Phyllosphere

 The aerial parts of living plants including leaves, stems, buds, flowersand fruits provide a habitat
for microorganisms termed the phyllosphere.
 The term “phyllosphere” was first published by Dr. Jakoba Ruinen in 1961, who studied tropical
ecology beginning in the 1950’s.
 Bacteria are considered to be the dominant microbial inhabitants of the phyllosphere, although
archaea, filamentous fungi and yeasts may also be important.
 Phyllosphere bacteria can promote plant growth and both suppress and stimulate the colonization
and infection of tissues by plant pathogens.
 Similarly, fungal endophytes of leaves may deter herbivores, protect against pathogens and
increase drought tolerance.

The phyllosphere can be further subdivided into:

1. Caulosphere (stems)
2. Phylloplane (leaves)
3. Anthosphere (flowers)
4. Carposphere (fruits)

Common phylloplane microflora include:

Pseudomonas trifoli, Beijerinckia spp., Candida albicans, Cryptococcus diffluens, Saccharomyces
cerevisciae, Alternaria spp., Aspergillus spp., Trichoderma spp., Penicillium spp., Curvularia spp.,
Cladosporium spp., etc.

Functions of Phyllospheric microorganisms in plants:

1. Leaf surface microorganisms perform effective function in controlling the spread of airborne
pathogens that cause plant diseases.
2. The presence of spores of pathogen on leaves result in formation of phytoalexins. It includes
all chemical compounds contributing to disease resistance in response to injury, physiological
stimulation, presence of infectious agents etc.
3. Substances that induce the synthesis of phytoalexins is termed as elicitor.
Biotic elicitors: complex polysaccharides from fungal and plant cell walls, lipids, microbial
enzymes, polypeptides etc.
Abiotic elicitors: heavy metal salts, detergents, UV light, low temperature etc.
4. They also produce fungistaic compounds which prevent the growth of pathogens.
5. Apple leaves produce phenol which is fungicidal.
6. Ginkgo biloba, produce α hexanol that is fungicidal.
7. Many bacteria on leaves fix nitrogen that help these microbes to grow on leaves which contain
carbohydrate nutrient content.
Factors affecting the growth of Phyllospheric microorganisms
1. Trough: Microorganisms attach on trough and grow.
2. Veins: Veins form a limited, restricted shallow depressed area which affect the growth of
microorganisms.
3. Leaf spread of position of leaf: The position of the leaf to the sunlight also affect the growth
of microorganisms
4. Sunlight effect results the lowering of moisture resulting desiccation.
5. Stomatal cavities: Water in the form of dew drops is retained. It provides moisture to
microorganisms.
6. Phytoalexins: The chemical substances produced by leaf also inhibit the growth of the
microflora of phyllosphere. Phytoalexins vary with plants.
7. Leachets: Leachets are the materials coming out of leaf surface. It affects the growth of
phyllospheric microorganisms.

Phyllospheric microorganisms Rhizospheric microorganisms

1. They establish an interaction with 1. They establish an interaction with
surface of leaves i.e., phylloplane. surface of root i.e., rhizosplane and
surrounding.
2. They fix atmospheric nitrogen, which 2. They fix atmospheric nitrogen which is
is available to microorganisms but not available to other plants and
to plants. microorganisms.
3. Some of them decompose leaves, after 3. They do not decompose the plant root
falling from plant. to which they are associated.

4. Their major role is to prevent spread of 4. Their major role is to immobilize

airborne pathogens. nutrients, fix atmospheric nitrogen for
plant and also to protect root from
pathogen.

5. Phyllosphere exudate include mainly 5. Root exudates mainly contain

phytoalexins which are toxic to polysaccharides, aminoacids, growth
several microorganisms mainly factors, and organic acids etc. which
pathogens. are helpful for microbial growth.
Rhizosphere
 The rhizosphere is the narrow region of soil that is directly influenced by root secretions and
associated soil microorganisms
 The rhizosphere contains many bacteria that feed on sloughed-off plant cells, termed rhizo-
deposition, and the proteins and sugars released by roots.
 Protozoa and nematodes that graze on bacteria are also more abundant in the rhizosphere.
 The rhizosphere is the zone of soil surrounding a plant root where the biology and chemistry of the
soil are influenced by the root.
 As plant roots grow through soil they mostly release water soluble compounds such as amino acids,
sugars and organic acids that supply food for the microorganisms.
 High levels of exudates in the rhizosphere attract a plethora of microorganisms to a larger extend
than elsewhere in the soil.

Functions of Rhizospheric microorganisms:

1. As the microflora is intimately related with the root system, partially covering its surface, any
beneficial or toxic substances produced can cause an immediate and profound response.
2. The production of CO2 in the rhizosphere and the formation of organic and inorganic acids aid
in the solubilization of inorganic plant nutrients.
3. Azotobacter spp. are found in rhizosphere but absent in rhizoplane due to acidity caused by
root exudates. It is free living non-symbiotic bacteria which fix atmospheric nitrogen, which is
utilized by different crops like cereals, rice, maize, millets, fruits, vegetables etc.
4. Phosphorus availibiltiy is influenced by rhizospheric microorganisms, since large percentage
of such microorganisms are able to degrade organic phosphorus substrate.
5. Rhizospheric microorganisms also alter the availability or toxicity of sulphur.
For e.g. in rye grass, the root system increases the mineralization of sulphur in the soil organic
fraction, thereby benefitting the grass.
Factors affecting Rhizospheric microorganisms
1. Proximity of soil to the root:
In the rhizospheric region, the root exudates such as amino acids, vitamins and other nutrients
directly affect the growth of microorganisms.
The number of microorganisms will be more to the nearest of the root tissue.

2. Temperature and light intensity:

Low temperature and light intensities decreases the microbial load.
High temperature and light intensities increases the rate of exudates with increase in the
rhizospheric microflora.

3. Soil type and environment:

The rhizospheric effect is pronounced more in sandy soil and least in clay soil.
In desert area, root region is the only part where microorganisms can flourish.

4. Age of the plant:

The age of the plant also alters the underlying flora, stage of maturity controls the magnitude
of the rhizospheric effect.
Microorganisms are dependent on root excretion rather than to dead tissues undergoing
decomposition.

5. Root respiration:
Microorganisms are also affected by root respiration, which alters the pH or the availability of
certain inorganic nutrients by the evolution of CO2.
The greater change in the presence of bacteria arises from the increased production of carbonic
acid from the CO2 respired by microorganisms.

6. pH:
The microbial load in the rhizosphere gets decreased, when pH gets lowered due to the
oxidation of sulphur or when roots are assimilating ammonium.
Increase in pH beyond optimum level also decreases microbial load.
7. Presence of Nitrate
If nitrate is present, denitrification may be appreciable in the root region and both N2 and NO2
evolution are increased by plant development.
The higher rate of N2 and NO2 production increases the densities of denitrifying bacteria in the
rhizosphere.

8. Depth
The frequency of most microorganisms decline with depth.

9. Root excretion:
It has pronounced influence on germination of the resting structures of several fungi.

10. Antimicrobial agent:

Roots may liberate antimicrobial agents such as antifungal substances.
The root system may give rise to number of such toxicants which affect microorganisms.

11. Insecticides:
The use of insecticides, pesticides, and antibiotics also affects the growth of rhizospheric
microorganisms.

12. Pathogens:
Pathogens penetrate the rhizospheric in order to initiate infection due to which growth of
rhizospheric microorganisms are affected.