5 8
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CONCRETE CRAFTSMAN SERIES - SLABS ON GRADE
SECOND EDITION
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 W 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 OSLB422 894
AC1 Committee E-703
William R. Phillips
Chairman
Robert C. Bates Samuel A. Greenberg C. Raymond Nowacki

Gregory J. Carr Byron D. Hanson Paul J. Tikaisky
Kenneth D. Cummins Oswin Keifer, Jr. Thomas D. Verti
Charles M. Dabney Jay E. Kinhal Bradley K. Violetta
Robert E. Glanville Theodore W J . Marotta
This document has been reviewed in accordance with Institute publication procedures.
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Mary K. Hurd-Editor
Printed in the United States of America

Second edition
First printingSeptember 1994
Victoria A. Wieczorek-Editorial Production
Copyright O 1994
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE
PO Box 19150, Redford Station
Detroit, Michigan 48219
All rights resewed including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic
or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless
permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
The Institute is not responsible for the statements or opinions in its publications. Institute publications are not able to, nor intended to supplant individual training,
responsibility, or judgement of the user, or the supplier of the information presented.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER 94-72629

A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 W 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0538423 7 2 0
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Chapter 1 . . What the Concrete Craftsman Should Know About Concrete . . . 1
Chapter 2 . . Concrete Materials and Mix Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
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Chapter 3 . . Concrete Control Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chapter 4 . . Placing and Finishing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Chapter 5 . . Placing and Finishing Slabs on Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Chapter 6 . . Jointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Chapter 7 . . Curing Protection of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Chapter 8 . . Common Questions and Problems and Possible Solutions . . . . 102
Appendix . . . Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Appendix . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Appendix . . . Metric Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0 5 3 8 4 2 4 667 W
PREFACE
The purpose of this manual is to present information they vary somewhat from the information in this manual.
on concrete that should be useful to concrete craftsmen. To learn more, also read “Guide for Concrete Floor and
The manual deals mainly with basics of concrete and con- Slab Construction,” AC1 302.1R and the other references
struction practices for slabs on ground. listed in the appendix to this book.
Concrete craftsmen are the individuals who handle, This manual was issued in 1982 as the first book in
place, consolidate, finish, and cure concrete. Concrete ACI’s Concrete Craftsman Series, and the second edition
craftsmen can greatly influence the quality of the concrete was reviewed and approved in 1994. Since 1982 other
structures they build. By applying the basic information in books on wall and elevated slab construction, as well as
this manual, concrete craftsmen can help to provide quality concrete basics, have been published in the Craftsman
concrete construction. Series. A number of important subjects such as reinforce-
Information in this manual should be used as a guide to ment, architectural concrete, inspection, foundations,
good practice, but remember that the plans and specifica- shoring, shotcrete, base plate grouting, and repair are
tions for a construction project must be followed even if planned for future concrete craftsman manuals.
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A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 I0662749 0 5 3 8 4 2 5 5T3
CHAPTER 1
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WHAT THE CONCRETE CRAFTSMAN SHOULD KNOW ABOUT CONCRETE
When we go to a doctor, we expect the doctor to know (ASTM): prepares specifications and test methods
all about the human body. Similarly, when someone hires for concrete materials and ready-mixed concrete.
a concrete craftsman, it seems logical to expect that the
craftsman should know the basics of concrete. A concrete The Portland Cement Association (PCA) also has many
craftsman should know what concrete is made of and how publications explaining how to get good concrete and how
it behaves. Concrete workers should know the basic prop- to build with it.
erties of concrete and should also recognize safety pre-
cautions needed to protect themselves and their fellow What is concrete?
workers when they are placing and finishing concrete. Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, and aggregates
Understanding the basics of concrete should help (stone or sand). Normal weight concrete, the concrete most
workers to produce better concrete. Most of this manual commonly used for structural purposes, weighs about 150
deals with construction of slabs on ground, but many of lb per CU ft (roughly 4000 lb per CU yd). Lightweight struc-
the principles discussed apply to other types of concrete tural concrete may weigh from 90 to 120 lb per CU ft, while
work. To learn more, you may want to study some of the special heavyweight concretes weigh 200 per CU ft, or more.
references cited in the appendix (p. 119-121). Two impor- Most concretes today are made with portland cement.
tant reference sources, frequently mentioned in this book Sometimes we talk about concrete as a mixture of two
by their initials, are: major components: aggregates and paste. The paste, made
of cement and water, binds the aggregates into a rock-like
O American Concrete Institute (ACI): prepares codes, mass as the paste hardens (Fig. 1.1). The hardening is a
standard practices, and guides for design and con- chemical process called hydration, not a drying process,
struction in concrete. and it can take place under water as well as when exposed
0 American Society for Testing and Materials to air. Concrete does not harden or cure by drying, be-
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A C 1 CCS-L 94 0662749 0538426 4 3 T
The paste part of the concrete also contains air, called

entrapped air, usually less than 2 percent by volume. En-
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trapped air voids are usually scattered, comparable in size
to the larger grains of sand. Sometimes the paste may also
contain very small spherical air voids, referred to as en-
trained air, intentionally retained in the mix by means of
an air-entraining admixture (described on p. 15 and 16).
As the diagram (Fig. 1.2) shows, the greatest part of con-
crete is the aggregate.
Importance of concrete and the concrete craftsman

Concrete is the most widely used construction material
today. Worldwide about one ton is produced every year
for every living human being. This happens because con-
crete is the least costly, most readily available construction
material. Fortunately, it is also strong and durable, resis-
Fig. i.1-Polished section sawed from concrete. The cement- tant to water and fire, and readily formable to an infinite
and-water paste coats each piece of aggregate and fiLh aLL variety of sizes and shapes.
spaces between the aggregate particles (photo courtesy Port- Concrete has been used to build some of the largest
land Cement Association) and tallest of all manmade structures. For example the CN
Tower, the world's tallest free-standing manmade object,
cause the cement needs moisture to hydrate and harden. has a concrete structure 1465 ft tall to support an antenna
When the concrete dries fully it no longer gains strength. mast that reaches 1815 ft.
People sometimes refer to the mixture of cement, water Although most conventional concrete has compressive
and aggregates as cement, but this is technically wrong; it strength in the range of 3000 to 6000 psi (pounds per
is concrete. Only the binding powder is properly calIed square inch, continuing advances in concrete technology
cement. are making ever-higher strengths available. Concrete for
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A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0bb2747 0538427 376 H
high-rise buildings frequently is designed for 9000 to CEMENT

12,000 psi strengths. At the other end of the scale, low 10%) AIR 5%
strength concrete used for fill or insulation may have a
compressive strength as low as 70 to 100 psi.
The success of concrete construction depends on the ENTRAPPED)
concrete developing the strength and other properties that
the designer specified when the work was planned. Much
of this concrete quality depends directly on the workers in
the field. Since they work with it, they should understand
some important factors affecting the properties of con- AGGREGATE
crete, such as: \ COARSE \ 25% /
AGGREGATE
Temperature and hurnzdiiy-This includes the tem-
perature of the concrete as mixed and the humidity 45%
and temperature of the air it is exposed to as it sets.
Warm concrete hardens faster than cool concrete
but will not get as strong (lower ultimate or final
strength). When humidity is low and temperature Fig. 1.2-Proportions ty absolute volume of materiah in a
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high or the wind is strong, cracks may appear on the rypical air-entrained concrete, freshly-mired. In other mixes
concrete surface before it hardens (see pp. 95-97). total aggregate may range from 60 to 75 percent and cement
These cracks are commonly called plastic shrinkage from 7 to 15 percent
cracks.
Water content in relation to the amount of cement in selects one of the five standard types of portland
the mk-Too much water causes concrete to be cement described later in this book. Although the
weaker and to shrink more, possibly causing more choice of cement is usuaiiy beyond the craftsman’s
cracks. control, it often affects work at the site because it
Type and fineness of cement-The specifier usually can influence workability, setting time, and finish-
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A C 1 CCS-3 94 m 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0538428 202 m
ability of the concrete. specifications. It can also delay the time at which finishing
4. Accelerating and retarding admixtures-These admix- can begin.
tures change the setting and hardening time of the Engineers and specifiers use a term called water-cement
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mix. When properly selected for a particular site and ratio to show how much water should go into the mix.*
weather conditions, they often make it easier for the Often the term is shortened to w/c. It is simply a fraction
workers to do a good job. or proportion arrived at by dividing the weight of water in
5 . Normal-setting aúmixtures-Other special purpose a batch of concrete by the weight of cement. A cubic yard
admixtures such as pumping aids, air entrainers, and of concrete containing 300 pounds of water and 611
superplasticizers can change concrete properties pounds of cement would have a water-cement ratio:
without changing the time of hardening.
300 lb water
It is not unusual to have some cracking and curling in w/c = = 0.49
a slab on grade. Cracking occurs when something re- 611 lb cement
strains the normal shrinkage of concrete. Slabs on grade
are restrained by structural elements and by friction from With the growing use of fly ash and other finely divided
the subgrade that supports them. To produce good slabs, mineral admixtures (see p. 17), the w/c may be presented
both the slab designers and the slab builders must choose as w/c+p or wlcm to indicate the amount of cement plus
methods to reduce concrete shrinkage and restraint to pozzolan or total amount of cementitious material. Then
shrinkage. Further discussion of this topic can be found the ratio is referred to as water-cementitious ratio.
on pp. 75 and 103. In properly made concrete, each aggregate particle is
completely coated with paste. Also all of the spaces be-
Adding water to concrete tween aggregate particles are filled with paste. So if the
Some workers prefer to make the concrete mix as wet aggregates are of satisfactory quality, the quality of the
as possible because this reduces the labor of placing (but concrete depends mostly on the quality of the paste. In
not necessarily the overall labor requirement). This is not
In the United States this w/c ratio is often given in gaiions per bag of cement.
a good idea, because adding water usually results in great- To change from the numerical ratio to g a i i o ~
per bag, multiply by 11.28. The ratio
er shrinkage and a lower strength that may not meet the 0.49 then becomes 0.49 x 11.28 = 5.5 U.S. gallons per bag.
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A C 1 CCS-3 74 m 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0538427 349 m
turn the quality of the paste depends on the weight of

water in the paste per pound of cement or cementitious 6000
material. For concrete mixes that are workable (can be
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placed with a reasonable amount of effort), those with low

water-cement ratios (small amount of water in the paste)
are stronger (Fig. 1.3) and more durable than those with 5000-
high water-cement ratios. .-m

Most concretes have water-cement ratios between about O
0.4 and 0.7 (4.5 to 8.0 U.S. gallons of water per 94-lb bag g\o, ,
of cement). This is more water than necessary for the c
a,
chemical reaction, because the water is needed to make LI
the concrete workable. A mix with a w/c of 0.28 would +
3000-
have enough water for the hydration reaction. Water- Q1
cement ratios lower than 0.4 are used in low-permeability .->

v)
v)
concrete and in very-high-strength concrete such as that in
columns of tall buildings or dewatered specialty floor
toppings. Water-cement ratios higher than 0.6 may be used
in concretes where strength, durability, watertightness, and
i
o
O
2000-
wear resistance are not important. I O O O ~

Avoiding the use of excess water will give you stronger,
more durable concrete. There are other reasons to resist
adding water. Concrete shrinks as it dries, and this can O -
lead to unsightly cracking. The more water used, the
greater the shrinkage. Poor or dirty aggregates and gap Water-cement ratio, by weight
grading also contribute to shrinkage. Fig. 1.3-Typical age-strength relationships for non-air-
Excess water in the concrete also increases bleeding, entrained concrete. Note higher strengths with lower water-
which is the appearance of water on the fresh concrete cement ratio
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A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0.518430 960
surface as cement grains and aggregate particles start to from cement mixtures.
settle. Increased bleed water may delay finishing or cause 2. Don’t let skin rub against cement products. Many
weakness at the surface of the concrete. cement products are abrasive. Rubbing increases the
chances of serious injury. Keep concrete out of cuffs
Handling concrete safely and boots.
Workers must consider their own safety and the safety 3. Wash skin promptly after contact with cement pro-
of others when handling concrete. Fresh portland cement ducts.
concrete is highly alkaline (caustic) and can irritate or 4. Keep cement and cement products out of eyes and
burn the skin and injure the eyes. Severe burns may result respiratory system. Concrete workers should wear
when the skin contacts fresh concrete for periods ranging safety glasses or tight-fitting goggles. If any cement
from 45 minutes to several hours. Usually that contact or cement mixtures get into the eye, flush immedi-
results from improper protection. Take these simple pre- ately and repeatedly with water and consult a physi-
cautions to avoid needless injury: cian promptly. Wear proper air filters for protection
1. Keep cement products off skin. Experienced con- against inhaling cement dust.
crete craftsmen protect their skin with petroleum 5. Keep products out of the reach of children. Keep
jelly, waterproof boots, gloves, clothing, and knee children away from cement powder and all freshly
pads. Skin injury may result from clothing that is wet mixed cement products.
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A C 1 CCS-1 7 4 m 0662949 0518431 ôT7 m
CHAPTER 2
CONCRETE MATERIALS AND MIX PROPORTIONING
Freshly mixed concrete is made of cement, water, and prestressed by tightening cables or tendons placed in the
aggregates such as sand and gravel. Frequently it also con- slab are called post-tensioned. However, most slabs on
tains one or more admixtures. The quality of these ingre- grade do not contain enough reinforcement to meet the
dients, their proportions, and the way they are mixed all standard engineering definition of reinforced concrete.
affect strength and other properties of the concrete. Typi-
cally a fresh concrete mix should be plastic or semi-fluid, Portland cements
and capable of being shaped like modeling clay in the Portland cements are hydraulic cements, which means
hand. they set and harden by reacting chemically with water, and
This chapter explains the mix proportioning process they are able to do so under water. During the reaction,
(also called mix design) and describes the principal in- which is called hydration, they give off heat as they form
gredients that make up the concrete mix: a stone-like mass that binds the aggregate particles to-
gether. Most of the concrete’s hydration and strength gain
O Cement take place in the first month (typically referred to as 28
0 Fine aggregate days). After that there may be slow gains in strength over
0 Coarse aggregate long periods, sometimes 50 years or more. In massive
0 Water structures such as dams and large piers, and in hot
0 Chemical admixtures weather, the heat that is generated can cause cracking and
0 Mineral admixtures strength loss at times. However, in most concrete work,
particularly in cold weather, the heat helps concrete to
Concrete slabs on grade may also contain reinforcing bars, harden and gain strength faster.
welded wire fabric (wire mesh), or fibers of steel, poly- To make portland cement, finely ground raw materials
propylene, and other materials. Slabs on grade that are such as limestone, clay, cement rock, and iron ore are
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A C 1 CCS-II 74 m 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0 5 3 8 4 3 2 733
blended by either a wet or dry process to produce a mix- 'Qpe III, high early strength cement - Similar to Type
ture with desired chemical composition. The raw mix is I, but more finely ground, so that it develops strength
heated in a kiln to 2600-3000 F. In the kiln it changes faster. Usually develops in a week or less the strength that
chemically into pellets of cement clinker. The clinker is Type I would give at 28 days. Generally generates heat
cooled and ground to the fineness of face powder with a faster, and more shrinkage can be expected because it re-
small amount of gypsum added to regulate the setting quires more water per cubic yard. Useful when forms need
time. The resulting cement is not a single chemical, but is to be removed early or a structure must be put into service
a complex mix of chemical compounds. quickly.
Type IV, low heat of hydration - Develops strength at
Types of portland cement (ASTM C 150) slower rate than other types and releases less heat as it
ASTM C 150 "Standard Specification for Portland hydrates. Type IV cement is no longer manufactured in
Cement" defines the principal types of portland cement the United States because mineral admixtures (described
used in the United States: on p. 17) offer a less expensive way to control temperature
Type I, normal cement - A general-purpose cement rise.
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used where the special properties of the other types are Type V, high sulfate resistance - Used only in con-
not required. It is widely used in slabs on grade, reinforced crete exposed to severe sulfate action, principally where
concrete buildings, bridges, and elsewhere that concrete is soils or groundwaters have a high sulfate content. Sulfate
not exposed to aggressive environments or to temperature attack can cause the concrete to crack and break up unless
rise due to heat of hydration. the concrete is made sulfate resistant.
Type II, moderate sulfate resistance - Has narrow ASTM C 150 also provides for three types of air-en-
limits on chemical composition. It is used in coastal or training cements - Types IA, XIA, and IIIA - which are
marine areas where moderate sulfate exposure must be like Types I, II, and III described above, except that they
resisted, or in drainage structures where sulfate in are manufactured with small amounts of air-entraining
groundwater is not unusually severe. Usually generates materials that improve the resistance of concrete to dam-
heat of hydration more slowly than Type I. Gains strength age caused by freezing and thawing as well as to deicing
more slowly than Types I and III, but eventually catches chemicals. Most concrete producers believe it is more ef-
up (about 56 days) when concrete is properly cured. fective to add air-entraining materials during the concrete
8
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 Ob62949 05LBY33 b 7 T
mixing process rather than to use these special cements. Blended cements - A different ASTM standard,
Thus there is limited demand for air-entraining cements. C 595, defines five classes of blended hydraulic cements
Type I portland cement is usually carried in stock and for both general and special applications. They are pro-
is supplied when the cement type is not specified. Type II duced by blending two or more fine materials from the
is also widely available, particularly in areas with saltwater following list:
exposure or moderate sulfate content in the soil. Together
Types I and II make up 90 percent of the cement shipped 0 Portland cement
from U.S. plants. 0 Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
0 Fly ash and other pozzolans
White and colored portland cement 0 Hydrated lime
White cement differs from regular cements chiefly in 0 Preblended combinations of the above materials
color. It is made to conform to ASTM C 150, usually Type
I or Type III. The gray or tan color of ordinary portland The cement types produced in this way are: portland blast-
cements depends mostly on the amount of iron in the furnace slag cement, Type IS; portland-pozzolan cement,
cement. White portland cement is made with selected raw Types IP and P; slag cement, Type S; pozzolan-modified
materials containing very little iron or manganese oxides portland cement, Type I(PM); and slag-modified portland
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- the substances that give the typical gray color. White cement, Type I(SM). Blended cements may be used in
portland cement is used primarily for architectural pur- construction when specific properties of other types of
poses in both precast and cast-in-place concrete. It is cements are not required. The concrete may not gain
necessary for white concrete, and gives brighter, more strength as fast as with the C 150 cements.
intense colors for colored concrete in which pigments are In 1992 ASTM issued C 1157, a performance-type spe-
added during the mixing, Colored cements are produced cification for blended cements that provides a new way to
by intergrinding pigments with white clinker. specify blended cements. It has not yet been adopted into
building codes or AC1 standards.
Special cements: blended, masonry, and expansive Masonry cements - Masonry cements are hydraulic
Only 6 percent of United States cement production cements manufactured to meet ASTM C 91 requirements,
goes into special hydraulic cements. Some of the more designed for use in mortar for masonry construction. They
important types of special cement will be briefly described. contain some kind of cement or hydraulic lime, usuaiiy in
9
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 m Ob62949 O538434 506
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Fig. 2.1-White portland cement is used principal& in architectural concrete, both precast and cast in place, as in the
San Diego Convention Center Iphoto courtesy M.K. Hurd)
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A C 1 CCS-IA 9 4 W 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0 5 1 8 4 3 5 4 4 2 W
combination with other materials such as hydrated lime, duced by crushing rock.
limestone, chalk, slag, or clay. There are three types - M, Coarse aggregate - If most of the particles are larger
N, and S - used with or without other cements to obtain than about i/4 in., the aggregate is called coarse aggregate.
workable, plastic masonry mortars. Masonry cements can It may be either gravel or crushed material. Gravel usually
be used for parging and plaster (stucco), but they should has smoothly rounded particles, while crushed stone has
not be used for making concrete. They develop much rough, angular surfaces. However, some gravel pieces may
lower strength than ordinary portland cement. be crushed to size from large pieces of gravel.
Expansive cements - These hydraulic cements expand Concrete that is made without coarse aggregate is usu-
instead of shrinking during early hydration after setting. ally called mortar or grout. Most concrete used in building
Manufactured to meet ASTM C 845, they are used most construction has a maximum aggregate size from % in. to
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commonly to produce shrinkage-compensating concrete 1%in. In massive structures like dams and mat founda-
(see pp. 112). When the expansion is properly restrained, tions large aggregate sizes of 6 in. or more are often used.
they are effective in making crack-free pavements and Natural gravel and sand usually are taken from a pit,
slabs as well as plugging leaks in concrete and masonry river, lake, or seabed. Aggregates from saltwater areas
walls. must be used with caution because of problems with sea-
shell and salt content. Crushed aggregate can be made
Aggregates from natural gravel, quarry rock, cobbles, or boulders. Air-
The sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, and similar cooled blast-furnace slag is also crushed to make both fine
materials which are mixed with cement and water to make and coarse aggregate. Recycled or waste concrete can also
concrete are called aggregates. These materials make up be crushed to make satisfactory aggregate. Whether the
60 to 75 percent of the absolute (solid) volume of concrete aggregate is crushed or natural, the mix of particle sizes is
and represent 70 to 80 percent of its weight. A cubic yard not always ideal for making concrete. The aggregate pro-
of normal weight concrete may contain 2600 to 3200 lb of ducer may pass aggregate over screens that sort out parti-
fine and coarse aggregates. cles of various sizes, then recombine them in proportions
Fine aggregate -If all of the particles are smaller than given in standard specifications.
% in., the aggregate is called fine aggregate. Fine aggre- The most common aggregates such as sand, gravei,
gates are either natural sand or manufactured sand pro- crushed stone, or crushed slag make concretes weighing
11
A C 1 CCS-L 94 m Obb2949 0538436 3 8 9 m
from 135 to 160 pounds per cubic foot when freshly mixed. bars or bundles, nor more than three-fourths of the space
Structural lightweight concrete weighing from about 90 to between reinforcement and the form. Select the largest
115 pounds per cubic foot is made with aggregates of ex- economical aggregate available that will meet these lim-
panded shale, fired clay, slate, or slag. itations, because larger aggregate helps to reduce cement
Normal weight aggregates should meet the require- and water content of the mix, thereby reducing potential
ments of ASTM C 33; lightweight aggregates should meet shrinkage.
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ASTM C 330. A number of tests can be made to deter-

mine if an aggregate can be used to make strong durable Aggregate grading
concrete. Some important aggregate properties that affect Aggregates are made up of particles of many different
the quality of the concrete are: sizes. To enable making concrete batches that are essen-
tially the same, the aggregate amount and distribution of
1. Maximum size particle sizes must be essentially the same. To measure the
2. Grading particle sizes, a dry sample of the aggregate is passed
3. Particle shape through a number of standardized sieves starting with the
4. Hardness largest openings and using smaller and smaller openings in
5. Organic impurities successive sieves. The grading can then be defined pre-
6. Silt and clay content cisely by the percentage of the total weight passing each
7. Amount of coarse and fine aggregate in the mix sieve. This is called a sieve analysis, and ASTM C 136 tells
8. Surface or absorbed moisture in the aggregate how to do it.
Standard sieves have square openings. When the open-
Maximum size of aggregate ings are % in. or larger, the sieve size is given as the
The largest aggregate that can be used depends on the opening size, such as Yi in. or % in. Sieves with openings
size and shape of the member to be made of the concrete, smaller than 94' in. are named in terms of the number of
and on the spacing and location of reinforhg steel in it. openings per lineal in. For example, a No. 8 sieve has 8
In slabs the largest pieces of aggregate must not be more openings per inch in both directions, or 8 x 8 = 64 open-
than one-third the slab thickness. If the slab is reinforced, ings per square in.
maximum aggregate size must not be more than three- There are several reasons why ASTh4 C 33 specifies
fourths of the smallest clear distance between reinforcing grading limits and maximum aggregate sizes. The amount
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A C 1 CCS-1 7 4 m 0662947 0 5 3 8 4 3 7 215 m
of cement and water needed for a workable mix depends -

Table 2.1 Preferred grading of fine aggregate for floor
on the aggregate size. For example, with 1-in. maximum concrete, from AC1 302.1R
size aggregate less cement and water are needed to pro-
I
duce concrete with a given strength than with %in. aggre- I Percent passing, by we it
gate. Workability, porosity, resistance to degradation from
freezing and thawing, pumpability, and other properties Sieve size Normal Heavy-
weight Lightweight duty
can also be affected by the grading and aggregate size. aggregate aggregate toppings
Variations in grading can also seriously affect the uni-
formity of concrete from one batch to the next. In general, % in. 100 i00 95
aggregates that do not have a large deficiency or excess of No. 4 95-100 85-100 95-100
aggregate passing each of the sieves will produce the best
results. These aggregates are said to have a smooth grad- No.8 80-90 - 65-80
ing curve. The specific grading selected is less critical than No. 16 50-75 40-80 45-65
the need to prevent variation from batch to batch.
No. 30 30-50 30-65 35-45
Although ASTM C 33 requirements for aggregate are
acceptable for floor slabs, AC1 302.1R "Guide for Con- No. 50 10-20 10-35 5-15
crete Floor and Slab Construction" gives a preferred
No. 100 2-5 5-20 0-5
grading of fine aggregate shown in Table 2.1. Use this
grading if it can be obtained economically.
will pass through a No. 200 sieve having 40,000 openings
Harmful materials in aggregate per square in.
Most specifications limit the amount of potentially In addition to the items in Table 2.2, organic impurities
harmful substances in aggregates. A primary concern is such as peat and humus may delay setting and hardening
that poor aggregates will harm the durability of concrete. of concrete and reduce its strength gain. Many impurities
Where there is more than 5 percent of a sand sample can cause popouts - the breaking away of small parts of a
passing the No. 200 sieve, more water may be needed as concrete surface due to localized internal pressure. Typi-
well. Table 2.2 shows some harmful materials and the cally they are caused by freezing of moisture in unsound
problems they may cause. Materials such as silt and clay aggregates or excessive expansion of aggregate due to
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
13
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 m 0662949 0518438 I151 m
Table 2.2 - Harmful substances in aggregates (from ASTM C 33)

Item Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate
Clay lumps and friable particles Unsound particles may affect durability and workability, cause popouts, increase water demand of mix
Coal and lignite Affect surface appearance; cause popouts and difficulty in air entrainment
Material finer than No. 200 sieve Affects bond of paste to aggregate and increases Can cause trouble when it exists as a coating on
the mix water demand coarse aggregate
Soft particles - Reduce durability and surface hardness
Lightweight chert (specific gravity less - Reduces durability; a main cause of popouts
than 2.40)
moisture gain. Popouts typically leave cone-shaped holes proposed water can verify the effect on concrete strength,
in the concrete surface (Figure 2.2). but possible adverse effects on other properties such as
shrinkage should be considered.
Mixing water Seawater containing up to 35,000 ppm (parts per mil-
Water quality is a concern because chemicals in it, even lion) of dissolved solids is not harmful to the strength of
in very small amounts, sometimes change the setting time plain (unrehforced) concrete, but it may cause rein-
of the mix or the long-term properties of the concrete. Ai- forcement to rust in reinforced concrete. Waters contain-
most any natural water that is drinkable can be used to ing appreciable amounts of oil, salt, algae, or sugar should
make concrete. Treated city water (tap water) from almost be checked before using in concrete. Mortar cubes made
all of the cities of 20,000 or more population in the Uni- with questionable water should have at least 90 percent of
ted States and Canada is also suitable for making con- the reference strength of specimens made with clean
crete. Some water that is not drinkable, including recycled water. Follow the ASTM C 191 test to assure that the
waters from mining and other industrial operations, may water does not affect the setting time of the cement to an
also be used, but tests should be made of such water be- unacceptable degree. Where specifications place severe
fore use. Mortar cube tests (ASTM C 109) made with the limitations on chloride content of concrete, it may be
14
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A C 1 CCS-1 94 I0662947 0518439 098
necessasr to consider the chloride content of mixing water

when selecting concrete proportions.
Admixtures
Any material deliberately added before or during the
mixing of concrete other than cement, water, aggregates
and fiber reinforcement is called an admixture. There are
many kinds of admixtures, including:-
1. Air-entraining admixtures
2. Accelerators
3. Retarders
4. Water reducers
5. High-range water reducers (superplasticizers)
6. Finely divided mineral admixtures (including pozzo-
lans)
7. Miscellaneous special purpose admixtures, such as
colors, corrosion inhibitors, pumping aids, latex
modifiers Fig. 2.2-A popout occurs when internal pressure causes a
small part of the concrete sugace to break away, usually
ASTM C 260 is the standard specification for air- leaving a cone-shaped hole. Popouts range in size from '/r in.
entraining admixtures. ASTM C 494 "Standard Specifica- or less in diameter to 2 in. or more, depending on aggregate
tion for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete" defines re- size (photo courtest Portland Cement Association)
quirements for accelerators, retarders, water reducers, and
high-range water reducers (superplasticizers). It also C 989. AC1 302.1R gives recommendations on the choice
provides for dual-function admixtures that combine water of admixtures for slabs on grade, and explains the pros
reduction with either acceleration or retardation of the and cons of using calcium chloride and chloride-containing
mix. Finely divided mineral admixtures such as fly ash and admixtures.
natural pozzolans are covered by ASTM C 141, C 618 and Air-entraining admixturns (ASTM C 260) create micro-
15
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-L 74 m 0662949 05Lô440 BOT m
scopic air bubbles in concrete. The bubbles are formed by common of these admixtures was calcium chloride. How-
the mixing action, and the air-entraining agents keep the ever, calcium chloride in concrete increases the potential
bubbles from breaking up. Don’t confuse entrained air for corrosion of reinforcing steel and some other metals.
with entrapped air which consists of ordinary, larger air When required by the specifications, non-chloride accel-
bubbles trapped in the concrete during mixing. The largest erators are available for use.
of the purposely entrained bubbles are 0.05 in. in dia- Retarders (ASTM C 494) slow down the initial setting of
meter; the smallest ones range down to 0.003 in., no larger the concrete. They are often used in warm weather to
than the width of a delicate hairline crack. These pur- keep the concrete from setting before it can be placed and
posely entrained air bubbles are uniformly distributed finished. Most retarders are also water reducers. They do
throughout the concrete, giving it greatly improved ability not reduce slump loss.
to withstand damage caused by freezing and thawing. Water reducers (ASTMC 494), as the name suggests, re-
If the hardened concrete is wet and then freezes, mois- duce the amount of water needed to produce a cubic yard
ture in the concrete expands as it turns into ice. As the of concrete of a given slump. If they are put into a mix
moisture expands, it is forced to move through the pores without reducing the amount of water, water reducers will
in the cement paste. If the moisture must move very far
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
act to increase the slump of the concrete. Slump, discussed

(actually more than about 0.004 in.) pressures high enough further on p. 21, is a measure of concrete’s stiffness or
to crack the concrete can develop. The entrained air consistency. Some water reducers contain calcium chloride.
bubbles act as empty chambers into which the expanding High-range water reducers (ASTMC 494 and C 1O1 7) are
water can flow, thus relieving the otherwise disruptive commonly called superplasticizers. They reduce the water
pressure. Air entrainment also makes concrete more work- requirement for concrete dramatically. They can be used
able for a given water content and helps reduce bleeding to temporarily increase the slump or flowability of normal
and segregation. Entrained air is necessary for all concrete or stiff concrete to make it more flowable and easier to
that will be subject to freezing when moist, or that will place with little vibration. They can also be used to reduce
have deicing salts applied. the water needed while improving workability of concretes
Accelerating admixtures (ASTM C 494) speed up the that are consolidated by vibration. The action of some
setting and hardening of concrete. They are especially superplasticizers lasts only about 30 to 60 minutes at
useful in cold weather because concrete hardens slowly at normal temperatures; then the concrete stiffens very rapid-
temperatures below about 50 F. In the past, the most ly. For this reason, they are often added to the concrete at
16
A C 1 CCS-L 94 I0662949 0518441 746 I
the job site. M e n d e d life superplasticizers are available finer than many portland cement particles. Some fly ash
for addition at the batch plant. Remember, however, that has both pozzolanic and cementitious properties.
use of a superplasticizer does not necessarily reduce Condensed silica fume, sometimes called microsilica,
shrinkage. has gained attention recently as a pozzolan with particles
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Finely divided mineral admktures are used in relatively only one hundredth the size of fly ash particles. Silica
large amounts, generally replacing 10 to 50 percent of the fume is a by-product of induction arc furnaces in the
portland cement. They are powdered or pulverized sili- silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloy industries.
ceous materials added before or during mixing to improve Pozzolans, as admixtures or replacement for part of the
or change the properties of concrete. They are generally portland cement, improve the workability of fresh concrete
natural or by-product materials such as: and reduce thermal cracking in massive structures because
Hydraulic hydrated lime (ASTM C 141) they reduce the heat of hydration. By reducing the per-
Ground granulated blast-furnace slags (ASTM C 989) meability of concrete, they also improve its durability. In
Fly ash and natural pozzolans (ASTM C 618) the amounts normally used, most pozzolans cause a reduc-
tion of early strengths up to 28 days, but improve the long-
Some mineral admixtures such as the lime and ground slag term strength. Because pozzolans react slowly, longer
have cement-like properties - that is, they can set and curing and protection of the floor surface from abrasion
harden in the presence of water. The pozzolans by defini- are recommended for slabs containing pozzolans.
tion are materials that have little cementitious action when
used alone, but when used with portland cement they re- Mix proportioning (mix design)
act with products of cement hydration to develop addition- Concrete mixes are usually proportioned (designed) by
al cementing action. However, some of the finely divided laboratories that specialize in concrete testing and design.
minerals have both cementitious and pozzolanic proper- Standard guidelines for proportioning are given in AC1
ties. 211.1.
Today the most commonly used pozzolan is fly ash, a The mix designer selects the ideal amount of cement,
finely divided residue that results from burning ground or water, aggregates, and admixtures needed to produce a
powdered coal; it is usually the by-product of coal-burning cubic yard of concrete, based on a combination of exper-
power plants. Fly ash particles are spheres with typical ience and trial batches. The designer tries to meet four
diameter less than 20 millionths of an inch, somewhat objectives:
17
A C 1 CCS-3 9 4 I0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0 5 3 8 4 4 2 682 m
1. The hardened concrete will have the strength, wear thawing, erosion, corrosion, and chemical attack. For
resistance, and durability called for by the job inside floors it may also mean a surface that does not dust
specifications. or scale. Air-entrained concrete is able to withstand
2. The fresh concrete will be workable enough for the freezing and thawing much better than non-air-entrained
job. concrete. Air entrainment should be used for all concrete
3. The mix will be economical. that might be exposed to freezing. Dusting and some types
4. Shrinkage will be minimized. of thin surface scaling are caused by improper finishing
and curing, and changing mix proportions will not solve
Strength depends largely on water-cement (or water- the problem.
cementitious) ratio. For any given set of materials, there Workability of concrete is the ease with which concrete
is a certain water-cement ratio for each strength level that can be placed, consolidated, and finished without causing
can be produced. This ratio can be estimated from tests of harmful segregation. It is difficult to measure workability,
concretes made with different water-cement ratios. In- but craftsmen who work with concrete can judge if one
creasing the amount of water without increasing the mix is more workable than another. Designing a concrete
amount of cement generally results in lower strength. mix is an art as well as a science. It is worth noting that
Wear resistance depends on concrete strength or water- concretes with water-cementitious material ratio of 0.5 and
cement ratio at the concrete surface, and on the hardness slumps up to 5 in. have been routinely used for slabs with
of the aggregates. Since wear resistance is also affected by good results, when good construction/curing practices are
finishing and curing, the mix should be proportioned to followed.
take into account the type of finishing and curing ex- To produce concrete that is economical (but stiii has
pected. If the floor will be used for severe traffic, hard the required strength, wear resistance, durability, and
aggregates and high strength will be needed. Oversanded workability) use the least amount of cement that will give
mixes, that is, mixes with more fine aggregate than the required water-cement ratio and the most coarse ag-
needed, are likely to produce floors with poor wear resis- gregate that can be used and still have a workable and fin-
tance and excessive shrinkage. Thus, oversanded mixes ishable mix.
should be avoided. Low shrinkage is important in concrete slabs because it
Durability usually means resistance to freezing and helps reduce cracking and curling of the slab. To minimize
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
18
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 W 0662749 0518LI43 519
slab shrinkage, be sure the aggregate has low shrinkage, After appropriate testing, the laboratory designing the
and use as much coarse aggregate as possible, of the lar- mix could also report the following properties:
gest economical size, without sacrificing necessary worka- Properties Range of results
bility. Reduce total water in the mix, not just the water-
cement ratio. Use admixtures that have been verified by Slump 3 to 5 in.
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
test to produce low-shrinkage concrete. Don't forget, how- Unit weight 142 to 145 Ib per CU ft
ever, that shrinkage causes cracks only when there is some Air content 4 to 6.5 percent
form of restraint to the shrinkage, such as from the foun- Strength at (n) days 3600 to 4100 psi
dation or another part of the structure. Temperature 55 to 70 F
The mix designer is frequently governed by specifica-
tions for slump, air content, and strength as well as the The amounts shown in the mix design are not neces-
broader objectives discussed above. A limit on the water- sarily the same as the amounts used in batching the con-
cement ratio and weight of the concrete may also be speci- crete. For example, the 270 lb of water shown includes
fied. moisture on the aggregates as well as added water. Sand
After developing a mix that will meet all of the specifi- is usually damp and the moisture on the sand particles
cations, the proportions can be described as shown in the becomes part of the mix water. If the free moisture con-
following example: tent of the sand is 5 percent, then sand that would weigh
1215 lb when dry will contain 61 lb of water. So the weight
Makrial Quantity per CU yd of damp sand that should be batched is:
Cement, 'Qpe I (brand name) 565 Ib +
1215 61 = 1276 lb per CU yd
Water 210 Ib The amount of water to be added is:
Fine aggregate (source), dry weight 1215 lb 270 - 61 = 209 lb
Coarse aggregate
Thus it is easy to see that unless the aggregate moisture
(maximum size & source) 1790 lb
content is known accurately, the amount of water in the
Air-entraining agent
mix is likely to be incorrect. With the wrong water con-
(brand name) 13 oz
tent, the slump is likely to be incorrect.
19
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 Obb2947 0538444 455 W
CHAPTER 3
CONCRETE CONTROL TESTS
Concrete control tests are generally performed by in- more than one revision in the given year, 1990. Test
spection personnel but concrete craftsmen should be fam- methods are revised from time to time and each year
iliar with these tests and understand what the results ASTM publishes a complete set of books of standards (68
mean. books in 1992). Those for concrete and aggregates appear
Some tests are done to determine whether the concrete in Volume 04.02 of the Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
meets the job specifications. They are called "acceptance" The American Concrete Institute also has a publication of
tests because if the concrete fails to meet the specifi- concrete-related A S W specifications along with appro-
cations it can be rejected. Because such tests determine priate AC1 standards (SP-71). To find the complete title
whether concrete should be accepted or rejected, they of ASTM standards cited in this chapter, refer to the list
must be performed precisely as specified in the test in the Appendix, p. 120. The following descriptions explain
standards. For example, the standard method for per- the test methods, but anyone who must do the testing
forming a slump test requires the use of a special steel should get full details from the referenced standards.
tamping rod. If a piece of rebar or a wooden rod is used
instead, the results of the test are not valid for accepting Sampling fresh concrete (ASTM C 172)
or rejecting the concrete. Concrete used for control tests should be representative
Most of the control tests for concrete have been stan- of the entire batch. For ready-mixed concrete and concrete
dardized by the American Society for Testing and Mater- from stationary mixers, two or more samples are taken
ials (ASTM). Such tests are identified by a title and a from the middle of the batch, with no more than 15 min-
number; for example "Standard Test Method for Slump of utes time between taking the first and the last. The size of
Hydraulic Cement Concrete," ASTM C 143-90a. The last the sample should be at least 1 CU ft if strength test spe-
two digits, 90 in this example, mean that the standard was cimens are to be made. The individual samples are com-
issued or revised in 1990. The final letter (a) indicates bined and remixed with a shovel. Tests for slump and air
20
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-L 74 I0662749 0 5 L ô 4 4 5 371
content should be started within 5 minutes of obtaining tamping rod. For the bottom layer, the rod should pent
the last portion of the sample. Molding specimens for trate to the bottom of the layer. The tamping rod should
strength tests should begin within 15 minutes of mixing the penetrate through each new layer and roughly 1 in. into
composite sample. If concrete is pumped, additional the previous layer. After the three layers have been
checking at the point of deposit may be needed because rodded, strike off and smooth the concrete at the top, and
pumping can change the concrete slump. clean away excess concrete around the base of the cone.
Then slowly lift the slump cone vertically without shaking
Slump test (ASTM C 143) or twisting it. It should take about 5 seconds to raise the
A slump test is used to measure the consistency or cone 12 in. Immediately place the cone upside down next
stiffness of concrete. In concrete mixes, changes in slump to the slumped concrete, and measure the vertical distance
most often reflect changes in the amount of water in the (to the nearest ?4in.) between the top of the cone and the
mix, or changes in temperature, hydration, and setting. center of the displaced top surface. If the concrete de-
Thus the slump test can be used to monitor the amount of cidedly falls away to one side, disregard the test and make
water in the mix. a new test, If the concrete in the new test also decidedly
The essential equipment consists of a flat (horizontal), falls to one side, then the concrete is probably not co-
nonabsorbent, rigid surface; a standard slump cone; a stan- hesive enough to have a meaningful slump.
dard tamping rod; a scoop; and a ruler. A slump cone is A change in slump generally means a change in the
made of sheet metal and is 12 in. high with a 4 in. dia- amount of water in the mix but it may also mean other
meter opening at the top and 8 in. diameter opening at changes such as air content, aggregate gradation, sand
the bottom. The tamping rod is a straight steel rod of K content, temperature, hydration rate, or setting time.
in. diameter and 24 in. long with the tamping end rounded The result of a single slump test should not be made
to a hemispherical tip. The scoop can be of any convenient the basis for rejection of concrete since the test itself is
size. subject to considerable variation, particularly if the testing
To perform a slump test, dampen the inside of the cone technicians are not adequately trained. For example, the
and place it on the dampened testing surface. Fill the cone slump may be too much if the base is subjected to jarring,
with concrete in three layers of approximately equal vol- or too little if the base is rough or dry. If the required
ume (Fig. 3.1), rodding each layer 25 times with the slump is stated as a single number, say 5 in., a tolerance
21 --`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AC1 CCS-L 9 4 = O662949 0538446 228 =
tll
25X
I (3) tll
2iX
I
.C?.’C:
.. . ..
Fig. 3.1-Measuring the slump of fresh concrete. The cone is filled with concrete in three layers of equal volume (Steps 1, 2,
and 3). Each layer is rodded 25 times with a steel tamping rod. Afrer the top surface is smoothed (Step 4), the slump cone is
slowly 1;fied verticalty (Step 5) and turned upside down. The slump is measured (6) as the distance that the center of the top
surface has settled (drawings courteiy Master Buildem, Inc.)
22
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 W 0662947 0 5 1 8 4 4 7 164
of 2 1 in. is normally considered acceptable; that is, the in low strength. For steel troweled concrete, there are
slump could be from 4 to 6 in. Frequently specifications potentially serious finishing problems such as blistering
give the maximum permitted such as: "the slump shall not when concrete contains too much entrained air. Therefore,
exceed n inches." In this case a lower slump (up to 2%in. air content of concrete designed to be non-air-entrained
less) may be acceptable, but slumps greater than the value should also be checked at the beginning of each placement
given are not permitted. AC1 117, "Standard Tolerances and occasionally thereafter. ASTM has two standard
for Concrete Construction and Materials," gives more methods for checking air content:
details on these and other tolerances for concrete.
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
It is essential to consider the slump at the point of 0 Pressure method (C 231)

placement. To deal with unavoidable slump loss, a small O Volumetric method (C 173)
predetermined amount of water may be held back at the
ready mix plant to be used for a single on-site adjustment The pressure method is useful for checking air in most
of the mix. In such a case, make all tests after the types of concrete, but it can give misleading results for
adjustment. some lightweight concretes and for other concretes which
contain porous aggregates. For these, the volumetric
Air content tests method should be used.
Air-entrained concrete contains many extremely small Both the pressure method and the volumetric method
air bubbles. These bubbles are so small that there are are somewhat complicated and time consuming. Often a
millions of them in a cubic inch of air-entrained concrete precise measurement of air content is not needed and an
that contains 4 to 6 percent air. These a u bubbles act as estimate can be useful. In such cases, either a unit weight
frictionless ball bearings in fresh concrete, thereby test or an air indicator test can be made.
improving the workability of the concrete. More impor- Changes in air content for a specific mix may result
tant, these air bubbles improve the concrete's resistance to from variation in mix components such as the amount and
damage from freezing and thawing cycles. type of air-entraining admixture, sand, or cement.
Air content of freshly mixed air-entrained concrete
should be checked regularly because too little air will not Air content by the pressure method (ASTM C 231)
provide freeze-thaw resistance and too much air will result A pressure meter (Fig. 3.2) works on the principle that
23
A C 1 CCS-II 9 4 W 0662949 O538448 O T O =
a change in air pressure results in a change in the volume
of concrete. The change in volume is assumed to be
caused by compression of air voids in the fresh concrete.
The pressure method works best with concretes having
dense aggregates, while the volumetric method described
below should be used with lightweight aggregates. ASTM
C 231 gives detailed instructions for placing concrete in
the bowl of the meter and consolidating by rodding or
vibration. Concrete is then carefully struck off and
smoothed level with the top of the bowl before the cover
assembly is clamped on.
C 231 defines two types of meters, A and B. Placing
and consolidating the concrete are the same for Types A
and B, but the test procedures differ. With the Type A
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
meter, water is added to fill the cover assembly up to a
certain level. A cap then seals the assembly and air is
pumped into the air space above the water until a certain
pressure is reached. The water level goes down according
to the air content of the concrete. In the Type B meter,
air is pumped into an air chamber and the initial pressure
is stabilized. A valve between the air chamber and bowl is
Fig 3.2-Type B pressure meter for measuring the air con- then opened and the drop in pressure indicates the air
tent of concrete. Aper pressure is stabilized in the air content of the concrete.
chamber (upper small cylinder), a valve between the chamber
und the bottom container (bowl) is opened. The drop in pres- Air content by the volumetric method (ASTM C 173)
sure indicates the air content of the concrete (photo courtesy This volumetric method requires removal of air from a
Portland Cement Association) known volume of concrete by agitating the concrete in an
24
A C 1 CCS-L 74 I0662747 0 5 1 8 4 4 9 T 3 ï
excess of water. Commonly referred to as the roll-a-meter

test, it works for all concretes, but it is used mostly for
lightweight aggregate concrete. The air meter (Fig. 3.3)
consists of a bowl and a top section. The bowl is filled
with concrete in three layers and each layer is rodded 25
times as detailed in ASTM C 173. After the top layer is
struck off and smoothed, the top section of the meter is
clamped on. Vie top section is then carefully filled with
water to the zero mark and the top cap is screwed on. The
air meter is then rolled and agitated until all of the air has
been removed from the concrete, You sometimes get an
erroneous reading if the meter has not been rolled long
enough to remove all of the air. The drop in the water
level shows the air content. In order to read the drop in
water level, a defoaming agent is usually added.
Air content estimated with an air indicator (AASHTO

T 199)* Fig. 3.3-Using a volumetric air meter. After the bowl is
An air indicator, Fig. 3.4, is a pocket size device. The filled with fleshly mixed concrete, the top assembly is
rubber stopper contains a brass cup. To check the air con- clamped on and filled with water to a zero mark on the
tent, fill the cup with a representative sample of mortar water column. The meter is then rolled and agitated until the
(no aggregate particles larger than in.) from the con- air bubbles are removed fiom the concrete. The amount that
crete and insert the stopper and cup into the glass tube. the water column goes down is a measure of the air content
Fill the tube up to the zero mark with alcohol and then
with your thumb over the open end of the tube shake the the tube to remove the air from the mortar (paste). Read
* A standard of the American Asociation of State Highway and Transportation
the drop in the alcohol level and use a chart to estimate
Officials. the air content. This test should not be used to reject a
25 --`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0662949 05LBLi50 759 =
( a ) Fill the open-top
cup with mortar from
the concrete. Be
careful to avoid any
pieces of gravel or
rock.
( d ) Shake the tube
(thumb over the open
end) until the mortar
is mixed with the
alcohol.
( b ) Insert the stopper

which containsthecup
inio the glass tube.
( e ) The drop in
alcohol level is o
measure of the air
content.
( c ) Fill the glass tube

with alcohol to the zero
mark.
Fig. 3.4-Air content of fresh concrete can be estimated with an air indicator test
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 26
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 = 0662949 0518451 695 m
load of concrete, but it is simple to run and generally gives

an idea of the air content.
Unit weight and yield (ASTM C 138)

Yield is the volume of freshly mixed concrete produced
from a mixture of known quantities of the component
materials. Yield computations can be used to compute
actual cement content, or to check the batch-count volume
against the observed volume in place. If the total quantity
of mixing water is obtained, the water-cement ratio can be
verified. ASTM C 138 uses the unit weight method for
determining yield.
This unit weight test is simple but requires an accurate
scale and a sturdy unit weight container (Fig. 3.5). To
perform the test, fill the container and consolidate the
concrete according to detailed instructions of ASTM
C 138. Either rodding or internal vibration is used,
depending on the concrete slump and size of the con-
tainer. After consolidation, strike off the top surface, . _
smoothing it carefully with the strike-off plate, and wipe
the sides of the container clean. Then weigh the full
container to the nearest lb. Subtracting the weight of Fig. 3.5-To defermine the und weight ofconcrete, weigh U
the empty container gives the net weight of the concrete. level-fill container of concrete, subtract the weight of the
Divide the net weight of the concrete by the volume of the empty container, and divide by the volume ofthe container
container to get the unit weight of the concrete. ASTM
C 138 permits internal vibration to consolidate the con- slump is 3 h.or less.
Crete if the container is larger than 0.4 CU ft and the
EXAMPLE: Suppose that a unit weight container
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
27
A C 1 CCS-1 94 I0662949 0 5 1 8 4 5 2 5 2 1
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 3.6-A dial íype metal thermometer (lef) can be used to get the temperature of fi-esh concrete. Sensor shouid be inserted
deep enough to be surrounded on ail sides by at least 3 in. of concrete. where a large number of temperature readings or
repeated readings are needed, a recording thermometer (right) can be used. Multiple sensors at the ends of the cables can be
embedded in concrete as much as 1000 feet away (right photo courtesy James Instruments, Inc.)
having a volume of 0.25 CU ft and weighing 8.3 Ib is Weight, container and concrete = 44.7 ib
filled with concrete as described above. Suppose that Weight, container = 8.3 Ib
the weight of the filled container is 44.7 Ib. The unit Weight, concrete = 44.7 - 8.3
weight of the concrete can be calculated as follows: = 36.4 Ib
28
A C 1 CCS-3 9 4 0662949 0 5 3 8 4 5 3 468 =
Volume of container = 0.25 CU ft meter accurate to plus or minus 1 deg F. Insert it into a
Unit weight of concrete = 36.4 lb + 0.25 CU ft representative sample of concrete. An average of two or
= 145.6 lb per CU ft more readings is suggested.
Dial type metal thermometers (Fig. 3.6) with ranges
Changes in unit weight usually indicate changes in air between O and 180 F are generally used for concrete, al-
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
content but may reflect changes in materials or mix pro- though ASTM C 1064 permits some thermometers with a
portions. range of O to 120 F.
When the total weight of materials in a batch is known,
the yield of the batch can be calculated by dividing the Making test cylinders (ASTM C 31)
total weight by the unit weight of the concrete. For Specifications usually require compressive strength
example, if the total weight of cement, aggregates, water, results of at least two cylinder breaks to be averaged and
and admixture in a batch is 31,450 lb and if the concrete re-ported as one "test," to give a better indication of the
unit weight is 145.6 lb per CU ft: strength. So if tests are to be made at 3 days, 7 days, and
28 days, at least 6 cylinders must be made. In addition,
Yield = 31,450 lb + 145.6 lb per CU ft = 216.0 CU ft one or more hold cylinders may be called for as backups to
be used in case the %day cylinders are damaged or do
Divide 216.0 CU ft by 27 CU ft per CU yd: not come up to strength.
Nearly all concrete test cylinders made in the United
216.0 + 27 = 8.00 CU yd States are 6 in. in diameter and 12 in. high (called 6x12
cylinders) but other sizes such as 4x8 in. and 3x6 in.
The batch yield is 8 CU yd. sometimes are used with adjustments of the test results
made to equate to the 6x12 cylinder strengths.
Temperature (ASTM C 1064) There are several kinds of cylinder molds including
Temperature is a very important factor in concrete heavy steel molds, sheet metal molds (tin can molds),
work. ASTM C 1064 provides a standard method of mea- plastic molds, and waxed cardboard molds. The tin can,
suring the temperature of concrete. To get accurate results cardboard, and some plastic molds can be used only once.
use a calibrated metal-shielded or liquid-in-glass thermo- The heavy steel mold and some sheet metal and plastic
29
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 I0662947 0 5 3 8 4 5 4 3 T 4 I
molds are reusable, so they must be cleaned and oiled

after each use.
After obtaining a representative sample of concrete
(ASTM C 172) as explained on p. 20, the procedure is as
follows:
1. Place the cylinder molds (cleaned and oiled if re-

quired) on a solid level base such as a concrete slab,
2. For slumps greater than 3 in.: Fill each mold in three
equal layers. Use a standard tamping rod and rod
each layer 25 times (Fig. 3.7). The rod should pene-
trate ali the way through each layer and into the
previous layer about 1 in. Tap the sides of the mold
lightly to close any voids left by rodding.
3 . For slumps less than 1 in.: Fill the mold in two equal
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
layers. Use an internal vibrator with a diameter of %

in. to 1%in., and insert the vibrator into the con-
crete at three locations. Leave the vibrator in the
concrete long enough each time to allow entrapped
air to escape, then raise the vibrator slowly, and tap
c/ --
the sides of the mold lightly.
4. For slumps between 1 and 3 in.: Fill the mold and
compact either by rodding or vibrating, as in step (2)
or (3).
Fig. 3.7-Concrete test cylinder molds are filled with fiesh 5. Strike off and smooth the surface. Cover the top
concrete in three equal layers, and each layer is rodded 25 surface of the cylinders with a plate or sheet of im-
times with a tamping rod. Each cylinder should be labeled pervious plastic.
and covered with a plate or sheet of impervious plastic
30
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 = 0bb2949 0 5 1 8 4 5 5 230 m
6. Mark each cylinder so that it can be matched with

the concrete in a particular part of the project. Also
record the time and date.
Curing and protecting test cylinders

Cylinders are made and tested for two reasons:
1. To determine if the concrete meets the specified

compressive strength (design) requirements.
2. To determine if concrete, in place, has the strength
needed to remove the forms or to put the concrete
into service.
Cylinders made for design strength check should be

stored in a moist environment where the temperature is 60
to 80 deg F for up to 48 hrs. ASTM C 31 suggests several
ways to maintain this satisfactory moisture and temper-
ature. Fig. 3.8-A 6 x 12-in. concrete cylinder being tested in com-
If specimens are not to be transported to the lab within pression. Loud must be applied at a unifolm rate until the
48 hrs, remove the cylinders from their molds within 16 to cylinder fails (photo courtesy Portland Cement Association)
32 hrs and keep them moist at 70 to 76 F until the time of
test. If the cylinders are to be sent to a laboratory for very important for accurate test results. During trans-
standard curing before 48 hrs, be sure that they remain in portation, ASTM C 31 says to protect them from freezing
the molds and are kept moist until they reach the lab. and moisture loss, and to cushion them to prevent jarring.
When they reach the lab, they are demolded and placed Wrapping the specimens in plastic or surrounding them
in standard curing until the time of test. with wet sand or wet sawdust is suggested. Travel time
Care in handling, shipment and storage of cylinders is should not exceed 4 hrs. Discard any cylinders that are
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
31
A C 1 CCS-1 94 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0 5 3 8 4 5 6 177 H
prematurely moved, accidentally dropped or kicked, or left monly referred to as fc’, and a 28-day strength test is
in the field too long at the wrong temperature. always used unless definitely specified otherwise. This
Cylinders made for construction site control (the means that cylinders made, cured, and transported in ac-
second reason) should be kept at the jobsite temperature cordance with ASTM C 31 and tested in a standard man-
and given the same curing as the concrete they represent. ner (ASTM C 39) must average at least as strong as the
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Specimens made to determine when a structure can be put specified strength.

into service should be removed from the molds at the time At the age specified for test the cylinders are placed in
of removal of the formwork. They are tested in the mois- a calibrated hydraulic testing machine which applies load
ture condition resulting from the jobsite storage. The same at a uniform rate to the flat ends. The load is increased
careful handling and transportation for testing are impor- until the cylinder fails under load. If you divide the
tant for these cylinders too. maximum load by the area of the flat surface, you get the
strength of the concrete. For example if the cylinder is 6
Testing the cylinders (ASTM C 39) in. in diameter and 12 in. high, and the maximum load is
Compression tests of concrete cylinders are done in 90,000 Ib, the strength is:
accordance with ASTM C 39. The ends of the test cylin-
ders should be ground or capped in accordance with the maximum load
requirements of ASTM C 617. The end of the cylinder strength =
must be a smooth, plane surface to assure even loading loaded area
and accurate test results. Various commercially available
materials can be used to cap compressive test specimens. The loaded area for a 6 in. diameter circle is 28.3 sq
Remember that building codes generally define a strength in.,so:
test as the average result from breaking two cylinders
made from the same sample and tested at the same desig- 90,000 Ib
nated age. strength =
Most job specifications require that concrete reach at 28.3 sq in.
least 3000 psi, 4000 psi, or some other minimum strength
at 28 days. This specified compressive strength is com- = 3180 lb per sq in.
32
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0 6 6 2 9 4 7 0.518457 003
Rebound hammer test (ASTM C 805)

Nondestructive and in-place test methods are valuable
aids in overall quality assurance. However they cannot be
used to evaluate strength until laboratory studies develop
correlations with traditional strength test results on
concretes made with the same materials and mix propor-
tions. Without such correlations, however, the nondestruc-
tive tests can serve to evaluate relative strengths of
hardened concretes.
One widely used in-place test is done with a rebound
hammer (Fig. 3.9), frequently referred to as a Schmidt
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
hammer. It consists of a spring-controlled hammer that
slides on a plunger. When the plunger is pressed against
a concrete surface, the hammer retracts against the force
of the spring. When the hammer is completely retracted,
the spring is automatically released (Fig. 3.10~). The
hammer impacts the shoulder area of the plunger, and the Fig. 3.9-An impact rebound hammer gives an indication of
spring-controlled mass rebounds (Fig. 3.10d). The rebound the concrete hardness. The device is useficl for finding areas
distance is measured on a scale attached to the instru- of poor quality (photo courtesy Portland Cement Associa-
ment. This distance is called the "rebound number." tion)
The results of a Schmidt rebound hammer test (ASTM
C 805) are affected by surface smoothness, size, shape, useful for determining the relative compressive strength
and rigidity of the specimen; age and moisture condition and uniformity of concrete in the structure.
of the concrete; type of coarse aggregate; and carbonation Even though the rebound numbers are not a precise in-
of the concrete surface. When these limitations are rec- dication of the concrete strength, higher numbers mean
ognized and the hammer is calibrated for the particular greater strength when comparing concretes made of the
materials used in the concrete, this instrument can then be same materials and cast at about the same time.
33
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 m 0bb2949 0518458 T4T m
Use of the impact rebound hammer seems simple but
it is easy to get misleading readings. The test procedure is
to press the plunger against the concrete surface until the
hammer impacts, press the button to lock the plunger, and
read the scale. The operator must take the following pre-
cautions:
1. The concrete surface must be dry and smooth. If the

surface is rough, use an abrasive stone or a grinder
to make the surface smooth.
2. The plunger must be at right angles to the surface.
3. Ten readings should be taken and recorded. No two
..-,
',.'- ......._ .... .., ... -...-
- .
I .. - ..,..,
.I.,.
,
test points should be closer together than 1 in.
4. Average the 10 readings. Discard any readings that
differ from the average by more than 7. Then aver-
age the remaining readings. If more than two read-
Fig. 3.I O-Schematic illustration shows how the impact re- ings differ by more than ? from the average, disre-
bound hammer works. Note that the hammer itserf is inside gard all 10 readings and repeat the procedure.
the body of the instrument. Surface or near-surjirce condition
of the concrete, such as a hard aggregate particle (u}, or
rough surface (c), can influence the reading cfrom ACI
228.IR)
34
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 S 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0 5 3 8 4 5 9 9 8 b
CHAPTER 4
PLACING AND FINISHING TOOLS
Concrete craftsmen use many different tools. Most of

these tools are used only for concrete construction. Each
tool has a specific purpose and it should not be used to do
tasks for which it was not designed. The following list does
not include all of the tools used in concrete construction.
Only tools that affect the quality of slabs on grade are dis-
cussed. These are the tools needed to spread and consoli-
date the concrete, to level it, to finish the surface to the
desired smoothness, and to create joints and finished
edges.
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Spreading tools
For hand spreading, use short-handled, square-ended
shovels or come-alongs (Fig. 4.1). The corne-along is a
hoe-like tool, with a blade about 4 in. high and 20 in. long,
curved from top to bottom.
Do not use long-handled or round-end shovels or rakes.
A rounded shovel does a poor job of leveling the concrete, Fig. 4.1-Re come-along or spreader has a long handle and
and a long-handled shovel will not move concrete well. Do a blade about 4 in. wide and 20 in. long. It is wide enough
not use rakes in any concrete containing coarse aggregate to minimùe segregation of aggregates porn the paste when
because they usually cause segregation. concrete is moved (photo courtey Goldblatt - Division of
For more uniform coverage, use mechanical spreaders Stanley Tools - Division of The Stanley W o r b )
35
A C 1 CCS-II 9 4 = 0662949 05LBYbO b T ô
A bin or hopper to hold the material

0 A vibrator or motorized auger to aid in distribution
0 A supporting frame that permits the hopper to move
smoothly over the concrete surface
I Spread by hand in areas where a mechanical spreader can-

not be used. Be careful to provide as uniform coverage as
possible.
Consolidating or vibrating tools

A mass of freshly placed concrete is usualiy honey-
combed with entrapped air. If allowed to harden in this
condition, the concrete will be nonuniform, weak, and
porous. Consolidation or compaction by removal of the
entrapped air is necessary if the concrete is to have the
properties normally expected and desired for concrete
slabs. Although spading and tamping by hand can remove
Fig. 4.2-Internal vibrators, ofien called spud or poker vibra- some of the air voids, mechanical compaction is used on
tors, may be used in thicker slabs or slabs with structural larger jobs.
reinforcement. The vibrating head is immersed in and acts Internal vibrators of high frequency and low amplitude
directly against the concrete. Surrounding concrete cools the are sometimes used to consolidate or compact concrete in
vibrator head and prevents overheating. The operator carries slabs on grade if the slab is thick enough to permit full
this one as a backpack cfrom ACI 309R) immersion of the vibrator head. Surface vibrators have a
portable horizontal platform that supports a vibrating
to distribute embedded hardeners (dry shakes), pigment, element. Surface vibration is commonly used in slab-on-
or special aggregates during concrete finishing. These grade strip placements with edge forms. Sometimes the
spreaders usualiy consist of two methods are used together. Some vibrators are pow-
36 --`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 I0bb2949 0518461 5 3 4
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 4.3-A vibrating power screed levels and compacts slab- Fig. 4.4-Double beam vibrating screed suitable for small
on-grade concrete. This one is powered to move forward as jobs @om ACI 309R)
the crew works. Smaller vibrating screeds may be hand drawn
(photo courtesy Morrison Division Amìda Industries)
ered pneumatically (air vibrators), some are electrically dition to providing consolidation. They consist of hand
operated, and others are powered by gasoline or diesel drawn or power drawn single beam, double beam, or truss
engines. assemblies. They are used to consolidate unreinforceci or
Vibrating screeds (Fig. 4.3 and 4.4) are surface vibra- lightly reinforced slabs up to 8 in. thick. Slumps up to 5 in.
tors that strike off and straightedge the concrete in ad- are often recommended for concrete consolidated by vib-
37
A C 1 CCS-II 94 Dbb2949 051ôYb2 Y70 H
rating screeds, although AC1 309R recommends limiting are built in such a way that they can be adjusted to pro-
their use to concrete with 3 in. or less slump. When vide a crown (or camber) in the surface.
slumps are more than 4 in., decrease the amplitude of A jitterbug or grate tamper is sometimes used in slabs
vibration to avoid mortar accumulation on the finished on grade to push down the coarse aggregate particles to
surface after vibration. If a slab is structurally reinforced just below the surface. Jitterbugs should be used only on
and/or very thick, internal vibration or a combination of concrete with 1 in. slump or less, immediately after
internal vibration and surface vibration is recommended. striking off the concrete. They can cause segregation and
Plate tamper screeds are vibrating screeds adjusted to bring too many fines to the surface of higher slump con-
lower frequency and amplitude for use on relatively stiff cretes. AC1 302.1R discourages the use of jitterbugs,
concrete. They are generally used to embed metallic or calling them the most abused tool used in slab construc-
mineral aggregate hardeners. tion.
The vibratory roller screed strikes off as well as con-
solidates and is suitable for plastic mixes. Consisting of Smoothing after screeding
one or more rollers, it knocks down, screeds, and provides Bull floats, highway straightedges, and darbies are used
mild vibration. to smooth and straighten the surface after consolidation
and after initial leveling by screeding. Which tool to use
Screeding tools depends on specified flatness of the floor and the kind of
Screeding is the act of striking off the surface of the concrete being placed.
concrete to a predetermined grade. It is done with a Bull floats (Fig. 4.5) are used for smoothing after
straightedge consisting of a rigid, straight piece of wood or screeding when the specified floor flatness is less than 90
metal. It can also be done by vibratory or roller screeds percent compliance with a 0.25-in. deviation from a 10-ft
(described above) that also consolidate the concrete. straightedge or FF 20 or less. (Flatness is explained on p.
There are several types of manually operated straight- 58.) They consist of a handle with a large, flat piece of
edges including hollow magnesium straightedges made wood or metal attached. The float part is 4 to 8 in. wide
especially for screeding. Short straightedges are usually and 42 to 120 in. long; handles range from 4 to 20 ft in
made of either wood or magnesium, while the longer ones length. The handle is attached by means of an adjustable
are made of steel angles or channels. Some straightedges head that allows the angle between the two pieces to be
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 38
A C I CCS-I, 7 4 n 0662747 0538463 307
changed during floating. Bull floating is done before bleed

water comes to the surface, so it must be done carefully to
avoid sealing the surface. If the surface becomes sealed,
bleed water will collect just beneath the surface instead of
on top of it, and create a weak plane. If that happens, the
surface will tend to blister during finishing or scale off
after the concrete hardens. Wood bull floats tend not to
seal the surface as much as magnesium floats do.
The bull float is frequently used because it has a long
handle and is easy to use on wide slabs. Wood bull floats
generally can straighten a surface better than magnesium
buli floats. On the other hand, wood buil floats tend to
tear the surface of air-entrained concrete and lightweight
concrete. Magnesium bull floats are a little easier to
operate and are recommended for use on lightweight con-
crete and air-entrained concrete. If these tools are tilted
(not flat) when they are used, the surface of air-entrained
concrete becomes sealed and blistering can result. Blister-
ing is one of the most common causes of poor floors with
inferior durability in exposed areas. Magnesium bull floats
should be kept as flat as possible to avoid sealing the Fig. 4.5-Long handled bull floats are made of magnesium
surface. (shown here) or wood. For non-air-entrained concrete, wood
The long handle of a bull float can be dangerous, par- bull floats may be best but for air-entrained concrete, metal
ticularly around electrical lines, trucks, or other equip- bull floats are better. Bull floats are used to get riíì of high
ment. Metal handles conduct electricity, so wood or glass- spots and low spots after screeding and to embed mineral
fiber-reinforced plastic handles should be used, particularly and other hardeners (photo courtesy Goidblatt -Division of
in areas near electrical wiring. Stanley Tools - Division of î ñ e Stanley Works)
39 --`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-3 9 4 I0662949 0 5 3 8 4 6 4 243
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 4 . 6 T h e s e highway straightedges can be used for floor
construction as well as in paving. T h q are recommended for Fig. 4.7-Darbies are used for the same putpose as bull
smoothing and straightening slab surfaces after screeding, floats: to get rid of high and low spots. They are most useful
when the floor flatness rS critical. Tool rS from 4 to 12 fi near the edges while bull floats do a better job further out.
long with 10-3 or longer handle (photo courtesy R.W. Two wood darbies are shown: the upper shorl-handled darby
Steiger) has three hand gnps; the longer darby (below) may be as
much as 8 ft long
With specified floor flatness tolerances stricter than FF
20 or 90 percent compliance with a 0.25 in. maximum dev- straightedges are from 6 to 12 ft long and generally rec-
iation from a 10-ft straightedge, AC1 302.1R recommends tangular in cross section, with a long handle.
using a highway straightedge (Fig. 4.6) to smooth and A darby (Fig. 4.7) is a hand-manipulated float used for
straighten the surface, instead of a bull float. The the same purpose as a buli float, to level and smooth the
40
A C 1 CCS-1 74 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 05Lô465 L B T M
surface after strikeoff or screeding. It is particularly useful

near side forms and in congested areas where it is imprac-
tical to manipulate a long-handled buli float. Darbies are
3 to 4 in. wide and range in length from 30 to 80 in. They
are made of wood, aluminum, magnesium, or composition
materials, with choice of materials the same as for bull
floats. The darby is moved across the concrete surface in
a sawing arc motion instead of back and forth. Darbies
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
should be kept as flat as possible to avoid sealing the
surface.
Jointing and edging tools

Edgers (Fig. 4.8) come in various sizes and shapes.
They are used to make neat rounded edges next to the
forms. These rounded edges are less vulnerable to chip-
ping and spalling. Although rounded edges are common
on sidewalks, driveways, patio slabs, and steps, edging is
not desirable on most floor slabs. Use a %-in. radius edger
wherever edging is specified for joints subject to regular
vehicular traffic. A larger radius will produce a joint that
becomes rough and difficult to maintain.
There are several specialized corner edging tools that
are used for construction of steps and curbs. Some edgers
have long handles which permit the operator to stand Fig. 4.8-Edgers are used to make neat, rounded edges that
while edging. These are called walking edgers. AC1 302.1R are less likely to chip. Commonly used on outdoor jlatwork,
discourages the use of walk-behind edgers because they edging is not required on most floor slabs (photo courtesy
may give inconsistent results. Portland Cement Association)
41
A C 1 CCS-II 9 4 W 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0 5 3 8 4 6 6 O26
throughout the slab. In other words, joints or grooves are
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
made to control crack location. Neat, straight joints are
much easier to seal and maintain than random cracks.
In order to create a weakened section, the groove
depth should be about one-fourth of the slab thickness:
1 in. deep for a 4-in. slab

1%in. deep for a 6-in. slab
2 in. deep for an &in. slab.
Shallower grooves (made by groovers called "cheaters") are

used only as decorations. Jointers with worn out or shal-
low bits should be used only to make decorative, non-func-
tional markings. Avoid walk-behind jointers because their
use can yield inconsistent results.
The radius at the top of the groove should be ?hin. for
Fig. 4.9-A groover (or jointer) is used to make contraction floors. For sidewalks, driveways, or patios, the radius
joints in sidewalh, patios, driveways, and floors not subjected should be i/4 to Yi in. For floors that must carry fork lift
to trafic from fork 18 trucks or other small wheeled vehicles traffic or other industrial vehicles, sawed joints are usually
(courtesr Goldblatt -Division of Stanley Tools - Division better than joints made with a groover, but they must be
of The Stanley Tool Works) sawed promptly before random cracks appear (see Chap-
ter 6).
Jointers, also called groovers (Fig. 4.9), have a cutting
edge or bit that makes a narrow groove in the slab. The Power saws
groove is called a contraction joint, and it makes a weak- On large flat concrete surfaces, it may be more conven-
ened section. When the concrete shrinks, the slab will ient to cut joints with a power saw fitted with an abrasive
crack at the weakened section rather than randomly or diamond blade. Both dry cut and wet cut saws are
42
A C 1 CCS-L 94 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0518467 T52 m
available.
The dry cut saws are generally lighter than wet cut
equipment, and may be either electric, hydraulic, or gaso-
line powered. Some dry cut models permit joint sawing
without spalling within 1 to 2 hr after finishing. They
generally produce a maximum cut depth of 1%in., shall-
ower than the wet cut saws.
Wet cut saws (Fig. 4.10) are gasoline powered and use
water for cooling. With the proper blades they can cut
deeper joints, 12 in. or more when required. The operator
must wait at least 4 to 8 hr after finishing to use the
heavier wet cut saws.
Hand floats
A hand float (Fig. 4.12) is used to remove small imper-
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
fections and produce a level, plane surface. It also pre-

pares the surface for troweling or other finishing opera-
tions. Floats are also used to provide the final finish for Fig. 4.10-A gasoline powered wet cut saw is ofen used to
slabs where a fine textured surface is desired, such as on cut joints in largeflat concrete sur$aces (photo courtesy Stow
sidewalks, patios or other outdoor paving. Hand floats are Manufacturing Co.)
available in wood, magnesium, and composition materials,
with surfaces 3 to 4 in. wide and 12 to 20 in. long. Com- surface, so air and water trapped in the surface pores can
position floats with resin-impregnated canvas surfaces are escape. Magnesium floats are used for air-entrained con-
smoother than wooden floats and only slightly rougher crete and for lightweight concrete. Do not tilt the float;
than magnesium floats. floats should be in full contact with the surface to avoid
Wood floats are best for non-air-entrained concrete and sealing the surface.
for high slump concrete. A wood float does not seal the Proper use of hand floats and trowels takes a lot of
43
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 I0 6 6 2 9 4 9 05L84bA 9 9 9 =
Fig. 4.12-Magnesiunz float used to make a surface true and

COprepare the s u a c e for troweling. Floating is done when
the concrete is hard enough to support the weight of a man
walking on the surface and after the bleed water is gone.
Floats of wood and composition materials are also used
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(photo courtesy Marshalltown Trowel Company)
practice and often requires years of experience. Wooden

hand floats encourage proper workmanship and timing.
Their use has declined, largely due to the need for per-
iodic replacement because of wear or breakage and the
greater effort and care in timing required in using them.
According to AC1 302.1R, if used at the proper time, their
floating action is unequaled by other hand tools.
Magnesium hand floats require less effort. Like magne-
sium bull floats, they slide along largely on fines in the
Fig. 4.11-Some dry cut saws are light enough to be used concrete. They can be used on concrete from the time of
within an hour or two after finishing, without spalling the placement to beyond the point of stiffening, when a
green concrete (photo courtesy Soff-Cuí International) wooden float cannot be used.
44
A C 1 CCS-L 94 Ohb2949 0538469 8 2 5
Power floats
There are two types of power floats:
The heavy revolving-disk compactor that often also
does some vibration
0 Troweling machines equipped with float shoes
Most machines have four blades mounted to the base,

and a ring diameter between 36 and 46 in. Troweling
machines equipped with float (shoe) blades slipped over
the trowel blades are suitable for floating. These float
blades are wider than trowel blades and turned up on the
edges to prevent them from digging into the surface and
to prevent their use in troweling. Troweling machines with
combination float-troweling blades are also available, but
float blades are preferable for floating. AC1 302.1R re-
commends against use of any floating or troweling mach-
ine that has a water attachment for wetting the surface
during finishing. Water sprinkling during finishing usually
causes dusting of the floor surface.
Revolving disk floats (Fig. 4.13) are used to float low
slump concrete or slab toppings. They are also used for
additional compacting or floating following normal floating
operations when the slab is stiff enough to support the
machine without damage to the flatness of the slab.
Fig. 4.13-A heavy disc-type float (“el& float‘‘) is used to
Troweling tools compact and float heavy dut>,floor toppings made with very
Troweling is done in the final stages of finishing, after low slump concrete
45 --`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0662949 0538470 5 4 7
be of crucible spring steel or of special hard quality

stainless steel, usually from 3 to 5 in. wide and 10 to 20 in.
long. Larger sizes are used for the first troweling to spread
the force over a larger area. As the surface becomes hard-
er, subsequent trowelings are done with smaller trowels to
increase the pressure on the concrete surface. An experi-
enced finisher knows how to "break in" a trowel to suit his
needs. Trowels that are short, narrow, or of inferior con-
struction should not be used for first troweling.
A fresno (Fig. 4.15) is a large long handled trowel
which looks like a bull float. The blades are usually 5 in.
wide and 24 to 48 in. long. Remember that a fresno is a
trowel and should not be used until after the surface has
been floated and the bleed water evaporates, because it
may seal the surface too soon and cause dusting or scaling.
Fresnos are useful for troweling slabs such as sidewalks
that do not require a hard trowel surface but where speed
of troweling is important. Unlike a bull float, the handle
Fig. 4.14-Trowels are made of spring steel and are used to of a fresno is adjustable from side to side.
make the sugace smooth, hard, and dense. The first trowel- There are many different types of power trowels (Fig.
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ing is done with a large trowel. Subsequent trowelings are 4.16), most of which can also be adapted for floating as
done with smaller trowels. Troweling should not be done described above. They range in size from a small "pony"
unless the sutface has been floated (photo courtesy Marshall- trowel to the large double and triple rotor riding mach-
town Trowel Company) ines. Some machines with combination blades can be used
for both floating and troweling. On some machines, float
the surface has been floated. Troweling makes the surface blades are removed and the finish blades are used for tro-
hard and dense. Hand finishing trowels (Fig. 4.14) should weling. For floating, the float blades should be flat. During
46
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0662949 0 5 3 8 4 7 3 483
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 4 . l b P o w e r f l o a t s and power íroweh are also used to
Jcinish the surface of flatwork Cfrom AC1 Manual of Con-
crete Inspection)
the first trowel pass, the finish blades are tilted very
slightly and the amount of tilt is gradually increased for
the second, third and additional passes.
Fig. 4.15-Blades for long handled fresno trowek, with derail It is important to check the condition of the blades fre-
of adaptor where the handle connects. Afresno should be quently, and all blades should be in the same condition. So
used in the same manner us a trowel, not as a bull ,float instead of merely changing one blade if it is bent or
Iphotos courtesy Marshalltown Trowel Company) broken, you must change all the blades on the rotor.
47

A C 1 CCS-3 94 = 0662949 0538472 33T
CHAPTER 5
PLACING AND FINISHING SLABS ON GRADE
There are many steps in placing and finishing a slab on book like this cannot give all the details. If you need more
grade, and proper preparation and timing are important information, consult AC1 302.1R and other cited refer-
for all of them. Table 5.1 gives an overview of the Oper- ences.
ations. The text that follows describes them, but a short
Table 5.1-Sequence of steps in making a slab on grade

~~ ~~
1. Site preparation 2. Placing concrete 3. Finishing concrete
A. Prepare the subgrade A. Deliver concrete to proper location(s) A. Bull float OR darby OR use highway
straightedge
B. Establish grades (elevations) B. Spread or distribute concrete B. WAIT for bleed water to disappear
C. Set edge forms, temporary bulkheads, and C. Vibrate concrete C. Edge and joint as needed
screed guides
D. Install vapor barrier,' if any D. Strike off D. Float

E. Install reinforcement, if any (Sometimes 2C and 2D are combined E. Trowel, if required
in a single operation)
F. Get tools and materials ready F. Saw joints as needed

G. Cure (see Chapter 7)
Although the term is barrier, these products reduce vapor passage, not prevent it totaüy.
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 48
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 I0662947 0538473 256
Subg rade preparation

Slabs on ground are supported by the subgrade on
which they are cast. Subgrades should provide uniform
support throughout. There should not be any hard spots
or soft spots. If the subgrade is not uniform, the concrete
slab will be supported only by the hard spots and will have
to bridge over the soft spots. This is likely to result in
cracking of the slab and unequal settlement. If the sub-
grade is not uniform, a subbase of sand, gravel, crushed
stone, or other granular material should be used over it.
If possible, slope the area around a slab on ground so that
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
water will drain away from the slab rather than toward it.
Remove organic and foreign material completely, ex-
posing the natural ground. If the soil is highly plastic and
absorbs a lot of water, it may be expansive. Slabs sup- Fig, 5.1-Dampen subgrade or subbase before concrete is de-
ported by expansive soils should be designed to withstand posited ONLY if needed toprevent plastic shrinkage or other
or accommodate swelling and shrinking of the subgrade. severe problems. There should be no standing water
Frequently this is done by post-tensioning the slab (see p.
113), and may require advice from an engineer or soils The subgrade must be free of frost before concrete
specialist. placing begins. AC1 302.1R now recommends that it nor-
If the soil is stable or sandy, it should be suitable for mally be dry at the time of concreting so that it will absorb
supporting the slab. All subbases or subgrade material mixing water from the concrete. This contrasts with earlier
should be compacted to uniform bearing capacity, and to recommendations that called for a damp subgrade. Under
meet any specific requirements of the job specifications. severe drying conditions that threaten plastic shrinkage
Granular subbases and sandy soils can be compacted with cracking, water can be sprinkled on the subgrade before
vibratory compactors. Driving cars, trucks, or bulldozers concreting (Fig. 5.1). However, there should be no free
over the soil will not compact the soil uniformly and may water standing on the subgrade when concrete is placed,
do more harm than good. nor should there be any muddy or soft spots.
49
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0662949 0538474 192
Vapor barriers (retarders) and slip sheets To reduce potential problems of shrinkage cracking and
Water does not flow through good concrete, but a curling with a vapor barrier, and to protect the vapor
significant amount can pass through as vapor. Moist floor barrier from concrete truck traffic, place a layer of
conditions are usually caused by ambient air with a high approved granular, self-draining compactible fiii (NOT
dew point condensing on the floor. But where a floor is concrete-type sand) over the vapor barrier and under the
installed on subgrade with a high water table or poor concrete slab. Natural aggregate is preferred to crushed
drainage, floor coverings, household goods, or equipment stone fill to avoid puncturing the vapor barrier. However,
must be protected against moisture from below. Vapor a clean manufactured sand containing a significant amount
barriers are frequently installed under the slab for this of rock dust (No. 10 grading per ASTM D 448) is usuaily
purpose. Although they are called barriers, these installa- ideal. This fill is typically at least 4 in. thick, but some
tions often only reduce vapor passage instead of blocking experts recommend as much as 6 in. if concrete trucks run
it totally. A more precise term would be vapor retarder. across it to deliver slab concrete. It should be compacted
The most common type of vapor barrier is heavy poly- before the concrete is placed. Wetting and rolling before
ethylene sheeting. Sheets should be overlapped 6 in. at the concrete is placed is a simple way to compact it, but re-
seams, and sealed so they are vapor-tight. They should be member it should be as dry as feasible at the time con-
carefully fitted around service openings. There should be crete is placed. If the fill is too wet, water vapor from the
no holes in the vapor barrier because holes will permit concrete may cause problems with floor coverings. You
moisture from the subgrade to seep to the underside of must be careful during placement to keep the fiii layer
the slab and through any cracks or joints in the slab. If the from being mixed into the concrete.
granular subbase is coarse and harsh, the vapor barrier is Other vapor barrier materials, less often used, include
at risk of being punctured by the traffic of workers. To 55-lb roofing felt, butyl rubber sheeting, and %-in. pre-
prevent this a layer of sand is sometimes placed over the molded asphalt panels. These materials are more vapor re-
subgrade and under the vapor barrier. sistant than polyethylene film. Many vapor barrier mater-
AC1 302.1R advises eliminating the vapor barrier where ials also resist the passage of radon gas through basement
ground conditions permit, because presence of the vapor concrete floors and walls.
barrier aggravates slab edge curling, drying, and plastic Smoother subgrades offer less frictional resistance to
shrinkage cracking problems. Yet vapor barriers may be shrinkage of concrete slabs, and therefore reduce the
specified and/or needed for protection in some buildings. danger of shrinkage cracking. The maximum reduction in
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
50
A C 1 CCS-1 74 I0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0 5 1 8 4 7 5 O29 9
frictional resistance is achieved with double slipsheets of alternative to compacted backfill is to use a controlled
plastic, placed on top of the subgrade directly beneath the density fill material (also called C U M [controlled low
slab. Slip sheets may be used under post-tensioned slabs strength material]) to prevent settlement of the slab.
(p. 113), and slabs with extra-long joint spacing. Don’t
confuse slip sheets with vapor barriers, although they may Establishing grades
be made of the same material. Slip sheets are purposely Positive drainage should always be provided for exterior
punctured to permit the passage of water from the bottom slabs, and is sometimes desired for interior slabs. To estab-
of the slab into the subgrade, and they have no layer of fill lish positive drainage, set forms and screed guides to pro-
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
on top. vide a slope of l in. in 4 ft to prevent ponding. Driveways

and walks can be sloped to one side, or they can be
Compaction around buried pipes and excavations crowned along the longitudinal center line to drain to both
Slabs on ground may be built over buried utility lines, sides.
water pipes, sewers, etc. Often these lines and pipes are The drawings for most projects show the important ele-
installed immediately before the slabs are built and vations of slabs on ground. In many cases, an engineer or
frequently they are not covered until the subgrade and surveyor sets grade stakes to the proper elevation using a
subbase are prepared. Electrical conduit and pipes should surveyor’s level (or a laser level) and rod. On other pro-
be covered with at least 2 in. of subbase so that they do jects, the elevations of slabs are not clearly defined so the
not cause cracking by restraining slab shrinkage or re- layout men must establish grades.
ducing slab thickness. Metal, rigid plastic, or wax-impreg-
nated cardboard ducts with watertight joints are recom- For example:
mended for heating ducts. They may be set on a sand bed
and backfilled to the underside of the slab. If metal or Suppose that a homeowner wants a concrete drive-
paper ducts are used, they must be completely encased in way between his garage and the street. Also suppose
concrete to prevent moisture from accumulating in them. that there is a sidewalk between the street and
When metal ducts are used, calcium chloride or chloride- garage. Three levels have been already established:
containing admixtures should not be used in the concrete. the elevation at the garage, the sidewalk, and the
The backfill material should be compacted in layers so street. If possible, the driveway should be sloped to
that it will not settle and cause the slab to crack. An drain water away from the garage (and house). If
51
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 m 0662749 0538476 Tb5 m
spanning between the side forms. High spots should be

removed and low spots filled in and compacted. If the
surface of the subgrade is 1 in. too low, it will take an
extra cubic yard of concrete to fill each 18 x 18-ft section.
Setting side forms and screed guides

Of all the floor placing and finishing operations, form
setting and screeding have the greatest effect on floor
levelness. The screeding method should be appropriate for
the flatness and levelness called for in the specifications.
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
For small areas, striking off or screeding is done by
drawing a straightedge along the top of the forms (Fig.
5.2). For larger slabs additional reference points for the
straightedge are needed. These are called screed guides,
sometimes referred to simply as screeds. Screed guides
Fig. %-Wood straightedge used for striking off concrete can may be 2-in. lumber, pieces of pipe, or T-bars, with the
be drawn along the edge forms for small areas (yhoto cour- top set to the finished concrete grade. Or grade stakes
tesy Portland Cement Association) may be driven into the subgrade at predetermined inter-
vals, usuaiiy in a square pattern, with their tops at the
the garage is at a lower level than the street, it may required finish elevation.
be necessary to install a storm sewer and catch The fixed markers described above are set during site
basin, The layout crew should make sure that grade preparation. Another kind of screed guide, the wet screed,
stakes are set at each change in slope. Changes in must be placed during the concreting operation (see p.
slope should be gradual so that cars will not scrape 62). Wet screeds are narrow concrete strips placed from
the driveway. one fixed stake or marker to another, then straightedged
to the tops of the fixed markers.
Before concreting, workers should check the elevation Side forms must be set accurately to achieve close
of the subbase by measuring down from a straightedge surface tolerances. Also side forms should be aligned
52
A C 1 CCS-L 94 m 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0518477 9 T 1 m
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
accurately with re-entrant corners in the slab and with earlier placements to shrink, and thus obtain minimum
corners of diamond isolation joints around columns (see joint width. This is no longer recommended because ex-
Fig. 6.2). perience has shown that the earlier placements shrink too
slowly for the method to be effective. Furthermore, access
Placement sequence is more difficult and expensive and the joints may not be
It is common practice to construct concrete floors in as smooth.
long strips or lanes starting at one side of the floor and
then placing the adjacent lane after the first lane has Reinforcement for shrinkage control
hardened. With adjacent lanes, the first lane is usually All required reinforcement (steel bars or mesh) should
next to a wall and only one line of side forms is needed. be pre-cut to the right dimensions. If the reinforcement is
For the second lane, the side forms are removed from the to be positioned at its proper elevation with prefabricated
first lane and moved over for the second lane. Alternate bar supports (Fig. 5.4), all of the necessary supports
long lanes are effective (Fig. 5.3) but may require more should be at the site and ready for use. Reinforcement
side forms. Strip placement allows superior access to the should be at the proper location when it is needed so that
sections being placed. Intermediate contraction joints are no time is wasted during concrete operations cutting or
installed or sawed at specified intervals transverse to the splicing it. Reinforcement should not be contaminated
lane. If the lane or strip is wide, longitudinal construction with dirt, mill scale, grease, or oil. Light rust is per-
joints may also be needed. missible.
Large block placements with interior contraction joints Even though many slabs on grade contain some rein-
are acceptable if the contraction joints are installed at forcing steel, they are considered to be unreinforced
specified intervals in a timely manner. Shrinkage-compen- because the only purpose of the reinforcement is to keep
sating concrete and some types of laser screeds are seldom cracks closed tightly. Nearly all cracks in slabs on grade
used with narrow strip placements. Shrinkage-compensa- are wider at the top than at the bottom because the top
ting concrete slabs (see also p. 112) require placement in half of the slab shrinks more than the bottom, since the
relatively square panels. Two sides of each panel should be bottom retains more moisture. So the reinforcement must
left open for at least 2 days to allow expansion to occur. be located at or (preferably) above mid-depth of the slab.
In the past, many slabs were built in a checkerboard Otherwise it does little to keep a crack closed. Some
pattern instead of in lanes, in an effort to permit the authorities recommend the steel be placed 2 in. below the
53
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 Ob62949 0518478 ô 3 8
Formed joints 0 Paneis or lanes cast first
- - -Sawed joints Infill panels or lanes
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
adjacent lanes alternate lanes
sequence of casting lanes
COSTLY
SATISFACTORY NOT NECESSARY
Fig. 5.3-Sequence for casting concrete floorson ground
54
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 O b 6 2 9 4 9 0.538479 7 7 4
Fig. 5.4-Support for reinforcing steel in slabs on grade. In

addition to concrete blocks, high chairs with sand plates for
soil bearing (lep) are available to hold reinforcement at the
proper level
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
top surface of the concrete; others say one-third of the
slab depth below the top surface. The best position de-
pends on the design concept and weather exposure, but
there is no question that it must not be allowed below
mid-depth. Fig. 5.5-Worker is setting 3-in. concrete blocks beneath the
There are two ways to position the reinforcement near reinforcing mat to hold it at the proper elevation in the slab
the top of the slab. The preferred method is to use blocks
or standard bar supports (chairs) to hold reinforcement at Place the mesh (or other reinforcement) on the sur-
the proper elei'ation (Fig. 5.5). A second method involves face
a three-step procedure: Then cast the top 2 in. immediately
Strike of€ the concrete 2 in. low For good work, you should not "hook"or lift mesh from
55
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 = 0662949 0518480 49b
the subgrade as the concrete is being placed. And don’t of joints in slabs.
walk on the steel after it has been placed on supports at Isolation joints (Fig. 5.6), used to separate the slab
the proper elevation. Remember that mesh at the bottom from walls, footings, columns, and other rigid structures,
of the slab is useless at keeping surface cracks closed. are made with asphalt-impregnated sheets or other suit-
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The question of what to do with the steel at slab joints, able joint materials. All isolation joint (expansion joint)
particularly contraction joints, is frequently asked. The material should be either in place or at the jobsite before
designer answers it based on what the joint is expected to concrete placing begins.
do. If it is to be a working joint that is expected to open Circular or square forms (see Chapter 6 ) may be used
and provide relief for drying shrinkage, it is best to dis- to isolate columns. Place square column isolations with
continue ali steel at the joint. Some authorities believe their corners at the joints coming into the column. After
that a limited amount of steel can safely be continued removal of the forms around columns, preformed joint
across the joint. The risk is that cracking will occur ran- materials should be placed at the joint to the level of the
domly and not at the contraction joint as planned. If the floor surface, and the intervening area concreted and fin-
joint is expected to stay closed over time, steel may be ished.
continued through the joint. If load transfer is needed Bulkheads at construction joints may have a small wood
across the joint, the designer specifies smooth steel dowels. or metal key attached to form a keyed joint, or a pre-
Some concrete mixes contain fibers of steel, polypropy- molded or metal keyed joint form may be used. The metal
lene, or other materials added to reinforce or otherwise keyed joint form is not recommended for slabs subject to
improve the properties of concrete in the slab. These heavy wheel traffic. Keyed construction joints are not re-
fibers do not require added advance preparation, but they commended for slabs less than 6 in. thick.
may affect concrete placement and finishing (see p. 67).
Checklist of tools and materlals
Bulkheads and jointing Before concrete arrives, ali of the necessary tools and
The locations of joints which are to be made with join- materials should be ready. Valuable time can be wasted if
ters (groovers) or to be saw cut should be marked ahead the required tools are not at the site. One way to avoid
of time, on the edge forms or bulkheads or on other per- last minute delays is to prepare a complete list of all of
manent items such as walls or footings. See Chapter 6, the equipment, tools, and materials needed for each day’s
p. 75 for detailed information on the purpose and spacing work, and then be sure that everything on the checklist is
56
A C 1 CCS-L 74 I0662747 0518481 3 2 2 m
on hand and in good working condition. The list should
include all tools listed in Chapter 4 which will be needed,
as well as all miscellaneous items such as hoses, hand
saws, hammers, extension cords, buckets, and testing
equipment.
Ail of the materials such as curing blankets, curing
compounds, oil and fuel for engines, tape, chalk lines, and
form oil should be included on the list. The list should
include items that might be needed in case of an emergen-
cy such as a sudden storm, drop in temperature, or a pow-
er breakdown. If weather conditions are right for plastic INSTALL COUTiNlJOUS~
I S O U T I O N JOIWTS
L D O M . 1 LEAVE
aAps
shrinkage cracking, this is also a good time to get mater-
ials and equipment to prevent or reduce it (see p. 95). On
some jobs, the foreman prepares the checklist and assigns Fig. 5.4-Isolation joint material (open called ipansion
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
one person to be sure that all of the items on the list are joint material) LF used to separate walk, columns, and foot-
available. On other jobs, the foreman makes each person ings from a concrete slab on grade. Be sure that the material
responsible for specific items on the list. In either case, the completely separates the slab fiom the adjacent construction.
purpose of the checklist is to avoid delays once concreting Any gaps in the coverage can cause cracking of the slab
has begun.
mary cause of "bird baths" and excessive curl in slabs on
Placing concrete - dos and don'ts grade Unfortunately, there is a natural tendency for the
The most important rule for placing concrete is: aggregates to sink to the bottom so concrete craftsmen
AVOID SEGREGATION. That is, keep the aggregates should do their best to keep from making the problem
from separating from the rest of the concrete. If the worse.
aggregates, cement, sand and water are not evenly Here are some of the important dos and don'ts of
distributed throughout the concrete, the parts of the placing concrete in flatwork
concrete with the most water WUbe the weakest and will
shrink most. Those parts will settle more and are a pri- 1. DO deposit the concrete as close to its final location
57
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 IOb62949 05LBqB2 2 b 9
in the slab as possible. The less you have to move it, how flat the slab should be, consider the range of flatness
the better. tolerances presented in Table 5.2. Slab on grade work may
2. DO start by depositing concrete in a corner and range from the %-in. deviation from a 10-ft straightedge
work away from the corner. that is permissible for driveways and sidewalks to superflat
3. If a slab is on a slope, DO start at the low end and construction where less than ?hin. deviation from the
work uphill. straightedge is needed. Read AC1 302.1R and AC1 117 for
4. DO deposit concrete into (instead of away from) a more detailed explanation of tolerances and the finishing
previously deposited concrete. practices recommended to meet them.
5. DON’T move concrete horizontally with a vibrator. Traditionally slab surface tolerances have been struc-
That is a sure way of causing segregation. tured around the maximum gap allowed under a 10 ft long
6. DON’T vibrate high slump (more than 5 in.) con- straightedge placed anywhere, in any direction, on the
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
crete in slabs on grade. slab. The straightedge is generally supported on two high
7. DON’T let concrete for slabs drop from a chute or points, and the maximum deviation is measured between
bucket (free fail) more than about 2 ft if the slump the support points, not from the cantilevered ends. The
is more than 4 in. Limit the drop to about 3 ft when greatest distance between the straightedge and the surface
slump is less than 4 in. of the floor should not be more than the tolerance
8. DO use the proper tools to move concrete horizon- amount.
tally. These tools are square nose shovels or come- A newer tolerancing system based on F numbers has
alongs. Do not use garden tools. been widely adopted, using FF as a measure of flatness
and FL as a measure of levelness. These numbers are de-
Slab construction tolerances: flatness and levelness termined by statistical sampling procedures according to
How flat, level, and smooth should a concrete slab be? ASTM E 1155. ?he pair of numbers is always written in
That depends on the use of the slab. AC1 302.1R lists dif- the order FF IFL. FF , the flatness number, defines floor
ferent classes of slabs, in terms of the kind of traffic each curvature (bumpiness) over a 24-in. length. FL ,the level-
slab has to carry. AC1 302.1R also recommends the kind ness number, defines conformity to a horizontal plane,
of finishing each slab should have to make it suitable for measured over a 10-ft distance. The raw data needed to
its intended purpose. If the specifications don’t tell you calculate these numbers are measured floor elevations ob-
58
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 I0 6 6 2 7 4 7 05LôLIô3 L T 5 H
Table 5.2-Tolerances for floor finish according to desired profile quality (from AC1 117)
Minimum FF /F, number required Maximum deviation

from 10-ft
Specified F numbers Minimum local F number Floor profile quality straightedge'
Flatness FF Level F, Flatness FF Level F,
Conve nt ional
15 13 13 10 Bull floated YZ in.
20 15 15 10 Straightedged 'il, in.
30 20 15 10 Flat 31,' in.
50 30 25 15 Very flat YB in.
tained with any instrument capable of measuring point ele- floors sometimes are specified with both FF and F, greater
vations on 12-in. centers. You could use optical or laser than 50. Table 5.2 shows both F numbers and straightedge
levels, leveled straightedge with shims and gages, floor deviations that may be specified for various qualities of
profilograph, or a hand-operated digital readout floor floor profiles. Note that larger F numbers indicate better
profiler. Once the readings are made, a computer program accuracy (less deviation from flatness or levelness), while
makes the extensive calculations needed to determine the larger values of deviation from a straightedge indicate less
F values. The F numbers do not apply to floors sloped to accurate floor construction. However, there is no precise
drains or to the sloped driveway described earlier. numerical correlation between F number tolerances and
The higher the F number the flatter or more level the permissible straightedge deviations.
floor is. In practice, the majority of ordinary floors have F Because achievement of a particular surface tolerance
numbers between 12 and 17, but superflat, special purpose depends on the installation procedures, equipment, and
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
59
A C 1 CCS-II 9 4 0662949 0518484 031 =
materials, a test slab may be built on large jobs under ishing operation. Unreinforced slabs 6 to 8 in. thick may
actual job conditions to confirm the contractor’s ability to be consolidated by either surface or internal vibration.
meet the specification. The contractor may measure sur- For slabs more than 8 in. thick, or thinner slabs
face tolerances achieved on previous construction to as- containing embedments or substantial reinforcement, AC1
sure that he can meet a given specification. AC1 302.1R 309R recommends internal vibration. When an internal
recommends that slabs be measured to check tolerance vibrator (Fig. 5.7) is inserted into fresh concrete, the
compliance within 24 hours after placement. concrete near the vibrator tends to act like a very thick
Automated and semi-automated hardware for gathering liquid. The area that is affected by the vibrator is called
floor elevation data points and computer software for the “field of action.” By watching the way the concrete acts
analyzing them have been introduced in recent years. With near the vibrator, the operator can judge the size of the
the computer software now available, the straightedge tol- field of action. Big high-powered vibrators have larger
erancing method can readily be applied using the same fields of action than do small vibrators. Also, a vibrator’s
floor profile data needed to generate F numbers, without field of action is larger in high slump (very wet) concrete
actually placing a straightedge on the floor. Other floor than it is in stiffer concrete. To consolidate concrete
tolerancing methods using fully automated devices for completely, the vibrator operator must be sure that the
gathering point-elevation data are being developed. For fields of action overlap from one insertion point to
example, the WI,,, waviness index is a Canadian Standard another.
tolerancing method now under consideration by ASTM. The head of an internal vibrator should be completely
immersed during vibration. For thick slabs it is possible to
Vibrating (consolidating) the concrete insert a vibrator vertically, while for thinner slabs it should
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AC1 309R recommends surface vibration for consolida- be inserted at an angle or even horizontally. Don’t let the
ting slabs up to 6 in. thick, provided they are unreinforced vibrator contact the subgrade, since this may contaminate
or contain only light mesh. Low-frequency vibrating the concrete with foreign material. The vibrator should re-
screeds - 3000 to 6000 vibrations per minute - are the main in the concrete until the surface of the field takes on
most common means. They provide adequate consolida- a sheen.
tion depth without creating an objectionable layer of fines Internal vibrators can do a good job of consolidating
at the surface. High frequency, low amplitude screeds are concrete, but there are several precautions:
satisfactory when applied solely to accommodate the fin- 0 DON’T use a vibrator to move concrete horizontally
60
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 0662949 0538485 T78 W
("run the concrete") because the coarse aggregates

will separate from the mortar.
DON'T leave a vibrator in the concrete too long
(overvibrate) in concrete mixes which have a slump
of more than about 3 in. This will cause segregation.
If in doubt about the adequacy of compaction, it is
generally better to vibrate more in stiffer mixes
(slump less than 3 in.) because the danger of over-
vibrating stiff mixes is small.
DON'T let a vibrator run very long when it is not in
concrete - it may burn out. Concrete acts as a cool-
ant for the vibrator.
DON'T use an electrically powered internal vibrator
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
without wearing good rubber gloves and rubber
boots - otherwise you are liable to get a shock or a
burn.
Striking off (screeding) the concrete Fig. 5.7-Internal vibrator action in concrete makes it behave
Screeding is the act of striking off the surface of the temporarily like a liquid. As soon as the surface sheen ap-
concrete to a predetermined grade. It must be done im- peurs, the vibrator should be lifted slowly from the concrete
mediately after spreading and compacting the concrete. Of Cfrom ACI 309R)
all operations in construction of slabs on grade, screeding
and slab edge form setting have the most influence on the construction joints (bulkheads). (Some people call a
floor levelness. Therefore the screeding method must be straightedge a "screed and refer to vibrating straightedges
appropriate for the levelness specified. as "vibrating screeds.") Straightedges range in length from
Concrete is struck off to the proper elevation using a a few feet for narrow sidewalks up to 80 ft or more for
straightedge (Fig. 5.2). The supports for the straightedge large floors or paved areas.
can be wet screeds, temporary pipe or rail, edge forms, or Use a sawing motion with hand-operated straightedges
61
A C 1 CCS-1 74 = 0662949 051848b 904
but not with the long vibrating types. When using a angle to the surface and some uncompacted concrete
straightedge, concrete craftsmen should be sure that there should be carried in front of the leading straightedge to
is always enough concrete ahead of the straightedge to assure a finished surface at the proper elevation. Vibrating
avoid low spots. Also be sure that the screeds are clean screeds should be moved forward as rapidly as proper
and straight. consolidation allows. If not, too much mortar can be
Wet screed guides when used must be set at the time brought to the surface in normal weight concrete, and too
of concrete placement. A strip of concrete not less than 2 much aggregate in lightweight aggregate concrete.
ft wide is placed between two fixed stakes or other mar- SCREEDING MUST BE COMPLETED BEFORE
kers, and then straightedged to the top of the stakes or ANY EXCESS MOISTURE OR BLEED WATER IS
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markers. A similar strip is placed between two stakes or PRESENT O N THE SURFACE. As screeding progresses,
markers on the opposite side of the placement strip. These grade stakes and temporary pipe screed stakes should be
wet screeds are used as guides in leveling the rest of the driven down flush with the subgrade or else pulled out one
concrete, which is placed in the area between them. As the at a time. In this way you avoid walking back into the
straightedge is being pulled over the surface, low spots left screeded concrete.
behind must be filled and then rescreeded. Difficulty in
maintaining the floor level with wet screeds indicates that Bull floating or darbying
the mix is too wet for this method. Bull floating and darbying serve the same purpose and
Use wet screed guides only if fairly large tolerances for the same rules apply to both. Use one or the other on a
flatness and levelness are acceptable; that is, FF 20/FL 20 given job, but not both on the same slab. Because of its
or lower (or less than 90 percent compliance with 0.25-in. long handle, the buli float is easy to use on big areas, but
deviation from a 10-ft straightedge). Temporary pipe or the handle reduces the workers’ leverage, so that close
rail screed guides should be used for more precise work. tolerances are more difficult to achieve. A darby is ad-
Where construction joint bulkheads, edge forms, or vantageous on narrow slabs and in restricted spaces.
pipe or rail screed guides can be used, vibrating screeds Bull floating should be done immediately after screed-
(Fig. 4.3 and 4.4) can be used to strike off and further ing and be completed before bleed water appears on the
consolidate concrete that has already been vibrated inter- surface. The bull float or darby smooths the surface and
naiiy. The leading edge of the vibrator shoe must be at an gets rid of high spots and low spots. Bull floating is done
62
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 sl 0662947 05118487 ô 4 0
at right angles to the direction of travel of the straightedge highway straightedge is used in a cutting and filling oper-
(parallel to the straightedge). Getting rid of high and low ation, with a sawing motion at right angles or 45 deg to
spots requires care and practice. Also, a great deal of care the construction joint across the floor. Cutting and filling
is needed to avoid dishing in the area near the side form. action in these two directions will make the floor flatter
Beware of sealing the surface by bull floating. Sealing and smoother overall. Straightedging parallel to construc-
the surface before bleeding stops may cause blistering or tion joints (in a strip casting operation) would require the
it may cause surface scaling. A wood bull float should be finisher to stand in plastic concrete. Additional cutting and
used on non-air-entrained concrete and on concrete with filling is sometimes required later, after floating.
a slump of more than about 4 in. A wood bull float is less
likely to seal the surface. If a magnesium bull float ap- Waiting period
pears to be sealing the surface, switch to a wood bull float. After bull floating or straightedging, a slight stiffening
One way to check whether a magnesium bull float is seal- of the concrete is necessary before proceeding further.
ing the surface, is to leave a small test section. (Do not Floating and troweling a concrete slab too soon is likely to
bull float the test section or use a wood bull float on it.) cause dusting and crazing. These operations should not be
If bleed water appears on the test section but not on the started until bleeding has stopped and the concrete is firm
surface that has been bull floated, the surface has been enough to permit a worker to walk on it without leaving
sealed. Because most darbies are made of wood, they are footprints more than about %in. deep. The time that must
less likely to seal the surface. elapse between bull floating and floating depends on many
factors relating to bleeding.
Highway-type straightedging
When flatness greater than FF 20/FL 20 (better than 90 Bleeding
percent compliance with 0.25-in. deviation from a 10-ft During the waiting period, concrete is bleeding as well
straightedge) is specified, a rigid screed guide is used to as stiffening. Assume that fresh concrete is deposited into
control the strikeoff, and a highway or "cleveland" straight- an open-top box, and is consolidated in such a manner
edge is recommended to smooth and straighten the sur- that no segregation occurs, that is, the aggregates are
face, instead of a bull float or darby. Like bull floating, uniformly distributed and all the spaces between the ag-
straightedging must be done immediately after screeding gregate particles are filled with paste. Some time must
and before any bleed water comes to the surface. The elapse before the concrete begins to harden. During this
63
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A C 1 CCS-3 9 4 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0538488 787
period, some of the aggregate particles and the cement needed. Floating and troweling before bleeding is com-
grains are partly suspended in water so they tend to settle. pleted may trap bleed water beneath the surface, leaving
As these solids settle, water is displaced and appears at connecting voids and capillary channels for external water
the surface. This water is called bleed water and the pro- to get into hardened concrete later, and increasing the
cess is called bleeding. chances of blistering and/or scaling. If the bleed water
The amount of bleed water that appears on the surface evaporates or is removed, the amount of water remaining
of fresh concrete depends on several factors, including the in the concrete will be reduced, so the water-cement ratio
following: will be reduced, which is good.
Vacuum dewatering offers an alternative to waiting for
a. The amount of water in the mix-More bleeding can the bleed water to disappear. Vacuum mats applied after
be expected with very wet concrete mixes. the concrete has been placed, compacted, and leveled can
b. Aggregaíe grading-Concretes with gap graded ag- remove significant amounts of water. The process quickly
gregates or too little fine sand (or other fine prepares the surface for floating and troweling, and is
material) will tend to bleed more. suitable for slabs up to 12 in. thick. Because the water
C. Entrained air-Non-air-entrained concrete will bleed content of the concrete is reduced, it also improves
more than air-entrained concrete. strength, wear resistance, and drying shrinkage properties
d. n e amount of cement in the mix-Lean mixes (low of the concrete.
cement content) will bleed more than rich (high Prolonged bleeding may occur with poorly proportioned
cement content) mixes. concrete mixes or where temperature is low, humidity
e. Temperature-Using the warmest mix temperature high, and air circulation poor. AC1 302.1R suggests using
permitted will reduce bleeding, although it may not blowers or heaters to improve evaporation while the con-
benefit other properties of the concrete. crete is still plastic. If the concrete is firm enough for
floating, but still is wet, there are two possible remedies:
Is bleeding good or bad? If excess bleed water remains
at or just below the surface, the water-cement ratio near 1. Drag a rubber hose slowly over the entire surface,
the top of the concrete will be increased so the worst con- but only when the concrete is stiff enough that only
crete will be at the surface, just where the best concrete is water will be removed.
64
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 IObb2949 05Lô489 b L 3 H
2. Fiil low spots with additional concrete. Use concrete stripped and before the adjacent slab is placed.
saved during placing operations, which should have
set characteristics similar to the in-place concrete. Floating
Do not use neat cement or a mixture of sand and Following edging and jointing, floating is done for three
cement, because they usually produce crazing. purposes:
It is better to improve the concrete mix as suggested by 1. Embed the large aggregates beneath the surface
AC1 302,1R, thus avoiding problems of prolonged mortar layer.
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
bleeding. 2. Remove slight humps or other imperfections, and
produce a plane, level surface.
Edging and jointing 3. Compact and further consolidate the surface in
Following the waiting period, when there is no bleed preparation for other finishing.
water left on the surface, edging and jointing can be done.
Jointing may be done at the same time or immediately fol- Concrete is ready for floating when the bleed water sheen
lowing the edging. Jointing practices are explained in is gone, and a finisher can walk on the slab, leaving only
Chapter 6. about a %-in. indentation. Machine floating can be done
Edging is most commonly done on sidewalks, driveways, only if the machine will neither dig in nor disrupt the level
and steps. It leaves a neater, slightly rounded edge that of the surface. Do not float when free water remains on
will be less likely to chip either under traffic or when the the concrete. This is likely to weaken the slab, and may
forms are removed. Before using the edger, it is good cause dust, scale, or crazing.
practice to use a pointed trowel (with vertical sawing mo- If floating is done by machine, either a disk-type float
tion) to loosen the concrete from the side form. Use a % or a power trowel with float shoes attached is used. Suc-
in. radius edge for joints subjected to regular vehicular cessful floating depends on adapting to varying job condi-
traffic. tions. If concrete is setting slowly, floating should be done
Edging is not required on most floors, and should not as late as possible (when a finisher’s footprint is barely
be done if the floor will be covered with tile. As an al- perceptible). Under fast setting conditions, start as early as
ternative, edges at construction joints on most floor work possible using the preceding indentation and water sheen
may be lightly stoned (ground) after the forms are guidelines (p. 63).
65
A C 1 CCS-L 94 m O b 6 2 9 4 9 0538490 335 m
Dry-shake application of hard-surface or non-slip If troweling is done by hand, it is customary for the fin-
aggregates ishers to float and then steel trowel a given area before
In order to get a hard, wear-resistant surface for an moving their knee boards (Fig. 5.8). For first troweling a
industrial floor, special mineral or metallic aggregates can blade at least 4% in. wide is preferred, kept as flat against
be applied to the surface by a dry-shake technique similar the surface as possible. The large blade spreads out the
to that for colored concrete (described later). Some of troweling force over a large area. A single troweling pass
these aggregates are natural and some are manufactured is done where skid resistance is more important than
products. In either case, they are dried and premixed with cleanliness. For additional trowelings, smaller trowels are
cement by the supplier, usually about one part cement and used and these are tilted slightly up in the direction of
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
two parts aggregate. travel in order to increase the pressure on the trowel. Tilt-
After the slab has been floated, distribute about Yi of ing a trowel too much or too soon will result in chatter or
the material (in the amount specified by the supplier or by washboard marks on the surface. An older trowel that has
the owner) onto the surface either by hand or mechani- been broken in is preferred for first troweling because it
cally. First embed the hardener, preferably with a wood can be worked quite flat without the edges digging into
bull float. Then float the surface, preferably with a power the concrete. Smoothness of the surface can be improved
float. Next, apply the rest of the material, distributing it at with restraightening operations with the highway straight-
right angles to the direction of the first application. Again edge at this time.
float the surface. Then trowel the surface as many times If there is irregular raising of a thin layer of mortar
as needed. during troweling (called blistering), flatten out the angle of
Follow a similar procedure for application of non-slip the trowel immediately. Push the blisters down and re-
aggregates, but reduce or eliminate the troweling. bond them, using a wooden float, a flat magnesium float,
or a flat trowel, depending on how stiff the concrete is.
Troweling For steel troweled concrete, there are potentially serious
Troweling follows immediately after floating, and no finishing problems such as blistering when concrete con-
troweling should ever be done unless the surface has first tains too much entrained air. Therefore, air content of
been floated. The purpose of troweling is to produce a concrete designed to be non-air-entrained should also be
hard smooth surface that will be easy to clean and main- checked at the beginning of each placement and occasion-
tain. ally thereafter. If the air content is slightly above 3 percent
66
A C 1 CCS-L 94 m Obb2949 05Lô491 271 m
and the concrete is to be steel troweled, finishing problems
may be avoided by keeping the surface open as long as
possible through use of wood bull floats, wood hand floats,
and wood darbies, and by minimizing equipment pressure
on the concrete surface. Concretes with air content well
above 3 percent should not be used for steel troweled
flatwork.
A steel troweled surface is quite smooth and becomes
slippery when wet. For slabs exposed to the weather, you
can use either a soft- or stiff-bristled push broom to
roughen them slightly and produce a nonslip surface. For
outdoor concrete, floating and brooming without troweling
will prevent loss of entrained air that can be caused by
overworking the surface. Fig. 5.8-When working on knee boar& the finisher trowels
Be sure that curing commences immediately after the at the same time as floating. Trze reachable area is first
final floating and troweling. See Chapter 7 for details of floated, then troweled before moving on (photocourtesy Port-
curing practices. land Cement Association)
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Finishing fiber reinforced concrete ration is preferred to internal vibration to prevent fiber
Fiber reinforced concrete contains relatively short, dis- segregation. Standard screeding methods such as using
continuous fibers that reduce segregation and plastic wood boards or a portable vibrator mounted on boards are
shrinkage cracking, and improve strength and other pro- acceptable, as are mechanical vibrating screeds. Metal
erties of the hardened concrete. Fiber materials that have trowels, tube floats, and rotating-blade power floats can be
been used in concrete include steel, glass, polypropylene, used to finish fiber reinforced concrete. Brooming to
and a variety of natural fibers. achieve a textured surface should be delayed as long as
AC1 544.1R states that fibers in general cause the mix possible to prevent fibers pulling up to the surface. A
to require more vibration, and that external or surface vib- burlap drag is not recommended as fibers may hang up in
67
A C 1 CCS-II 9 4 = 0662949 05Lô492 L O 8
the burlap. With steel and some glass fibers, precautions per CU ft or less are sometimes used below slabs, but they
are needed to avoid injury during finishing. generally require no finishing except screeding.
ACI 544.3R gives specific guidance for steel fiber rein- Structural lightweight concretes are made with manu-
forced concrete. Open slab surfaces should first be struck factured or natural aggregates that weigh between 35 and
off with a metal vibrating screed, then floated with a mag- 70 lb per CU ft. These aggregates may absorb 5 to 20 per-
nesium float. Wood floats tend to tear the surface and cent water by weight of dry material so unless they are
should not be used. Beware of overworking that brings ex- pre-wetted before they are placed in a mixer, they will
cess fines to the surface. If bleeding occurs or excessive absorb some of the mixing water. If the aggregate con-
fines are at the surface, the material should be screeded tinues to absorb water after the concrete arrives on the
off and discarded. job, rapid slump loss may occur, making concrete place-
Steel fiber reinforced concrete may be sufficiently fin- ment and consolidation difficult. Thus pre-wetting is
ished for some purposes after this initial floating. If spe- strongly recommended to aid in producing consistent mix
cifications call for a special texture or finer finish, a batches.
waiting period follows. Any further finishing should be Finishing differs somewhat from procedures used for
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done with magnesium floats, either hand or power equip- regular weight concretes. Since the coarse aggregate is
ment. The hand float should be held flat and moved back generally lighter than the fine aggregate, working the con-
and forth with short quick strokes as it is drawn across the crete tends to bring coarse aggregate rather than mortar
surface. Hard steel troweling may be done next, if needed, to the surface. Most lightweight concretes can be placed
with the trowel kept flat to avoid causing fibers to spring and vibrated with lower slumps than normal weight con-
out of the surface. Steel fibers should be kept fully em- cretes. High slumps should be avoided because the coarse
bedded to avoid maintenance problems later. aggregate particles might tend to float to the surface,
making finishing difficult. However, a properly propor-
tioned lightweight mix should be as readily finishable as
Finishing lightweight aggregate concrete normal weight. Entrained air is generally used to improve
This section applies to structural lightweight concrete workability.
mixes that generally weigh between 90 and 120 lb per CU AC1 302.1R has several recommendations for finishing
ft. The lightweight insulating-type concretes weighing 60 lb lightweight structural concrete:
68
A C 1 CCS-3 9 4 IObb2949 0538493 0 4 4
1. Do not overwork or overvibrate. A properly propor- Colored concrete

tioned mix can be placed, screeded, and bull floated The four most common ways of producing colored
with about half the effort considered good practice surfaces on concrete slabs are:
with normal weight concrete. Too much darbying or
bull floating drives down the heavier mortar and 1. Applying dyes, stains, or paints to the hardened
brings too much coarse aggregate to the surface. surface.
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. Use a magnesium darby or bull float, because it will 2. Applying a prepared dry pigment mixture to the sur-
slide over the coarse aggregate instead of tearing or face during construction before final floating and
dislodging it. troweling (dry shake method). If a pigmented color
3. Float and flat trowel the surface as soon as surface cure is used, be sure to choose one specifically
moisture is gone, and while the concrete is still recommended by the manufacturer of the surface
plastic. For hand floating, use a magnesium tool. pigment.
Excess moisture should be removed if evaporation 3. Using colored concrete throughout the slab (single-
is not taking place soon enough (while concrete is course method)
still plastic). 4. Using a layer of colored concrete as a topping (two-
course method)
Paints and stains-Paints or stains are generally used

DECORATIVE FLATWORK only when an existing slab must be colored. Paints tend to
wear away under traffic and the surface must be repainted
A number of decorative and special finishes for con- periodically. Chemical stains penetrate into the surface of
crete are available to make slabs on grade an important the concrete and do not form a film on the surface. With
element of many landscaping schemes. Colored concrete, some stains it is difficult to get a uniform color, so be sure
exposed aggregate, and pattern-stamped concrete are des- to follow the manufacturer's instructions.
cribed briefly in this section. For more detailed step-by- Dry shake method-A wider range of colors can be
step instructions read the PCA publication, "Finishing achieved by this method than by the other methods (ex-
Slabs with Color and Texture" (Reference 2). cept for painting). Also color uniformity is usually better.
69
AC1 CCS-L 7 4 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 05184ïLt TBO m
However, timing of finishing operations is critical, parti- Single-course method-In this method, all of the con-
cularly on hot windy days. crete is colored, and chips and spalls don't show as much.
The dry-shake color material consists of portland Enough color pigment or color admixture is added to each
cement, a pigment, and specially graded silica sand or fine batch of concrete to produce the desired color. Use white
aggregate. These materials must be carefully batched and cement in the concrete to get brighter colors (except for
blended, so it is best to buy the prepared mixes instead of gray and black surfaces).
trying to mix them at the jobsite. Since this is a portland Pigments are made of mineral oxides, either natural or
cement product that is applied manually, follow recom- synthetic. Some materials such as lampblack and carbon
mended health and safety precautions such as those listed black should be avoided. One way to check if pigment
on p. 6 . contains lampblack or carbon black is to put some pigment
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The job specificationsor the manufacturer's recommen- in a cup of water. Carbon black and lampblack will float.
dation will tell you the amount of coloring material to be Pigments should contain no soluble salts or acids and
used. The dry-shake is applied immediately after the sur- should not be affected by sunlight, weak acids, or strong
face has been floated by either power or hand float. Dis- aikalis.
tribute the material evenly (Fig. 5.9) in two applications. The weight of pigment used per batch is between about
A mechanical spreader is preferred to hand application. 1.5 and 8 percent of the cement weight. Pastel colors can
First, about two-thirds of the material is applied and is be achieved with the lower percentages. Higher percen-
floated into the surface as soon as it begins to absorb tages produce stronger colors but more than 10 percent
moisture from the concrete. It is best to use a power float. should never be used. For best results, blend the dry
Then apply the rest of the dry material, preferably dis- cement and pigment before they are added to the mix.
tributing the material at right angles to the direction of Color admixtures, which contain pigments and other
the first application. Again, the dry material is floated into admixture materials to control set or improve workability,
the surface. Usually the surface is troweled immediately can be used instead of pure pigments. Both powder and
after this floating. In some cases a second and third trow- liquid forms are available, and some are supplied in bags
eIing are done. If the material has been uniformly applied, that dissolve in the mixer, thus avoiding airborne pigment
the color should be reasonably uniform. Joints and tooled dust.
edges should be "run" before and after each application. Concreting operations are about the same as for nor-
70
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 = Ob62949 0 5 3 8 4 9 5 917 H
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
mal concrete. Curing must be done as outlined in Chapter
7. The main disadvantage to the single course method is
that pigments and white cements are costly and most of
the color is buried within the slab.
Two-course method-A colored topping on a normal
base slab can be used to overcome the cost disadvantage
of the single-course method. Here only the topping is
colored and if the topping is only %I to 1%in. thick, the
added cost of a two-course operation is usually less than
the added cost of color in a single-course slab.
The topping should be placed on the base slab as soon
as the base slab has hardened enough so that footprints
are barely noticeable. There should be no bleed water on
the surface of the base slab when the topping is placed.
Fig. 5.9-Dry-shake material is distributed evenly by hand
Exposed aggregate slab surfaces aper the slab has been floated. The first application takes
Exposed aggregate, a popular decorative finish, offers about two-thirds of the total material required. Use a mech-
a wide range of color and texture choices. Properly con- anical spreader for larger areas (photo courtesy Portland
structed exposed aggregate slabs can also be rugged, slip Cement Association)
resistant, and durable. Two ways of preparing surfaces for
aggregate exposure are: high proportion of coarse aggregate.
In the seeding method, special aggregates are distri-
Seeding method buted on and embedded in the top of the slab. For a large
0 Topping course method slab, extra construction joints may be needed, because the
seeding method takes about three times as long as regular
Conventionally placed concrete slabs can also have sat- finishing, and you need to work on smaller sections at a
isfactory exposed aggregate surfaces if they contain a time. Forms for a seeded aggregate slab are set Yi to in.
71
A C 1 CCS-IJ 9 4 W 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 05LB49b 8 5 3
wood float, a darby (Fig. 5.10), or a straightedge. Then use

a magnesium float to further embed and slightly cover all
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
aggregate particles with mortar. This step is tricky, because
you want to get about vis in. of mortar over all of the
seeded aggregate, without bringing any of the regular
coarse aggregate to the surface.
Shortly after floating, a chemical surface retarder may
be sprayed or brushed on at the manufacturer’s recom-
mended rate. The retarder slows the hardening of the con-
crete, but only to a limited depth. Ordinarily this permits
several hours to elapse before brushing and hosing the
surface with water. Timing is important, because the sur-
face must be hard enough to permit exposure of the ag-
gregate without dislodging it. Exposure of the aggregate is
done in several stages of washing and brushing while the
concrete continues to set. On a small job, the chemical
Fig. 5.10-Aggregate seeded onto a concrete slab must first retarder may not be needed, since early brushing and
be partially embedded with darbies (as shown), wooden washing are feasible.
floats or straightedges. For final embedment work with a bull In the topping course method, a 1- to 2-in. layer of
float or a hand float until the surface resembles a normal concrete containing special aggregates is placed on top of
slab (photo courtesy Portland Cement Association) a base slab of conventional concrete. The base slab should
be given a rough broomed finish, and be firm enough to
lower than the desired final slab elevation to allow for the support the weight of a worker before the topping mix is
added thickness of the seeding aggregate. placed. The base slab is struck off below the top of the
After the slab is struck off and darbied or bull floated forms to allow room for the special topping mix. Use of a
in the usual way, spread the aggregate by hand or with a surface retarder is recommended with this method, and
No. 2 square-point shovel, covering the surface uniformly brushing and washing are the same as with the seeding
with one layer of aggregate. Embed the aggregate with a method.
72
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 W Obb2949 0 5 1 8 4 9 7 7 9 T W
When aggregate of a conventional concrete mix is to be

exposed, best results are obtained with a high proportion
of coarse aggregate - about 70 percent of the total aggre-
gate. The coarse aggregate should be uniform in size (gap-
graded), and the concrete slump kept between 1 and 3 in.
so that the coarse aggregate remains near the surface.
Strike off, bull float, or darby as with conventional con-
crete, but limit floating to avoid depressing coarse aggre-
gate too deeply. Apply a surface retarder to delay set of
the surface while permitting the underlying concrete to
harden. The aggregate is exposed by brushing and washing
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as with the other exposure methods.
Textured or patterned surfaces

The imagination and skill of the craftsman are the
major limits on the variety of textured concrete surfaces.
References 2 and 4 and AC1 302.1R explain how to create
such surfaces as:
0 Swirl trowel or sweat finish

0 Broomed finish in patterns
0 Rock salt texture
0 Travertine finish Fig. 5.11-Flexible plastic mats being used to imprint stone
Geometric patterns, including stamped patterns texture on a pesh concrete slab. Rigid plastic and metal took
are also used. Timing is important since all stamping must be
Many of these are done in combination with color and completed before the concrete hardens completely (photo
exposed aggregate previously discussed. courtesy Patterned Concrete Industries)
73
Pattern stamping has become increasingly popular be- to the proper depth. Form release agent brushed on the
cause stone, brick, and tile patterns can be cut deeply into stamping pads helps keep them free of mortar. A sheet of
partially set concrete. The concrete may be integrally 1- to 2-mil plastic can be placed on the surface after it has
colored or it may have a dry-shake color topping, and it been troweled and before the stamping tools are applied.
should have small coarse aggregate such as pea gravel for This allows the worker more time to set the stamps, pre-
best results. vents the tools from cutting too deep, and results in a
After a surface has been floated or troweled to the more rounded, uniform appearance.
desired texture, stamping tools or pads are placed (Fig. Pattern stamping pads or mats may be made of plastic
5.11) on the surface, one next to another so that the or metal. Roller tools are also available to print a pattern
pattern is aligned accurately. The weight of the worker in fresh concrete.
standing on the tool or a tamper serves to embed the tool
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74
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 m 0662949 0538499 562
CHAPTER 6
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
JOINTING
Shrinkage is unavoidable. It is normal to experience joints predetermine a straight-line location of cracks that
some drying shrinkage cracking on every concrete slab occur when the concrete shrinks; and construction joints
project. Slabs on grade can be expected to curl because are stopping places for a day’s work. The contraction
most of the shrinkage occurs at the top of the slab. Joints joints are sometimes called control joints, and some isola-
are made in concrete in attempts to limit the cracking and tion joints may also be called expansion joints.
control its location. Joints allow the concrete to move
slightly. Concrete slabs move because of (1)settlement, (2) Isolation joints
shrinkage of the concrete, (3) temperature and moisture Isolation joints in slabs on grade permit horizontal and
changes, and (4) loads. If there are no joints, the concrete vertical movement between the slab and any walls, col-
tries to absorb these movements by pulling or pushing umns, or footings that the slab abuts. Except for shrink-
whatever the concrete is attached to. The tensile strength age-compensating concrete slabs, all internal concrete
of concrete is fairly low, and when loads exceed that slabs will shrink away from these fixed objects. If the slab
strength, concrete cracks. is rigidly joined to a fixed object, the slab is likely to crack
There are three basic types of joints in slabs on grade: because the slab drying shrinkage cannot be accommo-
dated.
e Isolation joints Fig. 6.1 is a sketch of a floor on ground, showing where
e Contraction joints the isolation joints are. Note the isolation joints are used
e Construction joints along the walls and around all of the columns. If the slab
borders a separate footing, such as a machine foundation,
Briefly described, isolation joints separate slabs from fixed use an isolation joint to isolate the footing from the slab.
objects like walls and columns so that slabs can move in- Isolation joints around columns can be square or circu-
dependently of other parts of the structure. Contraction lar as shown in Fig. 6.2. Note that the square pattern has
75
A C 1 CCS-3 9Y W Obb29Y9 0 5 3 8 5 0 0 0 0 4 =
may be thickened about 25 percent and tapered back to
the normal thickness at a slope of not more than 1 in 10.
Installing isolation joint material

Isolation joints must permit the slab to move vertically
and horizontally with respect to the adjacent wall, column
or footing. Isolation joint material must be compressible
and thick enough to permit such movement. Joint material
% in. thick is commonly used. In freeze-thaw regions, caul-
king may be required for long-term joint maintenance.
Isolation joints are made of preformed asphalt-impreg-
nated fiber sheeting or similar materials. It is important
that the joint filler extend the full depth of the joint and
not protrude above it. There should be no concrete-to-
concrete contact because that could cause spalling at the
joint (see Fig. 5.6). The filler material should be inserted
Fig. 6.1-Joints in a floor on grade. Isolation joints permit before placement of concrete. At columns, the isolation
the slab to move up or down ( v e y slightly) relative to walls, joint boxout is formed when the slab is placed. After the
columns orfootings. Contraction (control)jointspermit slabs form is removed, isolation joint material is placed at the
to shrink without excessive cracking between joints. Construc- formed surface and around the column base. Then con-
tion joints are stopping places for a day’s work porn ACI crete is placed to fill the remaining gap in the slab, pre-
302.1R) ferably as long as possible after surrounding slab panels
are placed. The delay minimizes elevation differences
been rotated 45 deg so that the corners meet the contrac- when slab corners settle.
tion joints in slab. If the square pattern is not rotated, the
slab is likely to crack as shown in Fig. 6.2(c). Curling
If vehicles are to pass over isolation joints that have no The shrinkage of concrete as it dries usually amounts
provision for load transfer, such as at doorways, the slab to about % in. in 20 ft. A concrete slab on grade does not
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76
A C 1 CCS-II 74 0 b b 2 7 4 7 05Lô50L T 4 0 m
I ISOLATION I
CONTRACTION
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Filled around column

Preformed strip
,112 in. (13 rnm) thick
O 0
I
1
Fig. 6.2-Isolation joints around columns should be either circular as shown in (a), or diamond shaped as shown in (b). If
no trolation joints are used around columns, or if the comers of the isolation joint do not meet the contraction joints, radial
cracking as shown in (c) may occur
77
dry uniformly from top to bottom. The top of the slab Make all contraction joints continuous, not staggered or
dries and shrinks more than the bottom. As a result, the offset. If an engineer has designed the slab, using distri-
slab tends to curl or dish so that the edges are higher than buted steel to extend the joint spacings, you will of course
the center. Friction between the supporting subgrade and provide joint locations as required by the project drawings.
the slab resists normal shrinkage of the concrete, causing In driveways and sidewalks, contraction joints should be
it to crack. spaced at intervals about equal to the slab width. Drives
and walks wider than 10 to 12 ft should have a longitudi-
Contraction joints nal joint down the center. In patio slabs, joints should not
To avoid random cracks, contraction joints are used to be more than 10 ft apart in both directions. As with floor
create straight-line planes of weakness in the slab. As the slabs, make the panels as nearly square as possible. As a
slab shrinks and tends to curl, the joints open slightly and general rule, the smaller the panel, the less likelihood of
cracks occur at the predetermined locations instead of ran- random cracking.
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
domly over the slab. The planes of weakness may be Contraction joints should also be located at re-entrant
established by jointing tools, by insertion of joint forming corners such as those shown in Fig. 6.3; otherwise, cracks
strips while the concrete is still plastic, or by sawing after are likely to radiate from the corners. The part of a con-
the concrete has been finished. crete slab within a very sharp corner is likely to crack.
Avoid such sharp corners if possible, but if they cannot be
Where to put contraction joints avoided, make sure that the subgrade is well compacted
Fig. 6.1 shows a typical layout of contraction joints in and locate contraction joints where cracking is most likely
a floor on grade. Contraction joints should be placed on to occur (Fig. 6.4). Reinforcing steel is sometimes added
or straddling column lines, with intermediate joints be- to hold cracks closed tight at sharp or re-entrant corners.
tween column lines to keep the maximum distance be-
tween joints at 24 to 36 times the slab thickness.* The Scoring joints with a groover
resulting panels should be as nearly square as practical, Straight line joints may be scored with a grooving tool
dividing a large floor area into relatively small panels.
Avoid elongated and L-shaped panels. Never make the You may have read this rule before. It is frequently stated differently: "Joint
long side more than 1% times as long as the short side. spacing in feet should be two to three times the slab thickness in inches."
78
A C 1 C C S - L 94 I0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0538503 B L 3 W
CONTRACTION
JOINTS
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Plan of Slab on Grade Plan of Slab on Grade
Fig. 6.3-Locate a contraction joint at all re-entrant corners. Fig. 6.4-Where the slab must have a sharp comer, locate
Otherwise expect radial cracking as shown in Fig. 6.2(c) joints where the slab W. likely to crack
while the concrete is fresh. Jointing should be done follow- cut of this depth provides a weakened plane that induces
ing buil floating and the proper waiting period for the con- cracking beneath the joint, where it is not visible. The
crete to firm up and for bleed water to disappear. Mark radius at the top of the groove should be as small as pos-
the location of each joint with a string or chalk line on sible for floors. AC1 302 recommends % in. For outdoor
both side forms and on the concrete surface. flatwork, a radius of % to ?hin.is satisfactory.
Use a straightedge such as a board at least 6 in. wide The groover should be held against the side of the
as a guide for grooving (Fig. 6.5). The groover should have straightedge (Fig. 6.5) as it is moved across the slab. To
a bit deep enough to cut one-fourth of the slab depth. A start the joint, push the groover into the Concrete, and
79
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 W 0662749 0 5 3 8 5 0 4 7 5 T
Fig. 6.5-When jointing with a groover, use a straightedge such as 1-in. board, at least 6 in. wide, as a guide (photo courtesy
Portland Cement Association)
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80
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0662749 0 5 3 8 5 0 5 6 9 6
move it forward while applying pressure to the back of the After both sides of the joint have been cast, keyed joints
tool. After the joint is cut, turn the tool around and pull often appear to be ragged unless both sides are edged or
it back over the groove to get a smooth finish. sawed as shown in Fig. 6.6. Keyed metal joints are not re-
commended for construction joints subject to hard-wheel
Construction joints traffic. Doweled joints are better than keyed joints where
Construction joints are placed in a slab where con- vehicular traffic or loads are heavy (see p. 85).
creting operations are concluded for the day, usually con- Construction joints can be made to act as isolation
forming to a predetermined joint layout. However, if con- joints by lining the bulkhead with a preformed compres-
creting is interrupted long enough for the placed concrete sible sheet material. If construction joints occur where
to harden, you should install a construction joint regard- neither a contraction joint nor an isolation joint is wanted,
less of the planned layout. If possible, keep construction tie bars or welded wire fabric may be used across the joint.
joints 5 ft or more from any other joint to which they are Tie bars should be located at mid-depth of the slab, at
parallel. right angles to the joint. Use #4 or #5 bars, 30 in. long,
The edge forms or bulkheads for slab-on-grade con- centered on the joint and not more than 30 in. apart.
struction joints are generally keyed for 6-in. or thicker These tie bars should not be confused with the smooth
slabs so that the slab will have a tongue-and-groove joint steel dowel bars described later, which permit horizontal
after concrete has been cast on both sides. Typical keyed movement at the joint.
side forms are shown in Fig. 6.6. If the side forms are
made of lumber, a beveled 1 x 2 will be adequate to form Sawed joints
the key for slabs 5 to 8 in. thick. (Beveled 2 x 2s are not Sawing is one of the most common methods of making
satisfactory.) A longitudinal saw cut in the beveled 1 x 2 contraction joints in pavements and slabs on grade (Fig.
will permit the key to swell slightly without cracking the 6.7 and 6.8). Sawed joints can be straight and clean. The
concrete. Metal and premolded joint formers which have craftsman sawing joints should know when to saw joints,
keyways are also used. They should be installed as directed which joint to saw next, how deep to make the saw cut,
by the manufacturers. and how to keep saw blades from wearing away too fast
Keyed joints act like contraction joints - they permit when very hard aggregates are used.
slight horizontal movement but little vertical movement. When tu saw - Joints should be sawed as soon as the
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 81
A C 1 CCS-II 9 4 Ob62949 05Lô506 5 2 2 m
Mar sown. .dao to Ia'rodiur ûulkhoad of 2' Edge i / a ' ~LOW ond ~IIJ
to motch contractbn joints
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
e .
I
t/lO but min. Ak Mato1 hay
(proferredl
Wood hoy Prrrnoldcd
hay' Break bond with 011.
paint or curing
314' (20mm)
compound
May be left in slab permanently by lightly tacking

to bulkhead if not subjected to heavy traffic.
Fig. 6 . 6 K e y e d construction joints for slabs 4 in. or thicker. For slabs 6 to 8 in. thick, beveled 1 x 2 strips can be used to form
key. Longitudinal sawcut in key permits wood to swell slightly without cracking concrete porn ACI 302.1R)
82
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 m 0662949 05L8507 469
concrete is hard enough not to be torn or damaged by the

blade, but before random cracks can form in the concrete
slab. With wet cut saws, usually this condition occurs from
4 to 12 hr after finishing is complete, although sawing as
late as 24 hr may be successful under some conditions.
The saw operator should make trial cuts starting a few
hours after the concrete hardens. If aggregate particles
come loose, it is too soon to begin sawing. Begin sawing
as soon as raveling stops. Standby equipment should be
available if needed.
In hot weather or when cracking is most likely to occur,
it is sometimes necessary to saw every third or fourth joint
before sawing the intermediate joints.
Nihich joint to saw next - Usually joints are sawed in
the same sequence as the slab was cast.
How deep to saw - Joints should be sawed to a depth
of about one-fourth of the slab thickness (except when the
lightweight early-cutting saw is used). This will weaken the
slab enough that when the concrete shrinks, the concrete
directly beneath the joint will crack. The roughness of the
crack (called aggregate interlock) will prevent vertical Fig. 6.7-Use a power saw to cut contraction joints as soon
movement, as long as the crack does not become too wide. as the concrete is hard enough that it does not ravel. With
No-wait sawing - Sawing techniques just described re- wet cut saws, generals the depth of the saw cut should be %
quire a wait of 4 hours or more and a saw cut one-fourth ofthe slab thickness
the depth of the slab in order to get a good contraction
joint. The technology has been weli established for some troduced to cut concrete almost immediately after finish-
time. More recently a lightweight dry cut saw has been in- ing operations. With a long handle, the operator can cut
83
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A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0 b b 2 9 4 9 0 5 1 8 5 0 8 3T5
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 6.8-On small jobs, contraction joints can be sawed with a hydraulic power saw fitted with an abrasive or diamond blade
(photo courteV Partner Industrial Products)
up to 30 ft without walking on the concrete. For longer deep. Reportedly a %-in. depth of cut is satisfactory for
cuts, following a short wait, an operator wearing smooth- jointing 4-in. slabs, while cuts up to % in. are satisfactory
soled shoes can walk on the slab and use the tool with a for slabs 4 to 6 in. thick. Joints have also been made
6-ft handle. This type of saw cuts only from X to 1% in. successfully in much thicker slabs using this kind of saw.
84
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 m 0662947 05LB.509 231 m
Jointing strips Sealing of joints
Several types of manufactured strips are made specifi- Sawed joints in floors may be sealed to facilitate
cally for creating weakened planes in concrete slabs. These cleaning and to support the joint edges under traffic.
strips are inserted at contraction joint locations after the Sealing prevents water from entering the joints and either
slab has been bull floated. They should be installed accor- freezing or entering the subgrade. The type of sealant de-
ding to the manufacturer’s directions. As with all other pends on the exposure conditions and on the type of traf-
contraction joints, the depth of the strips should be at fic. For example, in many food processing plants, floors
least one-fourth of the slab thickness. must be easy to clean and still support heavy lift trucks.
Sealants for joints in such floors must be hard enough to
Doweled bulkhead joints support the edges of the slab and prevent spalling at the
Doweled joints are used mainly in pavements but they joint and pliable enough to permit slight opening and
are also used in industrial floors which carry heavy closing of the joint. Sealing of joints should be done as
wheeled traffic. The purpose of the dowels is to help hold required by the job specifications.
the two sides of the joint at the same elevation when a
wheel passes over the joint. In order for the joint to Table 6.1-ACI302.1R recommended smooth dowel length
permit horizontal movement, the dowels must not bond to and diameter, with dowels spaced 12 in. on centers
the concrete on at least one side of the joint. To function
properly, the dowels must be level and parallel to one
another and parallel to the length of the slab. The joint
must be centered over the midlength of the dowels. In Total dowel
order to meet all these requirements, dowels are fre- Slab depth, in. Dowel diameter, in. length, in.
quently delivered to the job made up in dowel baskets 5 to 6 Y
4 16
which can be placed directly on the subgrade (Fig. 6.9).
Table 6.1 shows dowel sizes recommended by AC1 7 to 8 1 18
302.1R for several thicknesses of slab. All of these dowels 9 to 11 1% 18
should be spaced 12 in. on center.
85
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-II 7 4 W 0662749 0 5 L B 5 L O T53
CUT BASKI3 WIRE

BEFORE CONCRETING
Daml wilh sleeve of predtochcd
covuinq to assure sltppaqe
HA
TH
qv BOND BREAKER (SHADED AREA) ON

DOWELS MAY BE ON WHOLE OR
HALF LENGTH OF DOWEL
aájacenl stab ptoced corngound before
bondISbmkinq
Fig. 6.9-Prefabricated dowel bar assembb is called a dowel basket. It must be positioned so that the slab joint is aligned with
the midpoint of the dowels. Doweh must be parallel to one another. Cut dowel basket wire before placing concrete
In industrial floors subject to hard-wheel traffic, the Elastomeric (flexible) sealants are used only where the
joints should be filled and protected with a material such joint will not be subjected to the traffic of small, hard
as semi-rigid epoxy that gives adequate support to the wheels. They may be either field molded or preformed.
joint and also resists wear. These materials are applied at Preformed elastomeric compression sealants are used in
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
least 3 to 6 months after the slab is built. They are used some applications. They are quick to instau, require no
only where little further movement is expected, particu- curing, and if properly chosen can maintain a tight seal in
larly in interior slabs. joints that are subject to opening and closing.
86
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 m 0 6 6 2 7 4 7 05L85LL 77T m
Before sealing a joint, it should be thoroughly cleaned can occur if the compressor oiler blows a film of oil onto
of dirt and debris by blowing with compressed air, wire the joint, preventing bond of the sealant to the concrete.
brushing, or sandblasting. A problem with compressed air
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87
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 05L85L2 8 2 6
CHAPTER 7
CURING AND PROTECTION OF CONCRETE
Curing is the maintaining of a satisfactory moisture Moisture

content and temperature in concrete during its early stages Hydration of cement stops when concrete dries. This
so that desired properties may develop. It is important to means that concrete must be kept from drying for as long
start curing slabs on grade immediately after finishing as possible to reach its highest strength. Most concretes
because the large area of slab surface can lose moisture or have water-cement or water-cementitious ratios in the
change temperature very rapidly. In severe weather - range of 0.4 to 0.7 lb water per pound of cement or
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
whether windy, hot, or cold - some measures to protect cementitious material. This provides more than enough
the slab may be needed even before the finishing is com- water in most fresh concrete to fuily hydrate the cement.
plete. If the water is kept in the concrete, hydration will con-
tinue, but if all the free water evaporates hydration prac-
Importance of curing tically stops. You can protect the all-important concrete
The hardening of concrete depends on a chemical re- surface either by applyingwater or preventing evaporation.
action, the hydration of cement. The rate of hydration For concrete slabs with water-cement ratios less than 0.4,
depends on temperature and time, but hydration also calls however, added moisture will be needed during curing.
for moisture to be present.
As concrete hardens, it becomes stronger, resists Temperature and time
damage, and becomes more durable. The longer concrete Warm concrete hardens faster than cold concrete and
hardens, the stronger it becomes. Providing the right con- during the first few days, gains strength faster than cold
ditions for concrete curing involves three factors: concrete. For example, if a concrete mix begins to set in
0 Moisture 2 hr at 70 F, it may set in an hour or less at 95 F. In fact
0 Temperature where high strengths are needed quickly, concrete may be
0 Time heated with steam or by other means. When such curing
88
A C 1 CCS-1 7 4 D 0662949 0518513 762 =
is used, precautions must be taken to avoid damaging the number of non-chloride accelerators speed up the hard-
concrete. ening of concrete so that it gains enough strength to resist
At temperatures just above freezing, fresh concrete damage from freezing. AC1 306R describes these accelera-
hardens very slowly. For the mix that set in 2 hr at 70 F, tors and explains where calcium chloride or chloride-con-
the setting time may increase to 3 hr or more at 50 F and taining admixtures can be used, and where non-chloride
5 hr or longer at 35 F. In cold weather, when tempera- accelerators are needed.
tures average below 40 F, concrete must be protected
against freezing for the first day or two (see Cold Weather When to start curing
Precautions, p. 98). When the temperature is above 40 F, The statement "start curing immediately" cannot be
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
continuous moist curing should be maintained at least 7 overemphasized. Curing should start as soon as placing
days, unless specifications direct otherwise. and finishing are completed and the surface will not be
The ''best'' temperature for making concrete depends on damaged by the curing method. If concrete surfaces dry
how long the concrete will be cured. If concrete will be before the concrete hardens, or are alternately wet and
cured naturally for long periods such as in dams or foun- dry, cracks may appear on the surface. To prevent such
dations, concrete made at cold temperatures (just above cracks, steps must be taken to reduce evaporation during
freezing) will eventually be stronger than concrete made finishing operations and for several days thereafter. This
at higher temperatures. Concrete that can be cured only task may be extremely difficult unless someone has
a few days, however, should be kept above 60 F. Heat of planned and is ready to take action before concrete is cast.
hydration generated by the setting action of cement also Au materials and equipment needed for protection from
affects concrete strength gain. early drying and for curing should be available and ready
Fresh concrete will freeze below 32 F. Concrete that for use before the concrete arrives.
freezes soon after it is made and before its strength
reaches about 500 psi may be permanently damaged. Fro- Curing methods
zen concrete must be removed and replaced. Admixtures Maintaining a satisfactory temperature for concrete
do not lower the freezing point of concrete significantly, during curing is discussed later under "hot weather" and
so they do not behave as anti-freeze agents. However, "cold weather" precautions. This section concentrates on
accelerating admixtures such as calcium chloride and a the many ways to maintain a satisfactory moisture content.
89
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 m O b 6 2 9 4 9 05185L4 b T 9 m
water, so long as the surface is not damaged by the appli-
cation of water. For slabs on grade, a soil dike a few
inches high can be built around the edges of the slab. The
slab is then covered with water. The dikes must not leak
and water should cover the entire concrete surface until
curing is completed. Water on the surface will help to
keep the temperature of the concrete more uniform.
Curing water should be not more than about 20 F cooler
than the concrete because of surface temperature stresses
which could cause cracking.
Sprinkling or fog spraying - Where water running off
the concrete will cause no harm, such as on a driveway,
patio, or other small areas, lawn sprinklers may be used to
cure concrete. The entire surface should be kept wet (Fig.
7.1). Fog spraying is also good, especially in hot weather.
Water pressure and flow must be low enough to avoid
Fig. 7.l-Sprinkling is effective for curing concrete. Be sure washing away the new surface.
to keep the entire surface wet Wet burlap or mats - Concrete may also be cured by
covering it with wet burlap, blankets, cotton mats, or
Concrete should be kept continuously moist for 7 days un- carpets. These materials must be kept wet during the
less otherwise specified. To avoid crazing and cracking do entire curing period. Burlap should be heavy weight (to
not allow the concrete surface to become dry during this hold water better) and should be thoroughly rinsed before
period. Choose one method or a combination of methods it is used to avoid staining. Strips of burlap should be
that is most practical for each job from those listed as overlapped by about half their width to provide a double
follows. layer. This helps retain moisture and prevent displacement
Ponding - Although seldom used, one of the best during heavy wind or rain. The burlap or other absorbent
methods of curing concrete is to cover the concrete with material must be kept wet continuously by frequently
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
90
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 S Obb2949 05L85L5 535
Fig. 7.2-Burlap can be used to cure concrete as long as the Fig. 7.3-Worker is rolling waterproof paper onto a slab as
entire sugace is kept wet by pequen t sprinkling soon us finishing is completed. Sheets should be lapped und
edges should be weighted down to avoid wind damage
sprinkling with a garden hose, as shown in Fig. 7.2. A
manufactured product combining burlap bonded to plastic stain the surface. There is also a fire hazard when they dry
film is also practical for moist curing. Another product out.
made with synthetic white fibers and plastic is lighter in The methods just described require adding water to
weight and less likely to stain. prevent drying of the concrete. The methods that follow
Wet sand - Wet loose materials such as sand or soil work by keeping the extra mixing water in the concrete
can be used to cure concrete slabs or footings. Wet saw- during the curing period.
dust, straw, and hay have been used, but they sometimes Wuteproof paper or plustic film - Waterproof paper
91 --`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-1 94 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0518516 471 =
made of two layers of kraft paper bonded together with should be provided and other safety precautions should be
asphalt and reinforced with fibers is used to cure concrete. taken. When applied to the concrete surface, curing com-
It is delivered in rolls but lies flat when rolled onto a pounds form a film which seals the moisture in. To form
concrete slab. If handled carefully, waterproof paper can a continuous film, the liquid must be applied thick
be used several times. When placed on a slab, edges enough; generally a gallon covers between 150 and 200 sq
should be lapped and weighted down to avoid wind dam- ft (8 to 10 mils thick) depending on the solids content. To
age and to be sure that the paper is in contact with the be effective, curing compounds must form a film soon
concrete (Fig. 7.3). after they are applied. White or gray colors are sometimes
Tears in this paper are easy to see and can be patched. added to curing compounds to reflect sunlight and show
Pin holes resulting from traffic or wear are evident if the that the compound is being applied uniformly.
paper is held up to the light. When the condition of the Curing compounds should not be used on surfaces
paper is questionable, use a double thickness. which are to be covered with concrete, mortar, tile, or
Plastic film must be at least 4 mils (0.004 in.) thick and paint, unless tests show that the compound can be ade-
can be clear, white, or black. For hot weather, white is quately removed or that it will not weaken the bond be-
best because it reflects the heat; black is better for cold tween the slab and the covering. Some curing compounds
weather because heat is absorbed. Plastic sheets are not as will crystallize in relatively short periods (30 days) and
heavy as waterproof paper and sizes tend to be larger. create no problems with bond. Most curing compounds
They should be weighted to stay in contact with the con- will not allow a good bond for toppings containing port-
crete surface. However, they do not lie perfectly flat; in- land cement, such as latex underlayments and other
stead they wrinkle. These wrinkles leave light and dark "match patches" used to level floor slabs. Many curing
streaks on the concrete surface, which may be objection- compounds are compatible with adhesives for asphalt or
able. Where appearance is not important, plastic sheets vinyl tile.
can be used as curing covers. Plastic film or waterproof The use of curing compounds is probably the most pop-
paper should cover exposed slab edges as well as flat ular curing method. Unfortunately, it is probably the most
surfaces. abused. Sometimes compounds are thinned too much and
Curingcompounds -Curing compounds contain waxes, continuous membranes wili not form. In other cases, the
resins, and solvents of high volatility. Adequate ventilation compound is spread too thin. Remember that unless a
92 --`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-3 94 I0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0538537 308
continuous film forms soon after the compound is applied,

it will not seal in the water. Some curing compounds wear
away under traffic, Thus, no traffic should be permitted on
the concrete during the curing period. Check for compati-
bility of the curing compound with any surface hardeners
that have been used.
Curing compounds are usually applied by spraying
equipment (Fig. 7.4) but for small areas they can be
applied by brush or roller. High-solids (about 30 percent
solids) curing compounds generally cure best, but may clog
non-power sprayers. Dyes added to curing compounds
help the craftsman applying the material to assure uniform
coverage. Two applications at right angles to each other
are recommended for complete coverage.
At least 30 days of air drying following the end of the
moist-curing period will improve resistance to scaling for
concrete exposed to freeze-thaw cycles and deicing salts. Fig. 7.4- Worker applying curing compound using pressure
Curing compounds may prevent adequate drying of slabs spray equipment
placed in the fall in cold-winter areas, so it’s a good idea
to use other methods of moist curing for slabs placed in ored with pigments. Coverings, sprinkling, or conventional
the fail. curing compounds will tend to discolor them. Review the
recommendations of the pigment manufacturer. Some re-
Curing colored concrete slabs commend a non-yellowing clear compound; others recom-
Cure slabs that will be painted or stained by covering mend pigmented wax curing material and other pigmented
them with waterproof paper or wet non-staining mats. Do compounds. Some prefer pigmented water-base curing
not cure them with spray-on compounds. compounds available from the supplier of the pigments,
A different procedure is recommended for slabs col- and the pigments are the same as those used in the con-
93 --`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 U Obb2949 0 5 L ô 5 L ô 2 4 4
Crete. The water-base compounds are commonly applied would be needed to make 1 CU yd of concrete with the
undiluted, using an airless sprayer. Recommended cover- same slump if the materials are ail at 85 F. Because of the
age rates are in the range of 300 to 400 sq ft per gallon, higher water-cement ratio, the 85 F mix will have a %-day
depending on porosity and texture of the surface. If an strength about 300 psi lower than that of the 60 F mix.
antiquing release agent has been applied during pattern Also the concrete made at 85 F will wear away faster and
stamping of the concrete, it should be removed before the wiíl be more porous. It will also shrink more, both from
curing agent is applied. Nonstaining curing blankets may drying and cooling.
be used if approved by the pigment manufacturer. Concrete expands when it is heated and contracts when
it is cooled. Concrete made at 95 F will contract more
Effects of high temperature on concrete than concrete made at 70 F when the concrete is cooled
Hot weather affects the properties of fresh concrete in to 50 F. If this contraction is resisted by surrounding
many ways, most of which can lead to trouble unless steps construction or subgrade friction, the concrete may tend
are taken to avoid problems. Concrete tends to stiffen to crack.
faster in hot weather than at cooler temperatures. For
example, if the initial setting time for a concrete mix is 2% Hot weather precautions
hours at 60 F, that time is likely to be reduced to about an Most concrete is cast in warm weather, and warm,
hour or less at 95 F. Because of this, the concrete crew moist conditions are nearly ideal for concreting. If the
should schedule concrete delivery no faster than the weather is hot, dry, and windy, a number of steps should
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workers and equipment can handle the concrete. be taken to avoid problems. AC1 305R recommends the
Since concrete loses slump more rapidly at high tem- following practices:
peratures, there is a tendency to add water to the mixer to
increase the slump. But even without adding water, more 1. Use concrete materials and proportions that have
water is needed to produce concrete with a given slump in worked well under hot weather conditions.
warm weather than in cool weather. For example, assume 2. Use cool concrete. See AC1 305R for ways to lower
that with certain materials, 33 gal of water are needed to concrete mix temperature.
produce 1 CU yd of concrete with a slump of 3 in. at 60 F. 3. Use a concrete consistency that permits rapid place-
With those same materials an additional 2 gal of water ment and effective consolidation.
94
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 = 0662949 05l185L7 L B O M
4. Transport, place, consolidate, and finish concrete I
L
with the least possible delay.
5. Plan the job to reduce exposure to the worst envi-
ronmental conditions; for example schedule placing
at night or other times that conditions are most fav-
orable.
6 . Protect against moisture loss at all times during
placing and curing.
Some of these steps are also specified to reduce the

particular hot-weather problem of plastic shrinkage
cracking.
Causes and prevention of plastic shrinkage cracking

Plastic shrinkage cracks are cracks that form while the
concrete is soft or plastic, usually soon after concrete is
placed. They occur when the slab surface is drying faster
than the bleed water is rising to the surface. Plastic shrink- Fig. 7.5-Cracks which appear on the su$ace of the concrete
age cracks are most likely to appear when the concrete is before the concrete hardens are called plastic Shrinkage
warm, and the weather is dry (low relative humidity), cracks
windy, and/or warm. Such cracks are located at random
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and generally appear as shown in Fig. 7.5. (Similar cracks takes into account the air temperature, relative humidity,
appear in materials other than concrete; for example, in wind velocity, and concrete temperature. Air temperature,
clay soils or in mud flats.) relative humidity, and wind speed are reported several
Fig. 7.6 can be used as a guide to help predict when times a day by most radio stations. However, be conser-
plastic shrinkage cracking might occur. The chart is based vative because conditions can be worse at the construction
on evaporation of water from a flat surface. The chart site or locally over portions of the site. Concrete tem-
95
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0662949 0518520 9T2 W
perature can be taken easiiy with a thermometer. When

the rate of evaporation exceeds about 0.2 Ib of water per
sq ft per hr, plastic shrinkage cracking may occur. With
concrete that doesn’t bleed much, plastic cracking can
occur at evaporation rates lower than 0.2.
To use Fig. 7.6, follow this example. Suppose the
weather report says that temperatures of 85 F can be ex-
pected; the relative humidity will be about 20 percent; and
the wind speed will reach 10 mph. Assume that the con-
crete temperature will be 80 F. To estimate the rate of
evaporation:
0 Enter Fig. 7.6 at the left, center, with the air tem-
perature of 85 F. Draw a vertical line to the curve
for 20 percent relative humidity.
From that point, draw a horizontal line to the right
to the 80-deg concrete temperature line.
From that point, draw a vertical line down to the
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0
wind velocity line for 10 mph.
From that point draw a horizontal line to the left
and read the rate of evaporation from the vertical
scale.
Fig. 7.6This chartprovides a method of estimating the rate If you have done these steps correctly, you should get
of evaporation of moisture from concrete. If the rate of evap- about 0.2 Ib per sq ft per hour. This means plastic shrink-
oration approaches 0.2 Iblsq ftlhr, take precautions against age cracking WU probably occur unless you take preven-
plastic shrinkage cracking tive measures given as follows. You can see that if the
96
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 Obb2949 05L852L ô 3 9 m
wind speed increases to 15 mph instead of 10 mph, the soon as possible after it is mixed. Long mixing or
evaporation rate will be nearly 0.3 instead of 0.2. Similarly, agitating will raise the concrete’s temperature.
if the concrete is warmer than 80 F, the evaporation rate 7. Postpone each step of finishing as long as possible
will be greater. without endangering results.
If plastic cracking might occur, a number of steps can 8. Be ready to start curing immediately after finishing
be taken to minimize the problem: the concrete.
1. Dampen the subgrade and forms before depositing Use of retarding admixtures
concrete, but only the minimum amount needed to Retarding admixtures may help to offset the rapid set-
prevent plastic shrinkage cracking. (Discontinue the ting and hardening of concrete in hot weather. As their
use of vapor barriers if possible,) name implies, they retard the setting of concrete. When
2. Protect the concrete against drying by using fog used properly they do not retard strength gain after
sprays or coverings such as white plastic sheets or setting.
damp burlap between the time that concrete is Water-reducing retarders will tend to offset the in-
placed and when it is ready to be finished. Evap- creased water demand caused by high temperatures. Re-
oration retarders (called monomolecular film) can tarders may cause faster bleeding of non-air-entrained
also be sprayed on immediately after screeding to concrete. In hot, dry weather, faster bleeding may help to
retard evaporation before final finishing and curing, prevent plastic cracking.
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3. Erect windbreaks to protect the concrete surface.
4. Erect sunshades in hot weather to keep the sun Cold weat her precautions
from overheating the concrete surface. Fresh concrete must be protected when temperatures
5 . Lower the temperature of the concrete in hot are below 40 F. In addition, concrete must be protected
weather by adding ice as part of the mix water, using against freezing at least until its strength is 500 psi or
cold mix water, and/or sprinkling the aggregate more. For most applications, much higher strengths should
stockpiles. Evaporation WU help to cool the aggre- be reached before forms are removed or concrete put into
gates. service. AC1 306R explains in detail the precautions that
6. Avoid delays so that concrete can be deposited as are needed.
97
A C 1 CCS-L 7 4 = 0662949 05L8522 775 M
Effects of cold temperatures on concrete seldom necessary to raise the temperature of concrete
Concrete that has an initial set of 2% hours at 60 F above 70 F; 60 F is preferable if practical. Plastic shrink-
might have an initial set of 3%hours or longer at 40 F and age cracking occasionally occurs in cold weather with
5 hours or more at 35 F. In addition, early strength gain certain combinations of warm concrete and dry wind.
is very slow. This means that the curing period must be ex- Placing warm concrete on a cold subgrade can result in
tended to attain a certain strength. If concrete is cured some problems that are very difficult to solve. Concrete in
long enough at cool temperatures, its strength may be contact with the subgrade will cool rapidly while concrete
higher at 28 days or later than concrete cured at warmer at the surface will set and begin to harden while the lower
temperatures. If there is no hurry for the strength, no concrete remains plastic and might still be bleeding. When
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special attention is required for curing concrete at tem- this happens, a "crust" forms at the surface just as the slab
peratures around 50 F. is ready to be floated and troweled. When the workers
The amount of mixing water needed to make concrete walk on the slab, the concrete feels rubbery and it is im-
with a given slump is less at low temperatures than at possible to obtain a true surface. Workers and finishing
higher temperatures. For example if 33 gal of water is machines have been known to punch through the crust
needed to make a CU yd of concrete at 60 F only about and the result is messy and difficult to repair. Worse yet,
31% gal will be needed at 40 F. This explains in part why bleed water can collect beneath the crust and form a plane
the strengths can be higher at later ages. of weakness which will cause the surface to scale. Even
Concrete expands when it is heated, so concrete that is though freezing does not occur, the surface can scale
cool when cast will expand later when it is heated. Expan- under traffic. It is best to avoid placing warm concrete on
sion due to normal heating will be more than offset by a cold subgrade. Ideally the temperature difference be-
drying shrinkage. But concrete cast when it is cool is less tween concrete and subgrade should be no more than
likely to have shrinkage cracks than if the concrete had 30 degress (F).
been warmer when cast, because it contains less water per Winter concreting is often done within temporary en-
unit volume. closures or within buildings under construction. Often such
To offset the slow setting and hardening of concrete in shelters are heated with portable heaters. Do not use un-
cold weather, warm mixing water and sometimes warm ag- vented gas or oil burning heaters while concrete slabs are
gregates are used to raise the concrete temperature. It is being cast. Carbon dioxide from these heaters is heavier
I
98
A C 1 CCS-1 7 4 E O b b 2 î Y ï 0 5 3 8 5 2 3 bo3
than air and will tend to settle at the floor surface. Some
of the carbon dioxide wiii combine with calcium hydroxide
in the concrete. This is called carbonation. It will cause a
weak and dusting surface after the concrete hardens.
Precautions against freezing

The most important precaution for concreting in cold
weather is to prevent concrete from freezing. Concrete
that freezes soon after it hardens but before its strength is
well above 500 psi may be permanently damaged. Corners
and edges are the most vulnerable. However, concrete
made and cast at low temperatures (above freezing) may
eventually be stronger and more durable than concrete
made during warm weather provided it is cured long
enough and does not freeze.
Thin sections such as floors on ground are difficult to Fig. 7.7-Insulating blankets are used to protect slabs during
protect against freezing if they are cast outdoors in freez- the curingperiod in cold weather
ing weather. Insulating blankets are sometimes used to
protect slabs (Fig. 7.7). To be sure that concrete will not do not act as anti-freezes because they do not lower the
freeze, the work should be done within heated weather- freezing point of the concrete very much. Warm concrete
tight enclosures. made with hot water and heated aggregates may make the
use of accelerating admixtures unnecessary.
Use of accelerating admixtures Calcium chloride is a popular and widely used accel-
To offset the slow setting of concrete in cold weather, erating admixture that reduces setting time and increases
accelerating admixtures, ripe III cement (high early the rate of early strength development. It is also frequently
strength), or additional cement are sometimes used. Accel- a component of other admixtures. However, building
erating admixtures speed up the hardening process. They codes and job specifications may limit the amount of cal-
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99
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 M 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0 5 3 8 5 2 4 5 4 8
cium chloride used, prohibit calcium chloride altogether, common to use p pe III cement in prestressed concrete.
or limit the total chloride content of the mix under certain In cold weather, either Type III cement or additional Q p e
job conditions: I cement wiii help to increase the amount of heat of hy-
dration and give a higher strength sooner. However, added
Calcium chloride should not be used in prestressed cement may aggravate the tendency to shrinkage and
concrete. curling.
Calcium chloride should not be used in reinforced Water-reducing non-chloride accelerators (ASTM
concrete that will be in a moist environment and ex- C 494) are available to accelerate strength gain and setting
posed to sea water or chloride deicing salts. at air temperatures of 50 F and below. They also reduce
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0 Calcium chloride should not be used in concrete the water required in the mix. The 24-hr strength of con-
that will be in contact with galvanized steel because crete made with these admixtures approaches that attained
of possible corrosion (such as metal decks or em- with 2 percent calcium chloride and is appreciably greater
bedded inserts, mesh or rebars). than that of some concretes made with Type III cement.
Calcium chloride should not be used if aluminum is AC1 306 recommends use of air-entrained concrete for
embedded in the concrete with other metals. The sidewalks and other flatwork exposed to cycles of freezing
combination of metals creates a "battery" and gal- and thawing during early service life, in addition to pro-
vanic corrosion is likely to occur. tection from freezing for the first 2 to 3 days.
0 Calcium chloride should not be used where sulfate-
resisting concrete is needed. Air-drying of slabs after curing
After the curing period is over, before permitting any
In unreinforced concrete, not subject to code or specifi- traffic on -concrete slabs, it is good practice to permit the
cation limits, the amount of calcium chloride used should slab to dry a few days. The purpose of drying is to permit
be no more than 2 percent of the weight of the cement. the surface of the concrete to carbonate slightly. Carbon
When calcium chloride cannot be used and higher early dioxide combines with calcium hydroxide in the pores of
strengths and reduced setting times are needed, it may be concrete near the surface to produce calcium carbonate.
possible to use Type III cement (high early strength) or Carbonation of hardened concrete makes the concrete
additional Q p e I cement (ordinary). For example, it is harder. (This is different from carbonation that occurs
100
with fresh concrete, which is one of the causes of dusting.) (even if it is adequately air-entrained) until the concrete
Deicing salts should not be applied to a concrete slab
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has dried out and has been through one winter.
101
A C 1 CCS-1 7 4 0662949 0 5 1 8 5 2 6 310 W
CHAPTER 8
COMMON QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
This chapter gives brief information on the following man, but it is helpful to understand as many of the causes
special topics that are beyond the general scope of this of common problems as possible, in order to eliminate
book: some of them in future work.
Common design problems include cracking caused by:
Shrinkage-compensating concrete slabs
0 Post-tensioned concrete slabs 1. Slabs too thin to sustain the loads of truck traffic or
stored materials
It also provides information on some common problems, 2. Improper jointing - no isolation joints or contrac-
including tion joints that are too far apart.
0 Slab shrinkage and curling Materials problems frequently involve poor quality or
0 Durability, including problems of scaling and dusting contamination. For example, some aggregates react chemi-
0 Random cracking cally with certain materials in cement (called alkali-aggre-
0 Map cracking and crazing gate or alkali-silica reactivity) resulting in concrete that
0 Slab repair cracks badly. In other less drastic cases, poor grading of
aggregates, especially sand, may cause excessive bleeding
Some of the problems are related to construction prac- or may make the concrete difficult to finish. Aggregates or
tices, some are related to materials, and some result from water contaminated with organic material can cause
improper design. In extreme cases, problems are caused by changes in the setting time for concrete and may cause the
a combination of ali three - construction, materials, and concrete strength to be low. The most common materials
design. Much of this is beyond the control of the crafts- problem is in the concrete mix itself, too much water or
102
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A C 1 CCS-II 9 4 = Ob62949 0 5 1 8 5 2 7 257
too little cement. Too much water causes lower strength, h
more shrinkage and may cause cracking. Too little cement

not only creates finishing problems, it causes low strength
and poor wear and freeze-thaw resistance.
The most common problems related to construction
practices are those caused by finishing concrete surfaces
while water is present on the surface, either from bleeding
or other sources. There are a number of other problems,
some of which are discussed here, as well as in other
chapters of this manual.
Shrinkage and curling of slabs

As new concrete dries, it shrinks, or shortens, in all
directions. The amount of shrinkage depends on many fac-
tors, but most concretes shrink about 500 millionths of an
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inch per in. That amounts to about % in. in 20 ft. Shrink-
age is caused by drying of the concrete. Exposed surfaces
dry faster than the rest of the concrete. Additional shor-
tening occurs when concrete cools.
In the case of concrete slabs on grade, the top surface
dries and shrinks much faster than the bottom surface. We
can think of the slab to be made up of a series of thin ver-
tical slices of concrete as shown in Fig. 8.1(a). Assume Fig. 8.1-Afrer curing a concrete slab on grade begins to dry
that the slices were vertical before any shrinkage occurred. at the top. Each vertical segment tends to narrow at the top
Because the top shrinks more than the bottom, each verti- and becomes wedge-shaped (a). Then the slab curk (b).
cal slice becomes slightly narrower at the top than at the m e n curling stresses exceed concrete's tensile strength, the
bottom, so the slices become slightly wedge shaped. Be- slab cracks as shown in (c)
103
A C 1 CCS-II 9 4 W 0662747 05Lô528 173 =
cause the slices remain in full contact with their neighbors, O Use a coarse ground cement.
the slab tends to curl or dish, Fig. 8.l(b). This curling O Use an appropriate water-reducing admixture.
action tends to lift the edges of the slab by creating tensile
stresses in the top of the slab. As the ends curl up, the 3. Select low-shrinkage aggregates.
load on the subgrade increases at the center of the slab
panel and it subsides into the subgrade. Concrete cannot Other factors to consider besides shrinkage that in-
withstand high tensile stresses so it tends to crack as fluence the amount of curling in a slab include:
shown in Fig. 8.l(c).
The amount of shrinkage depends on many factors, the 0 High water tables or wet subgrades - Will cause slab
most important of which is the amount of water in a con- curling because they increase the moisture
crete mix. To reduce the amount of shrinkage, reduce the differential across the slab thickness.
amount of water in the mix. To keep shrinkage to a mini- O Slab thickness - Thin slabs will curl more than
mum, apply the foliowing rules: thicker slabs when joint spacing is 15 to 20 ft. With
joint spacing greater than this range, vertical curling
1. Use the stiffest mix that can be handled and con- is the same for thin or thick slabs.
solidated satisfactorily. O Concrete modulus of elasticity E (a measure of con-
2. Reduce the water demand (total amount of water) crete stifiess) - Concretes with a low modulus curl
of the mix by these practices: less than high-modulus concretes. Lower strength
O Use the largest maximum size of aggregate that concretes have a lower E and thus curl less.
is practical. Concrete made with %-in. maximum O Vapor barriers - Avoid if possible. If vapor barriers
size aggregate usually requires about 40 Ib more are necessary they should be covered with a layer of
(nearly 5 gal) water per CU yd than concrete with compactible fill. A fill thickness of 2 to 3 in. is com-
l-in. aggregate. mon, although some authorities recommend as much
O Keep aggregate and cement temperatures low. as 6 in. to protect the vapor barrier from concrete
O Use aggregates free of clay and other fines. truck traffic and to maintain a level subgrade.
O Plan for the shortest possible travel time between
ready mix plant and the job. Many slabs curl so little that the effect is not noticed,
104
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A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 I0662949 0 5 3 8 5 2 9 02T
but when curling is noticeable it is usually a problem, concrete is finished, the surface should not be damaged by
particularly at joints where it causes bumps and joint the finishing operations. However, it is usually best to
deterioration. Curling is often most objectionable a few avoid excessive bleeding by adjusting the concrete mix
months after construction. before it is delivered:
a. Reduce the amount of water in the mix.

--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Excessive bleeding
What causes concrete to bleed too much and what can be b. Use air-entrained concrete.
done to avoid problems? c. Change to a finer sand grading.
After concrete is placed and before it begins to harden d. Select proper admixtures to reduce bleeding.
the aggregate and cement particles tend to sink and bleed
water appears on the surface of the concrete. (See addi-
tional information on bleeding in Chapter 5 , p. 63.) The Durability
amount of bleeding is affected mostly by: Concrete is subjected to many environments and traffic.
Some concretes can withstand heavy traffic and freezing
1. Slump - High slump concrete will bleed more than and thawing while others wear away under traffic and
low slump concrete if the slump is caused by excess deteriorate badly.
water and not by admixtures. Durability as used here means the ability of concrete to
2. Air-entrainment - Non-air-entrained concrete will withstand exposure to weathering and traffic without suf-
bleed more than air-entrained concrete. fering from:
3 . Aggregate gradation - Concretes made with gap-
graded aggregate or with coarse sands which do not a. Dusting of the surface
have much material finer than a No. 50 mesh sieve b. ScaIing of the surface
will bleed more than concrete made with a sand c. Spalling of concrete due to rusting of embedded
which has enough fine material. metal
4. Too little cementitious material in the mix d. Wearing away of the surface
e. Craze cracking or map cracking of the surface
If aíi the bleed water disappears or is removed before f. General deterioration of the concrete
105
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 0662947 0 5 1 8 5 3 0 841
The difference between good and poor concrete is due preparation can have the greatest influence (see
to one or more of the foilowing items: Chapter 5).
4. Quality of the curing - A construction practice im-
1. Qual@ of the materials used in the mix - Standard portant enough to be considered separately, curing
tests and specifications usually prevent use of infer- is covered in detail in Chapter 7. Inadequate curing
ior materials. However, materials are sometimes can result in dusting and surface deterioration.
contaminated, or materials that do not meet speci- 5 . Premature application of deicing salts - Early salting
fications might be used. Unfortunately, the concrete under freeze-thaw conditions can cause scaling of
craftsman usuaiiy has no control over the quality of good quality concrete if it has not had enough time
materials that go into the concrete mix. to air dry. Deicing chemicals should not be applied
2. Mixproportions - Concrete with too much water or to new concrete during the first winter. Air-en-
not enough cement is liable to be too weak to with- trained concrete of good strength can resist small
stand loads and traffic. Concrete that will be ex- amounts of sodium or calcium chloride salts after it
posed to freezing and thawing should be air-en- has had the chance to air dry for 4 to 6 months.
trained because non-air-entrained concrete is much Deicers containing fertilizers such as ammonium sul-
more likely to scale than air-entrained concrete. fate, ammonium nitrate, or ammonium chloride
Concrete with too much sand and too little coarse should not be used on concrete at any age.
aggregate is likely to shrink excessively because the
fine sand has a greater water demand than the Scaling
coarse aggregate.
3. Construction practices - This includes stockpiling of What can be done to avoid sugace scaling of concrete
aggregates, batching of concrete, mixing, transpor- slabs?
ting, placing, consolidating and finishing concrete. In Scaling is a local flaking away of the near-surface
addition, concrete performance can be affected by portion of hardened concrete. The depth of scaling is
subgrade preparation, location of reinforcement and usually about Ya in., although severe scaling to a depth of
other embedded materials, forming details, and % in. sometimes occurs. There are two major causes of
jointing. Of these, finishing operations and subgrade surface scaling of concrete slabs:
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106
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 = 0662949 0 5 1 8 5 3 1 788 =
1. Freezing and thawing of the concrete, particularly Thus, the timing of the finishing operations is critical.
when deicer salts are used, such as on bridge decks, Use of good quality concrete which does not bleed ex-
pavements, sidewalks, etc. cessively is recommended. Also, avoid placing warm con-
2. Finishing of concrete slabs while there is bleed water crete on a cold subgrade, and be sure that proper curing
on the surface, or finishing slabs before bleeding has practices are followed.
stopped
Dusting
The use of air-entrained concrete will greatly reduce What causes dusting of concretefloors, and what can be
scaling caused by freezing and thawing. Precautions are done io prevent it?
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necessary to maintain an effective air content. Concrete The development of a powdered material at the surface
must not be mixed too long nor overworked during finish- of hardened concrete is referred to as dusting. There are
ing, or air will be lost. The air-entraining agent must be a number of causes of dusting of concrete floors and
dispensed properly, and the temperature of the mix should avoiding these causes will minimize dusting:
not be too high for the dosage of air-entraining agent
used. 1. Not enough cement or too much water in the mix
Even with air entrainment, no deicers should be used 2. Excessive bleeding
for the first winter unless the concrete has been ade- 3. Too much entrained air in the surface mortar
quately cured and then permitted to air-dry thoroughly 4. Overworking high slump concrete
before deicers are applied. (Deicers such as plant fertil- 5. Finishing the concrete while bleed water is on the
izers containing ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulfate surface
should never be used on concrete slabs because they 6. Adding water to the surface during finishing
attack concrete chemically.) 7. Using unvented heaters in the area during and after
Premature finishing of concrete with bleed water or any concreting operations (Chapter 7)
water on the surface seals the surface of the concrete and 8. Lack of adequate curing
traps the water just below the surface, creating a weak- 9. Early-age freezing
ened plane. The surface will flake off (scale) under traffic 10. mowing abrasive traffic before concrete has gained
or after the concrete freezes and thaws several times. adequate strength
107
A C 1 CCS-3 94 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0 5 3 8 5 3 2 bL4
Random cracking Shrinkage of the concrete can be accommodated by

What causes random cracks in slabs on ground and what providing isolation and contraction joints as discussed in
can be done to prevent them? Chapter 6. Remember that the information in Chapter 6
There are several causes of cracks that don’t appear to is based on concretes with normal shrinkage. Concretes
follow any pattern. Some of the causes of such cracks are: made with small aggregates and overly wet concrete mixes
will need closer joint spacings. It is best to avoid overly
1. Plastic shrinkage wet mixes.
2. Uneven settlement of the subgrade Uneven settlement of the subgrade often occurs when
3. Severe overloads the subgrade is not uniformly compacted. For example,
4. Incomplete bond between the topping and base slab patios built next to houses with basements are supported
in two-course floors partly by the undisturbed soil and partly by backfill next to
5. Chemical attack the basement. Unless the backfill is compacted so that it
6. Restraints to shrinkage will not settle more than the undisturbed soil, the patio
slab is likely to crack and drain surface water toward the
Other causes of so-called random cracks can often be house.
traced to poor joints: Severe overloads on thin concrete slabs can cause
cracking that might require replacement of the slabs. To
a. Joints too far apart be sure that the slab is not thinner than specified, spot
b. Sawed or grooved joints not installed soon enough checks of the subgrade elevation should be made before
andlor deep enough the concrete arrives. This can generally be done by making
c. No contraction joints at re-entrant corners a dry run with the straightedge (or screed) and measuring
d. Inadequate isolation joints at walls, columns, foot- the vertical distance between the bottom of the straight-
ings, etc. edge and the subgrade (or subbase).
Keep heavy equipment such as ready-mix trucks and
Concrete craftsmen should do ail they can to minimize mobile cranes off of slabs, unless the slabs have been
such cracks. Eliminating the causes of random cracking designed to withstand these loads and concrete strength
wilí result in a better job. has been developed sufficiently at the time of loading.
108
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A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 0662449 0538533 5 5 0 m
Incomplete bond between the topping and base slab in during finishing is worked into the surface during floating
two-course floors can be detected by the hollow sound or troweling, the surface is likely to have map cracks.
that can be heard when the floor is tapped with a steel bar Water brought to the surface during floating should be al-
or hammer. Cracks are likely to form over the unbonded lowed to evaporate before continuing finishing operations.
areas. Aso water should not be sprinkled on the surface to make
Several precautions can be taken during construction to finishing easier.
assure bond between the topping and base slab: Delayed curing or lack of curing can cause map crack-
ing, particularly if rapid drying of the concrete is likely.
1. Clean the surface of the base slab, removing all dirt, Map cracking may occur if concrete is not kept continu-
grease, plaster, etc. Use stiff wire brushes or abra- ously moist during curing.
sive blast new slabs if necessary. If the base slab is Fine hairline map cracks generally do not impair the
old, mechanical roughening should be used. use of a slab. However, if the cracks are wider than hair-
2. The surface of the base slab should be slightly damp line width the problem may be quite severe. Wide map
- not wet. cracks may mean that aggregates are reacting chemically
3. Apply a coating of sand-cement grout using a stiff with the alkalies in the cement; this is called alkali-
bristle broom. aggregate (or alkali-silica) reactivity. If moisture is present,
4. Place the topping before the grout coat dries. this reaction might continue until the concrete disinte-
grates.
Map cracking and crazing
What causes concrete sufaces to be covered with fine Repairing concrete slabs
hairline cracks which form a map-like pattern? Do these How should a small spalled area of a floor slab subjected
cracks mean that the concrete k unsound? to heay lift truck trafic be repaired?
Fine hairline map cracks occur mostly on troweled sur- There are a number of methods and materials that can
faces. Like most of the other cracks that occur in concrete, be used to repair spalled concrete slabs. For a slab that
map cracks are caused by shrinkage. In the case of map must withstand repeated wear of small-wheeled lift trucks,
cracks, concrete at the surface dries and shrinks more than the patch concrete must be well bonded to the slab and
the rest of the concrete. If bleed water or water added must not shrink away from the slab. One proven method
109 --`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AC1 CCS-L 9 4 0662749 0 5 3 8 5 3 4 497 W
of repairing slabs is outlined as follows.

Fig. 8.2 shows a plan and cross section of a spalled slab.
(a) Saw cut around For this example, the maximum depth of the spaU is about
spalled area to a depth of 1%in. and the depth tapers to zero at the edges. More
about 1/2 in. than likely, the spalled area is dirty and the exposed
surface has carbonated so it is necessary to prepare the
surface by chipping out the area so that sound clean
surfaces are ex-posed. Furthermore concrete cannot be
"feathered" out so the edges of the area to be patched
should be made verti-cal, preferably by saw cutting. The
saw cut need not be very deep; % h. to % in. is deep
(c) Chip concrete within enough. Concrete should be chipped out so that the
saw cut area to a depth of surfaces are roughly horizontal and vertical, as shown in
Fig. 8.2(c). If possible, the saw cuts should be sloped very
slightly to key in the patch.
After the concrete has been chipped out and the area
(d)Priorto patching, dampen area with clean water, cover with
wet burlap, and allow to stand several hours. cleaned (an industrial vacuum is useful in removing the
(e) MU concrete for paich. Concrete should have same fine dust), the area should be dampened with water. Keep
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proporiions as slnó concrete but slump should not exceed 2 in. the area wet until just before the patch concrete is ready
Let mixed concrete stand for several minutes before placing it to be placed.
in patch.
fl Remove excess water fiom patch area but leave surface While the area is kept wet, the concrete should be
slightly damp. mixed. If possible, the concrete should have the same mix
(g) Compactconcreteintochipped-out area,overfillingsiightly. proportions as the original concrete but the slump should
(h) Afier several minutes, strike off to proper surface; then be less than 2 in. If the mix for the original concrete is
finish to required texture. unknown, use concrete that has a water-cement ratio of
( i ) Moist cure patchfor at least 3 days.
~ ~~
0.5 or less (5.5 gallons of water per 94 Ib bag of cement).
Shrinkage-compensating cement can be used for the re-
Fig. 8.2-Patching floor spalls placement concrete to minimize shrinkage and to assure
110 \

A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 = Ob62949 0 5 1 8 5 3 5 323
patch is 1%in. so %-in. maximum size aggregate can be

used. Typically the mix proportions will be as shown in
Table 8.1.
Ingredient Air-entrained Non-air- Non-air-entrained concrete can be mixed by hand but
mix entrained mix air-entrained concrete must be mixed in a mixer; other-
Cement 20.0 Ib 23.0 lb
wise, air will not be properly entrained. Mix proportions
must be adjusted to be sure that the concrete can be
Water (including aggregate placed and consolidated. The slump should not exceed
moisture) 10.0 Ib 11.5 lb about 2 in.
Coarse aggregate, Y4 in. After the concrete is mixed, it should be placed in a
maximum 67.0 Ib 68.0 lb wheelbarrow or buggy, covered to prevent evaporation and
allowed to stand for a few minutes; this will help reduce
Sand 45.0 Ib 45.0 lb shrinkage. During that time, remove excess water from the
Air 6 percent 2 percent patch area leaving the surface barely damp with no
standing water.
Coat the surface of the patch area with grout. The
grout mix should have 1lb of water (one pint) for each 2
lb of cement and enough fine sand (masonry sand works
well) to give the mixture the consistency of thick cream.
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The surfaces should be coated by scrubbing the grout onto
the surface with a stiff bristled brush.
Before the grout begins to dry, the concrete should be
compacted into place in horizontal layers, overfilling the
patch slightly. Then strike off the concrete to the proper
surface and when the concrete begins to harden, float and
trowel the surface to the desired finish. Keep the area cov-
ered between finishing operations.
111
A C 1 CCS-II 9 4 W 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0518536 2bT D
Be sure to cure the concrete, beginning immediately but the stresses remaining or that occur in the concrete
after final troweling. It is best to cover the area with a are low enough that the slab does not crack. Thus, it is
layer of wet burlap and a sheet of polyethylene fim. Allow possible to eliminate many of the contraction joints in
the patch to cure as long as possible but no less than 3 slabs made with shrinkage-compensating concrete.
days. Then allow the patch to air dry before opening the Reinforcement should be at least 0.15 percent by cross
area to traffic. sectional area, located in the top half of the slab. It is best
Patching concrete requires careful planning and strict provided by stiff #4 (?hin. diameter) bars spaced to pro-
attention to details. When proprietary patching materials vide the necessary percentage of steel. If welded wire fab-
are used, manufacturer’s instructions should be followed. ric is used instead of reinforcing bars, mats or flat sheets
If the instructions are unclear or if they don’t appear to of wire fabric should be used instead of rolls and should
apply, contact the manufacturer for clarification before be accurately located one-third the slab thickness down
using the product. from the top of the slab. The reinforcement should be
placed on blocks, chairs, or bolsters to the proper height
Shrinkage-compensating concrete slabs (Figure 5.4). Otherwise it is best to place the concrete in
What i~the purpose of usingshrinkage-compensating con- two layers, being careful to place the second layer while
crete? What precautions should be taken? the first is still plastic. Be sure to overlap mesh by two or
Shrinkage-compensating concrete expands while the more cross wires.
concrete is being cured. Expansion normally is complete Normally contraction joints are eliminated in slabs
in 7 days but it may stop sooner if curing is stopped made with shrinkage-compensating concrete, except in
sooner or is inadequate. After expansion is complete, the high stress areas. It is good practice to add some rein-
concrete shrinks in the same manner as normal concrete. forcing bars across potential cracks at all re-entrant cor-
Ideally, the expansion of the concrete will offset or com- ners as shown in Fig. 8.3. Isolation joints are needed
pensate for the shrinkage. around columns and at walls as with other slabs on
To take advantage of the expansion, enough steel rein- ground.
forcement is used in the top half of the slab to resist the Shrinkage-compensating concretes tend to lose slump
expansion and prestress the concrete to a low level. When more rapidly than ordinary concrete. To compensate for
the concrete shrinks, the amount of prestress is reduced this, the subgrade is wetted thoroughly and the concrete is
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
112
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 = 0662949 0.538537 1Tb W
batched and mixed to produce a slump about 2 in. greater

than normal.
Placing and finishing shrinkage-compensating concrete
slabs can be done in the same manner as for ordinary con-
crete. However, much of the shrinkage compensation po-
tential of this concrete can be lost unless water curing
starts promptly and continues for 7 days. Membrane
curing may develop only half of this potential.
Post-tensioned slabs on ground

Is there anything special about constructingpost-tensioned
slabs on ground? Fig. 8.3-With shrinkage-compensating concrete, place diag-
Several precautions must be taken to avoid problems. onal reinforcing bars at all re-entrant comers to keep cracks
First and most important, the slab should be designed by from opening excessives. Two #3 bars about 30 in. long
an engineer with experience in post-tensioning. Plans and should be located about 1% in. and 3 in. from each comer,
specifications should show the slab thickness, location of 2 in. down from the top of the siab.
post-tensioning tendons, anchorages, concrete strength at
the time of stressing, whether or not a vapor barrier is to
be used, location of reinforcing bars, the forces to be ap- Tendons have anchorages at each end. Most tendons have
plied to each post-tensioning tendon and the anticipated a fixed anchorage at one end which is completely encased
elongation of each tendon. Each of these items is impor- in concrete. It is called a dead-end anchor. Live-end
tant. Remember that post-tensioning is a sophisticated anchors are located at the tendon ends at which stressing
technique; it should only be attempted by experienced per- is done. At the live end, enough strand extends beyond the
sonnel. edge of the slab (usually about 2 ft) to allow for stressing
Post-tensioning tendons used in slabs on ground gener- of the tendon with special hydraulic rams.
ally consist of 7-wire strands covered with plastic in order Stressing the tendons causes the concrete to shorten
to prevent bond between the concrete and the tendon. slightly. In order to allow the concrete to shorten freely
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113
A C 1 CCS-3 74 W 0662747 0 5 3 8 5 3 8 0 3 2
without too much subgrade friction, plastic slip sheets with on ground. Be careful not to displace the tendons. Special
holes are generally used between the concrete and the care should be taken to be sure that concrete is well con-
subbase. solidated around the anchors because poor seating of the
Locations of the tendons are very important. Tendons anchors can cause a failure of the concrete during
must be supported by chairs or blocks to the proper stressing.
height. For %-in. tendons, chairs should be no more than Concrete test cylinders should be made during the con-
4 ft 6 in. apart and for %-in. tendons no more than 3 ft creting operations so that the strength of the slab concrete
apart. can be checked to determine when the tendons can be
The locations and positions of the anchors are also stressed. When the tendons are stressed, the stress is
important. They should be securely fastened to the side transferred to the concrete through the anchors, thereby
forms at the locations shown on the drawings. compressing the concrete. The force that is applied to the
The force acting in the tendons continues to compress tendon is generally large enough to stretch a 100-ft long
the concrete, so no contraction joints are needed. Because tendon about 8 in. On a %-in.diameter strand that force
there are no contraction joints, it is good practice to place is equal to about 29,000 lb. Because of the large forces
reinforcing bars across potential cracks at all re-entrant involved, it is not safe to stand behind the hydraulic ram
corners as shown in Fig. 8.3. during the stressing operations. In fact, unless you are
Concrete for post-tensioned slabs should be placed, directly involved in the stressing operation, stay completely
finished, and cured in the same manner as for other slabs clear of the area.
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114
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 I0662747 0 5 1 8 5 3 9 T 7 9
APPENDIX
DEFINITIONS
Accelerator-a substance which, when added to concrete, crete from within, or its emergence from newly placed
mortar or grout, increases the rate of hydration of the concrete or mortar; caused by the settlement of the solid
hydraulic cement, shortens the time of setting, or increases materials within the mass; also called water gain.
the rate of strength development, or any combination of
these effects. Blistering-the irregular raising of a thin layer at the
surface of placed mortar or concrete during or soon after
Admidure-a material other than water, aggregates, hy- completion of the finishing operation.
draulic cement, and fiber reinforcement, used as an in-
gredient of concrete or mortar, and added to the concrete Cement, portland-a hydraulic cement produced by pulver-
immediately before or during its mixing. izing portland cement clinker and usually containing cal-
cium sulfate (gypsum).
Aggregate-granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed
stone, crushed hydraulic-cement concrete and iron blast- Cernent paste-the binder part of concrete; a mixture of
furnace slag used with a hydraulic cementing medium to cement and water.
form concrete or mortar.
Coarse aggregate-aggregate predominately retained on
Bag (of cement)-a quantity of portland cement: 94 lb in 4.75-mm(No. 4) sieve (about %-in. diameter size and
the United States and 50 kg in most other countries; for larger).
other kinds of cement a quantity indicated on the bag.
Concrete-a composite material which consists essentially
Bleeding-water rising to the surface of newly placed con- of a binding medium within which are embedded particles
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 115
A C 1 CCS-L 74 0 6 6 2 7 4 7 05L8.540 790
or fragments of aggregate; in portland cement concrete loss of water or, in the case of pigmented compounds, also
the binder is a mixture of portland cement and water. to reflect heat, thus providing an opportunity for the con-
crete to develop its properties in a favorable temperature
Concrete, normal weight-concrete having a unit weight of and moisture environment.
approximately 150 lb per CU ft, made with aggregates of
normal weight. Dowe¿-a steel pin, commonly a plain round steel bar,
which extends into two adjoining portions of a concrete
Concrete, structurul-concrete used to carry structural load construction, as at a joint in a pavement slab, connecting
or to form an integral part of a structure; concrete of a the portions and transferring loads.
quality specified for structural use.
Dowel basket-an assembly of load transfer dowels, sup-
Concrete, structural lightweight-structural concrete made ported securely at proper elevation and spacing, ready to
with lightweight aggregate; the unit weight usually is in the place on the subgrade at a joint location before con-
range of 90 to 120 Ib per CU ft. creting.
Contraction joint-formed, sawed, or tooled groove in a Fine aggregate-aggregate passing the %-in. (9.5-mm) sieve
concrete structure to create a weakened plane and regu- and almost entirely passing the No. 4 (4.75-mm) sieve and
late the location of cracking resulting from the dirnen- predominately retained on the No. 200 (75-mm) sieve; or
sional change of different parts of the structure; some- that portion passing the No. 4 sieve and predominantly re-
times called control joint. tained on the No. 200 sieve.
Curing-maintenance of satisfactory moisture content and F3, ash-fine residue resulting from burning of powdered
temperature in concrete during its early stages so that or ground coal, carried from the firebox through the boiler
desired properties may develop. by flue gases.
Curing compound-a liquid that can be applied as a coat- Heut ofhydration-heat evolved by chemical reactions with
ing to the surface of newly placed concrete to retard the water such as that evolved during the setting and harden-
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116
A C 1 CCS-3 94 W 0662949 0538543 627
ing of portland cement. Puste-see Cement paste.
Hydraulic cement-a cement that sets and hardens by Plain concrete-concrete without reinforcement; or con-
chemical interaction with water and is capable of doing so crete containing insufficient reinforcement to conform to
under water. the definition of reinforced concrete.
Isolation joint-a joint that separates the slab structurally Post-tensioning-a method of prestressing reinforced con-
from other building elements such as walls, columns, foun- crete in which tendons are tensioned after the concrete
dations, drain pipes, to accommodate differential horizon- has hardened.
tal and vertical movement. The isolation joint filler is
flexible so that the slab movement is not restrained at the Prestressed concreteancrete in which internal stresses
wall, column, etc. are introduced to counteract the tensile stresses resulting
from the service loads to a desired degree. In reinforced
Monomolecular-composed of single molecules; specifical- concrete, the prestress is commonly introduced by tension-
ly, films that are one molecule thick. Denotes a thickness ing tendons.
equal to one molecule. Certain chemical compounds such
as cetyl alcohol develop a monomolecular film over Pretensioning-a method of prestressing reinforced con-
bleeding water at the surface of freshly placed concrete or crete in which the tendons are tensioned before the con-
mortar as a means of reducing the rate of evaporation. crete has hardened.
Moriar-a mixture of cement paste and fine aggregate; in Reinforced concrete4oncrete containing adequate rein-
fresh concrete it is the material occupying the spaces forcement (prestressed or not prestressed) and designed
around particles of coarse aggregate. on the assumption that the concrete and reinforcement act
together in resisting forces.
Oversandedantaining more sand than would be neces-
sary to produce adequate workability and a satisfactory Reinforcement-bars, wires, strands, and other slender
condition for finishing. members which are embedded in concrete in such a man-
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117
A C 1 CCS-II 9 4 W 0662747 0 5 3 8 5 4 2 5 6 3
ner that the reinforcement and the concrete act together Subgrade-the soil prepared and compacted to support a
in resisting forces. structure or a pavement system.
Slab-a flat, horizontal or nearly so, molded layer of plain Vacuum dewatering-extraction of excess water and air
or reinforced concrete, usually of uniform but sometimes from a concrete surface by a vacuum process before
of variable thickness, either on the ground or supported by hardening occurs.
beams, columns, walls or other framework.
Vapor bam'er-membrane placed under concrete floor
Slump-a measure of consistency of freshly mixed con- slabs that are placed on grade, intended to retard
crete, equal to the subsidence measured to the nearest % transmission of vapor. Also called vapor retarder.
in., of the molded specimen immediately after removal of
the slump cone. Workability-the ease with which freshly mixed concrete
can be mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished without
Subbase-a layer in a pavement system between the sub- harmful segregation.
grade and base course or between the subgrade and a
portland cement concrete pavement.
118
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i
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 9 0 6 6 2 9 4 7 0518543 4 T T W
REFERENCES
1. ASTM Standards in ACI 301 and 318, SP-71, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1989. 1916 Race Street
2. Finishing Concrete Slabs with Color and Taiure, Philadelphia, PA 19103-1187
PA124H, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 1991. 215-299-5400 J FAX 215-977-9679
3. Homeowner’s Guide to Building with Concrete Brick
di Stone, SP038H, Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
IL, 1988. AC1 117 Standard Specifications for Tolerances for
4. Cement Mason’s Guide, PA122H, Portland Cement Concrete Construction and Materials
Association, Skokie, IL, 1990. AC1 211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions
for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Con-
crete
REFERENCED STANDARDS AND AC1 228.1R In-Place Methods for the Determination of
COMMI’ITEE REPORTS Strength of Concrete
AC1 302.1R Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Con-
The following lists show the AC1 and ASTM standards struction
and reports that are cited in this book. These documents AC1 305R Hot Weather Concreting
are revised from time to t h e , generally in minor detail. If AC1 306R Cold Weather Concreting
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
you want to get a complete copy of the current version, AC1 308 Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
contact the publishers at these addresses: AC1 309R Guide for Consolidation of Concrete
AC1 544.1R State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Rein-
American Concrete Institute (ACI) forced Concrete
P.O. Box 19150 AC1 544.3R Guide for Specifying, Proportioning,
Detroit, MI 48219-0150 Mixing, Placing, and Finishing Steel Fiber
313-532-2600 J FAX 313-533-4747 Reinforced Concrete
119
A C 1 CCS-L 7 4 I 0662949 0.538544 336
ASTM C 31 Standard Practice for Making and Curing ASTM C 260 Standard Specification €or Air-En-
Concrete Test Specimens in the Field training Admixtures for Concrete
ASTM C 33 Standard Specification for Concrete ASTM C 330 Standard Specification for Lightweight
Aggregates Aggregates for Structural Concrete
ASTM C 39 Standard Test Method for Compressive ASTM C 494 Standard Specification for Chemical
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Speci- Admixtures for Concrete
mens ASTM C 595 Standard Specification for Blended Hy-
ASTM C 91 Standard Specification for Masonry draulic Cements
Cement ASTM C 617 Standard Practice for Capping
ASTM C 136 Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
of Fine and Coarse Aggregates ASTM C 618 Standard Specification for Fly Ash and
ASTM C 138 Standard Test Method for Unit Weight, Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland
Concrete Cement Concrete
ASTM C 141 Standard Specification for Hydraulic ASTM C 845 Standard Specification for Expansive
Hydrated Lime for Structural Purposes Hydraulic Cement
ASTM C 143 Standard Test Method for Slump of Hy- ASTM C 989 Standard Specification for Ground
draulic Cement Concrete Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag for Use
ASTM C 150 Standard Specification for Portland in Concrete and Mortars
Cement ASTM C 1017 Standard Specification for Chemical Ad-
ASTM C 172 Standard Practice for Sampling Freshly mixtures for Use in Producing Flowing
Mixed Concrete Concrete
ASTM C 173 Standard Test Method for Air Content ASTM C 1064 Standard Test Method for Temperature
of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the of Freshly Mixed Portland Cement Con-
Volumetric Method crete
ASTM C 231 Standard Test Method for Air Content ASTM C 1157 Standard Performance Specification for
of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Blended Hydraulic Cement
Pressure Method ASTM D 448 Standard Classification for Sizes of Ag-
120
A C 1 CCS-L 9 4 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0538545 2 7 2
gregate for Road and Bridge Construc- ASTM E 1155 Standard Test Method for Determining
tion Floor Flatness and Levelness Using the
F-Number System
121
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A C 1 CCS-L 7 4 D Obb27Li7 0 5 3 8 5 4 6 309
CONVERSION FACTORS .U.S. CUSTOMARY TO SI (METRIC)*
To convert from to multiply by
LENGTH
inch .................................... millimeter (mm) .................................. 25.4Et

foot ...................................... meter(m) ..................................... 0.3048E
yard ...................................... meter(m) ..................................... 0.9144E
mile (statute) ............................. kilometer (km) ................................... 1.609
AREA
square inch ............................ square centimeter (cm’) ................................ 6.451
square foot .............................. square meter (m’) .................................. 0.0929
square yard ............................. square meter (m’) .................................. 0.8361
VOLUME (Capacity)
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ounce ................................. cubic centimeter Ym’) ............................... 29.57
gallon .................................. cubic meter (m )$ .................................. 0.003785
cubic inch .............................. cubic centimeter (an3) ............................... 16.4
cubic foot ................................ cubic meter (m3) .................................. 0.01832
cubic yard ................................ cubic meter (m3) .................................. 0.7646
FORCE
kilogram-force .............................. newton (N) .................................... 9.807
kip-force ................................... newton(N) ................................. 4448
pound-force ................................ newton (N) .................................... 4.448
122
A C 1 CCS-1 9 4 m Obb2949 0 5 3 8 5 4 7 045 m
To convert from to multiply by
PRESSURE OR STRESS (force per area)
kilogram force/square meter .................... pascal (Pa) ..................................... 9.807

kip-forcehquare inch (ksi) ................... megapascai (Mpa) .................................. 6.895
newton/square meter (N/m*) .................... pascal (Pa) ..................................... 1.000E
pound-forcehquare foot ........................ pascal (Pa) .................................... 47.88
pound-forcehquare inch (psi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilopascal (kPa) ...................................
--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6.895
MASS PER VOLUME
pound-masslcubic foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram/cubic meter (kg/m3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.02

pound-mass/cubic yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kilogram/cubic meter (kg/m3) .............................. 0.5933
pound-rnass/gallon ..................... kilograrn/cubic meter (kg/m3) ............................ 119.8
TEMPERATURES
deg Fahrenheit (F) ......................... deg Celsius (C) ............................ t, = (tF - 32)/1.8
deg Celsius (C) ........................... deg Fahrenheit (F) ............................ t, = 1.8tc +
32
niiS selected list gives practical conversion factors of units found in concrete technology. The reference source for information on SI units and more exact conversion
factors is ”Standard for Metric Practice” ASTM E 380. Symbols of metric units are given in parentheses.
t E indicates that the factor given is exact.
*5 One liter (cubic decimeter) equals 0.001 m3 or loo0 cm3.
These equations convert one temperature reading to another and includes the necessary scale corrections. To convert a difference in temperature from Fahrenheit
degrees to Celsius degrees, divide by 18 ody, Le., a change from 70 to 88 F represents a change of 18 F or 18/18 = 10 C degrees.
123

ACI CCS-1 (1994) Slabs On Grade-Second Edition

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--`,,,,,,,`,`,,,,`,,``,,``,,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Copyright American Concrete Institute

AC1 Committee E-703

Robert C. Bates Samuel A. Greenberg C. Raymond Nowacki

Printed in the United States of America

Victoria A. Wieczorek-Editorial Production

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER 94-72629

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

WHAT THE CONCRETE CRAFTSMAN SHOULD KNOW ABOUT CONCRETE

The paste part of the concrete also contains air, called

Importance of concrete and the concrete craftsman

high-rise buildings frequently is designed for 9000 to CEMENT

turn the quality of the paste depends on the weight of

placed with a reasonable amount of effort), those with low

high water-cement ratios. .-m

cement ratios lower than 0.4 are used in low-permeability .->

wear resistance are not important. I O O O ~

Copyright American Concrete Institute

CONCRETE MATERIALS AND MIX PROPORTIONING

ASTM C 330. A number of tests can be made to deter-

of cement and water needed for a workable mix depends -

Table 2.2 - Harmful substances in aggregates (from ASTM C 33)

Soft particles - Reduce durability and surface hardness

Copyright American Concrete Institute

necessasr to consider the chloride content of mixing water

Copyright American Concrete Institute

act to increase the slump of the concrete. Slump, discussed

CONCRETE CONTROL TESTS

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

Copyright American Concrete Institute

It is essential to consider the slump at the point of 0 Pressure method (C 231)

excess of water. Commonly referred to as the roll-a-meter

Air content estimated with an air indicator (AASHTO

Copyright American Concrete Institute

( b ) Insert the stopper

( c ) Fill the glass tube

load of concrete, but it is simple to run and generally gives

Unit weight and yield (ASTM C 138)

molds are reusable, so they must be cleaned and oiled

1. Place the cylinder molds (cleaned and oiled if re-

layers. Use an internal vibrator with a diameter of %

6. Mark each cylinder so that it can be matched with

Curing and protecting test cylinders

1. To determine if the concrete meets the specified

Cylinders made for design strength check should be

Specimens made to determine when a structure can be put specified strength.

Rebound hammer test (ASTM C 805)

1. The concrete surface must be dry and smooth. If the

Copyright American Concrete Institute

PLACING AND FINISHING TOOLS

Concrete craftsmen use many different tools. Most of

A bin or hopper to hold the material

I Spread by hand in areas where a mechanical spreader can-

Consolidating or vibrating tools

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changed during floating. Bull floating is done before bleed

Copyright American Concrete Institute

surface after strikeoff or screeding. It is particularly useful

Jointing and edging tools

throughout the slab. In other words, joints or grooves are

1 in. deep for a 4-in. slab