1.1.

The English Language: Some

Characteristics (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

We’re going to explore some characteristics of the English language.

Why would you want to know and understand some characteristics of the English language? Well, we imagine
it’s quite helpful and useful to know, but there are other reasons.
For example, a native-Vietnamese teacher colleague may ask: What is special about the English
language? You need to try and answer this question.
Your colleagues-to-be in some countries may view you as an expert and may think you know everything
about the English language. Again, this type of question may come up in an advanced class.
We have been in this situation, and it could happen to you. So, absorb this. It will enhance your knowledge, and
it will get you out of a possible tricky situation.
However, there is also another critical reason. There will likely be differences in language structures in the
native/first language of the learners you will be teaching, compared to your native-English language.
You’ll have grasped the importance of this already if you have studied a foreign language at school or
university. Or if you are a frequent traveller who likes to pick up a bit of the native language.

1. Fairly Easy To Learn

English is one of the easiest and simplest natural languages in the world.
Of course, it’s all relative. It depends on the learner’s ability and previous language learning experiences
Nevertheless, it’s fair to say that English is a relatively easy language to learn, understand and speak when
compared to very complex languages such as Arabic, Cantonese, Mandarin, Korean and Japanese.

2. Latin Alphabet
The English language uses the Latin alphabet. It is the most universal, short, and straightforward alphabet
(only the Greek alphabet is shorter and simpler). Also, in English, the Latin alphabet presents its cleanest form
as a true alphabet with only 26 basic letters.

3. Its Simple Inflexion

Inflexion is the name for the extra letters added to nouns, verbs, and adjectives in their different grammatical
forms, e.g., cat, cats; eat, eats; big, bigger.
English is considered to be a weakly inflected language when compared to, say, French or Russian. Its nouns
have only traces of inflexion (plurals, the pronouns), and its regular verbs have only four forms, e.g., look,
looks, looked, looking.
Even for irregular verbs, there is almost no variation in person (except the 3rd person singular in the present
tense, e.g., I eat, you eat, she eats). The English language can indicate the relationship of words in a sentence
with only the minimum of change in their structure. There are other languages that do this, but this is a strong
characteristic of English.
4. Receptiveness
A significant feature of the English language is its receptiveness to accepting and adopting words from other
languages. Here are a few examples:
From Spanish:

 Alligator: from el lagarto meaning the lizard

 Cargo: from the verb cargar, meaning to load

From Indian:

 Bungalow: from the Hindi word bangla, a type of cottage built for early European settlers in Bengal.
 Jungle: from Hindi jangal, a desert, forest, wasteland, uncultivated ground

From Chinese:

 Ketchup: from the Hokkien Chinese term kê-tsiap, a sauce made from fermented fish. Europeans later
added tomato as an ingredient.
 Gung ho: it means to show enthusiasm. From a Chinese word, meaning work together.

You can find out the derivation of many common English words at https://www.etymonline.com.
English has accepted and adopted words from Asian, European, African, Indian, Japanese, Chinese, and other
languages. Also, English has accepted words from classical languages like Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit.

5. Its (Generally) Fixed Word Order

Another strong characteristic of the English language is its (typically) fixed word order. Most English
sentences (clauses) conform to the SVO word order. This means that the Subject comes before the Verb,
which comes before the Object. Examples:
I (S) bought (V) a new top (O).
She (S) doesn’t like (V) spiders (O).
Why did you (S) do (V) that (O)?
There are other word orders in English, but the SVO order is by far the most used, making it easy for learners to
grasp.

6. Pronunciation
The pronunciation of English words such as this, thin, clothes, thirteenth, months inevitably causes problems
for learners who do not need to use the tip of the tongue to produce words in their language.

7. Continuous Tense
Many languages do not have a continuous tense form, so English learners may make mistakes such as: I had a
bath when the phone rang; instead of I was having a bath when the phone rang.
8. Articles (A, An, The)
The article system is another feature of English grammar that causes some learners enormous difficulties;
mainly, of course, those whose native language does not use articles.

9. Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is an idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another item, typically either an adverb, as
in break down, or a preposition, for example, see to, or a combination of both, such as look down on. (An item
is the word for small self-contained pieces of language which you can teach or practise in a lesson.)
These phrasal verbs are a VERY significant feature of the English language and can cause severe difficulties
for learners. Sentences such as I put it down to the weather, or I made it up with my sister, are usually
gobbledegook to beginner non-native-English speakers.
Unfortunately for the English language learner, phrasal verbs are extremely common in colloquial (informal,
everyday, conversational) English language. We’ll explore these later in the course.

10. Non-Tonal
English is a non-tonal language.
In tone languages, e.g., Chinese and Vietnamese, pitch (the degree of highness or lowness of a tone) is used to
distinguish word meaning. So, a word said with a high pitch may have a different meaning from the same word
said with a low pitch.
In English, changes in pitch are used to emphasise or express emotion, not to give a different word meaning to
the sound. It is not surprising that native speakers of tone languages often have strong accents when
speaking English.

11. Sound And Spelling

A final feature of English that causes problems for non-native learners (and some native-English speakers) is
the lack of a connection between word sound and word spelling.
It is difficult for non-native learners of English to predict the pronunciation of English words they first come
across in writing or the spelling of many English words they first hear.
The critical point is that this happens with some of the most common words in the language:

 Words containing ough: thought, although, rough,

 Words which have different spellings but they sound the same: ate, eight; hear, here; their, there
 Words with silent letters, not pronounced: know, could, hour
 Words that look the same but must be pronounced differently: read (present tense), read (past
tense); present (a gift), present (to give to); close (near); close (to shut)
1.2. Frequently Used Acronyms In The TEFL
Environment (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
The TEFL environment is full of acronyms. We have listed some of the frequently used acronyms. Try and get
to grips with these through time.
ELT (English Language Teaching) has quite recently come into use as an umbrella term which aims to include
everything in the Teaching English field.
TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) are perhaps the most
common terms.
TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) is another umbrella term, similar to ELT. In the USA,
Canada and Australia, the term TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) is much more
widely used than TEFL, but the concept is much the same.
TEYL (Teaching English to Young Learners) is encompassed within TEFL and is geared, as you would imagine,
to teaching young learners of English.
TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) is teaching immigrants in English-speaking countries, though
this area is also, confusingly, referred to as TESL. The learners are studying an ESL (English as a Second
Language) course.
CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) is an umbrella term for learner-centred, authentic, and meaningful
language acquisition principles that inform the most widely practiced language teaching approach used in
second language learning classrooms today. It is also referred to as the Communicative Approach. Our course
will follow this approach.
L1 is the term used for a learner’s first language (the learner’s native language). If someone asks you if you
allow L1 in the classroom, they are asking if you allow your learners to use their native language in class.
L2 stands for the second language a learner is learning. Your learners’ L2 will be English.
PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production) is a widely used model of classroom teaching for lesson planning and
lesson delivery. Some learning Providers call this the I do, We do, You do model of teaching. However, we will
adhere to our 5 Step Lesson Plan model, which will keep you firmly on track all of the time.
STT (Student Talking Time) is the amount of time that learners spend talking in class (ideally as much as
possible).
TTT (Teacher Talking Time) is the amount of time you spend talking during a class (ideally as little as possible
and much less than STT).
There are more acronyms, but these will do us fine for the moment!
Later, we’ll look at another small group of acronyms, representing different types of EFL courses that learners
may be taking and the specific examinations that some learners may be preparing for.
This course will prepare you to help learners to enhance their English Language level per se.
But it will also prepare you to help those learners who are aiming for a specific EFL qualification, often for
entry to university studies, for migration purposes or work reasons. All you will need to do is familiarise
yourself with the specific syllabus relating to the examination.
1.3. A Very Brief History Of Some ELT
Methods (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Down through the years, there has been a wide range of approaches used to teach EFL. We will summarise
some of these ‘traditional’ approaches. We’ll leave it to you to decide if you want to explore these in greater
depth.

The Grammar-Translation Approach

 Developed in the 19th century to teach Latin and Greek.
 The main aim of studying a foreign language is to be able to read its literature.
 The emphasis in class is on reading/writing, not on listening/speaking.
 The foreign language is explained and discussed in the learners’ native language.
 Most lesson time is spent translating written sentences/texts, which have little resemblance to spoken
communication, from/into the foreign language.
 Despite having little to no theoretical basis underpinning it, this method is still used in some
institutions today.

The Direct Approach

 Emerged in the late 19th century.
 It is based on the principle that a learner can learn a second language much like she learns a first
language.
 Language is acquired ‘directly’, and exclusively, in the target language, e.g., English, via active
demonstration by the teacher.
 The learners’ native language and all translation are excluded from the classroom.

Audiolingual Approach
 Language learning is all to do with habit formation. Language classes should, therefore, concentrate
on the formation of speech habits by using a series of mechanical and repetitive oral drills.
 The learning consists mainly of the accurate imitation and memorisation by learners of sentences or
dialogues modelled by the teacher.
 Language is a matter of speech, and so classroom work concentrates almost exclusively on speaking.

From the 1970s onwards, other approaches arose, principally to counter the mimic-heavy, pattern-based
teaching approaches of the previous decades. These include Total Physical Response (which we’ll touch on in
a later Module), The Silent Way, Suggestopedia, and the Natural Approach. All these approaches have had
different degrees of success.
Remember this! It would be silly not to recognise that all of these approaches have included some teaching
elements that have been useful at some time or another for teaching. Beware of anyone who dismisses all
these approaches. It’s maybe because they do not know enough about them!
When reflecting on teaching approaches, one thing that should spark our interest is when a profound and
notable transformation takes place – a sea change or paradigm shift (a shift from one way of thinking to
another).
One such sea change in the approach to teaching took place in the 1970s and 1980s, and it is still gathering
strength at this moment. This period saw the introduction of what is commonly known as Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) or the Communicative Approach.
We’ll come to this in a few moments.

1.4. Teaching Approaches, Methods And

Techniques (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

1.4.1. Approaches, Methods, Techniques

We will view an ‘approach’ as a way of looking at teaching and learning. Underlying any language teaching
approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be learned. It contains a set of theoretical
principles about teaching with practical applications.
An approach gives rise to ‘methods’, the way of teaching language items, e.g., via classroom activities or
techniques.
A method is how a language is taught. A method is made up of a set of techniques that usually reflect a
particular view of language teaching.

Example
The Communicative Approach is the most popular and most current approach to language teaching. Task-
based teaching is a methodology associated with teaching the Communicative Approach. Other methods are
also associated with teaching the Communicative Approach.
However, to confuse matters, some methods have also been labelled ‘approaches’.

1.4.2. Most Recent Methods/Techniques

Here is a list of the most popular methods of teaching ELT:

1. Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)

In this method, the teacher presents the new language item for learning, using a situation (presentation
stage). Then the teacher gets the learners to practise the new language via exercises or other controlled
practice activities (practice stage). And then he asks learners to use or produce the same language in a
communicative and less controlled way (production stage).

 Audiolingual Method (mentioned above)

In this method, language learning is all about habit formation, mainly by repetitive drilling. Error correction is
considered essential to prevent bad habits.
The Audiolingual Methodis largely discredited in academic circles, though in some places it is still practised.

 Lexical method (often termed ‘lexical approach’)

In today’s communicative classroom, the word lexis is used to signify both the teaching of vocabulary and
areas of grammar together. Vocabulary is typically seen as individual words, whereas lexis is a somewhat
broader concept and consists of words, phrases, collocations, chunks, and formulaic grammatical expressions.
These words, chunks, and patterns are now often called lexical items.
Instruction focuses on fixed expressions that frequently occur in dialogues.
Note that we will only use the word vocabulary on a few occasions from now on. We will use the
term lexis instead. We will also use the adjective lexical, which derives from lexis.
We’ll explore lexis in-depth in Module 4.

 Task-based method

In Task-Based Learning, the learning is designed around a series of authentic tasks which give learners the
experience of using the language in ways in which it is used in the ‘real world’ outside the classroom. In this
method, there is no predetermined language syllabus, and the aim is for learners to learn from the tasks the
language they need to participate successfully in them.
A task could be working out the itinerary of a journey from a timetable or requesting information from a travel
agent.

 Principled Eclecticism Method

This method involves the use of a variety of language learning activities, a mix of all the different activities
above and other teaching methods. Proponents (supporters) of this method say that there are weaknesses as
well as strengths in other methods. Thus, it’s best to use a mix of methods to ensure the learning does not
become mechanical and, therefore, the learners will benefit from several methods.

 Communicative Method (often termed the ‘Communicative Approach’)

 In this method, the focus is on authentic, meaningful communication, not structure.
 Learners accomplish tasks using language. They do not study the language, as happened in the
past.
 The syllabus focuses on functions (e.g., asking permission, asking directions, etc.), not
grammatical/structural development (tenses, conditionals, etc.).
 Fluency and communication are more important than accuracy.
 The class becomes more learner-centred (or learner-centred). Learners accomplish their tasks
with other learners, while the teacher plays more of a facilitator/observer role.

This is the method/approach we will be majoring in throughout the course.

1.5 Total Focus On Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), also known as the Communicative Approach, is the approach we
will major in throughout the course.
It’s not easy to define CLT in a few words as many teachers and linguists stress different elements within this
approach. However, it’s safe to say that this definition from Richards and Schmidt (2002) will serve us well:
It is an approach that emphasises that the goal of language learning is communicative competence.
Communicative competence aims to make meaningful communication and language use the focus of all
classroom activities.
CLT is a broad term for learner-centred, authentic, and meaningful language acquisition
principles that inform the most widely practised language teaching approach used in second language
learning classrooms today.
That’s quite a bit to take on board. For the moment, all you need to grasp is that in the 1970s and 1980s there
was a paradigm shift in the approach to teaching EFL.
This shift witnessed a move away from and reaction against what is often now termed as ‘traditional’
approaches, e.g., the Grammar-Translation Approach. ‘Traditional’ isn’t an easy word to describe precisely, but
for our purposes here we will use it to describe the teaching approaches which were commonly in use before
the Communicative Approach reared its head in the 1970s and 1980s.
The main principles of the Communicative Approach you will be using can be summarised as follows:
Communication

 Classroom work aims to help learners reach an effective standard of communication outside the
classroom.
 Accuracy in grammar and pronunciation are important, but these are less important than the ability to
communicate meaningfully in real life (even if there are some mistakes in the language).
 There is a strong emphasis on listening and speaking, but lessons can include reading and writing. This
depends on school policy and learner needs.
 The principal achievement goal of Communicative Language Teaching is to enable learners to
communicate knowledge and opinions surrounding a topic in the target language
(English). Remember this: The target language is the language learners are studying (i.e.
English).
 Attempts to communicate are encouraged from the very first lesson.
 Practice activities are put in communicative contexts, wherever possible. So, there is frequent use of
role-plays, discussions, etc. at all levels.

Meaning and use

Language learning is mainly about learning to communicate effectively. So, the primary emphasis is always on
the meaning and use of language items.
Context
New language items are presented and practised in realistic and meaningful contexts which show their
meaning and use. It is the context that gives language meaning. Simply put, the language necessary for
buying a train ticket would be set in a train station (the context).
Fluency
It is assumed that the ability to communicate effectively in a language will result from a combination of formal
learning of rules and holistic acquisition.
Creativity
Language learning and acquisition are creative processes, and they involve trial and error on the part of the
learner. The learner should be encouraged to try out language items in a supportive classroom environment
and, with your help, he will learn from his mistakes.
Functions
To do this, the underlying premise is that learners need to be able to go beyond the learning of the
grammatical structure of a language and into the functions (e.g. buying a bus ticket; ordering a meal; applying
for a job) or areas and ways such utterances are used in communication in the real world.
Form

 Linguistic competence is only part of the whole picture of language acquisition. Learners must be able
to choose the most appropriate form for a situation, such as when to use could you or would you as an
issue of register or politeness.
 Register is a variety of a language or a level of usage, as determined by the degree of formality and
choice of lexis, pronunciation, and syntax (grammar), according to the communicative purpose, social
context, and standing of the user. For example, we generally use a different variety of language when
we speak to our doctor than we do when speaking to our friends (unless the doctor is a close friend).
 Learners must also recognise that a variety of forms can be used to achieve the same end or function
such as It may rain and Perhaps it will rain, each of which achieves the same communicative purpose
which is the possibility of rain.

Teacher role
This is very important.

 Your emphasis must always be on communication in English. Your role is to facilitate, help, and advise
your learners and also to be a language resource. The core principle is that you do not ‘teach’ (as in the
past) but instead help and facilitate your learners to learn or acquire.
 The classroom is learner-centred or learning-centred, with many activities taking place in pairs or
groups, monitored and unobtrusively facilitated by you.

Individual learning preferences

Your learners will have different learning needs and preferences. You will, therefore, need to use whichever
techniques you feel will help your learners most. That is, on occasion, you may discuss grammar rules if this
helps your learners. Remember this: grammar is never taught in isolation unless it is absolutely necessary.
Real English
In some parts of lessons, learners will be exposed to fine-tuned input (language at or within the learners’
knowledge). In other parts, they will be exposed to rough-tuned input (language which is a little above the
learners’ level). Even in Beginner classes, learners will be exposed to examples of authentic English:
newspaper articles, etc.
Occasional structured drills

 Remember this! Drilling means repetition. It involves your learners, either individually or as a group,
repeating whatever you say. Drilling is a way for your learners to practise new language, e.g., lexis,
grammatical structures, and pronunciation, in a controlled setting.
 Oral drilling and classroom-type exercises may occupy a small proportion of lesson time.
 They are ways of helping learners with pronunciation, grammar patterns, etc.

In summary, to obtain communicative competence via the communicative approach, lessons need integration
of the following:
 1. Situation/context: The situations one encounters in life, e.g., meeting a new friend; going to the
doctor. A meaningful context is set.
2. Functions: Functions are speech acts that learners are likely to face, e.g., seeking advice, requesting
information, expressing gratitude, complimenting someone, expressing requests, asking permission,
complaining, etc.
3. Form: Socio-linguistic-language used in a social setting, social niceties, social situations, formal v
informal expressions, etc. You will integrate socio-linguistic competence (such as acceptable and
unacceptable ways to complain) as well as strategies and methods to overcome communication
breakdown when it happens.
4. Meaning and use: These will be linked to the form

 Grammar: Always taught in context. It is linked to materials related to conversation, reading, listening,
and writing. It is never taught in isolation unless it is necessary.
 Notions: Days of the week, dates, months, should be introduced in context.

For example, in lesson planning, you will determine how to adapt these competencies to learner needs. To do
this, you could:

 Choose a situation such as a visit to a doctor.

 Present the language functions such as giving formal greetings, requesting advice, giving
advice, demonstrating gratitude.
 Present the form related to the situation and its meaning and usage.
 Choose the necessary grammar and lexis to complete the exercise.
 Construct and choose communicative activities for the learners to practise and produce.

So, this integrated communicative approach is the one we will focus on. It’s an exciting approach where skills
are integrated. Each of your lessons may include a bit of speaking, listening, writing, and reading, where
possible.
The achievement goal at all times is to enable learners to communicate knowledge and opinions surrounding a
topic in the target language – English. There’ll be very few standalone grammar lessons, but you will still need
a sound grasp of basic grammar so that you can handle queries and questions seamlessly. We’ll be tackling
bits of grammar in various parts of the course. It’s not too stretching!
1.6. L1 And L2 Learning (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

1.6.1. L1 And L2 And Second Language

Acquisition (SLA)
Remember! Repetition is an excellent teaching attribute so, now and again, we’ll remind you of a few things
mentioned earlier in the course.
As mentioned before, L1 is the label given to a person’s first language (the learner’s native language, e.g.,
Mandarin). When this person learns a second or foreign language (e.g., English), this additional language is
labelled the person’s L2 language.
So, all the learners you will be teaching will have a non-English language, e.g., Mandarin, as their native/first
language (L1) and you will be teaching them English which will be a second or foreign language for them,
known as L2.
Now, let’s explore the critical area of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). SLA is the term used for learners
learning a second language after their first language is already established.
There’s no doubt that L1 learners learn differently from L2 learners. It’s vital that you reflect on the key
differences.
You can probably work out for yourself the key points relating to L1 learning as you have been an L1 learner.
Let’s reflect on this.
Time to reflect
Can you identify any differences between an L1 learner learning her native language and an L2 learner
learning his second or foreign language? Try and do this without looking at the next Section.
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.

Well done!
L1 learner

 Generally immersed in language at all times from birth

 Wants, needs and is motivated to communicate by signs or baby words, with meaning, e.g., I want
some food!
 Adults often praise and encourage the child’s use of language, spurring her on to more significant
linguistic achievements
 Gets a lot of attention to aid the learning
 Learns by playing and experimenting with the new language, and lots of time to do so
  Not often corrected

Let’s now consider the L2 learner’s learning situation

L2 learner

 Not intensively exposed to the L2

 Most often exposed by being taught the English language in the classroom; often limited exposure
outside the classroom
 May not be motivated, but could be, though
 Often only learns through interaction with you and his classmates – may not be motivated to try out
functions outside of the classroom.
 Often learns by using language in a controlled setting with you and other learners and often with lots
of controlled practice activities
 Teachers vary in the amount they praise or encourage L2 learners – some teachers may not do this
effectively, certainly not as effectively and frequently as a mother/father/caregiver would do in an L1
situation. When you see good, specific examples of positive behaviour, praise your learners.
 The learner typically receives limited attention from the teacher.
 Many teachers regularly correct learners for accuracy; this can be demotivating for some learners.

So, there are some significant differences between L1 and L2 learning. Remember these and another piece
will be in place in your ‘Good Teacher Jigsaw’.
1.7. Key Influences On L2 Learning (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

Why do some L2 learners learn faster and better than others? Here are some vital points for you to remember
and reflect on regularly when you are on the job. They are not in any specific order.

1. Degree of intellect

Some L2 learners are just brighter than others. If they are motivated to learn, they will achieve higher levels of
learning.

 Age

So many studies have been carried out to prove or disprove that age is or isn’t a key influence on learning.
None have achieved their purpose successfully. When we compare SLA with, say, learners at age 6, 16, 26, or
56, there are so many other variables involved. How can the acquisition of a 6year-old with an open mind and
no cares in the world be compared to the acquisition of a 26-year old who is learning part-time and has lots of
concerns?
There is no definitive answer.
However, our experience tells us that, generally, the older a person becomes, the more difficult it is to acquire
a second language. Even although that older person has a broader view of the world and more extensive
experiences, he also has many more things requiring his focus and concentration.

 Learning preference

If the teaching is not carried out in line with the learner’s preferred learning approach, e.g., lots of visuals or
lots of audio or lots of discussions and activities, etc., learning may very well be curtailed. We will explore
‘learning preferences’ later.

 Motivation

Whether this is intrinsic (learning for its own sake) or extrinsic (for some goal or reward, e.g., securing a new
job), every learner has varying degrees of motivation. It’s also challenging to keep learners motivated all of the
time.
Remember this! The whole person comes to school, be it your learners or you. Learners have their ups and
downs. They come with all their personal baggage, e.g., worrying about a sick parent/child, or upset due to a
breakdown in some personal relationship. So, the motivated person yesterday may not be the motivated
person today. Help and show empathy wherever you can.
And the same applies to you.
You may feel a little bit down due to some personal issue. Alternatively, you may have had just one too many
social events the nights before. You’ll need to make a supreme effort not to let these events affect your
teaching. Your learners need you to be constant, i.e., positive, welcoming and full of life all the time.

 Language proficiency in L1

There’s no doubt that a learner who is proficient in her L1 language (grammar, structure, mood, etc.) and
understands all of this, has a great head start when learning an L2.

 Awareness of L2

Again, a learner will have a great head start on others if she already has an awareness of the L2, perhaps
through living in a bi-lingual environment.
These were easy for you! Let’s ramp it up a bit. Now, let’s look at some trickier additional issues that
we have come across in our years of teaching EFL:

 Autonomy

Some educators say that learners should play a more active role in designing or selecting learning experiences
in schools.
This approach can encourage learners to be more interested in school, more motivated to learn, and more
likely to take responsibility for their education.
That is, learners should be given some degree of autonomy. There is no doubt that most learners thrive on
autonomy. Studies have shown that as learner autonomy increases, so does learner motivation. And, thus, so
do learning results.
An example of autonomy would be to let learners pick from a list of topics to debate instead of being told what
to do.
Of course, there are those learners who shy away from autonomy. These learners want the teacher to lead
them. However, generally, the more autonomy there is, the better the learning results will be.

 Prior learning

Learners may bring to class their expectations regarding teacher relationships, teacher behaviour and teacher
approaches to learning that prevailed in their home countries, especially if they had extensive schooling
there.
Therefore, some learners from more traditional educational systems may expect you to behave in a more
formal and authoritarian fashion during classes. They may be displeased, puzzled, or offended if you use an
informal instructional style, such as using their first names in class or allowing the learners to move freely
around the room. They may believe that this will affect their learning.
When teaching learners, you must try to find out how they have learned previously and how they would prefer
to learn in your classroom. Simply put, you need to ask them.

 Pattern of classroom activity

Some learners may also want you to maintain a clearly ordered pattern of classroom activity and, perhaps,
engage in extensive correction of grammatical form or pronunciation during all activities rather than at
irregular points in a lesson or not at all.
Failure to conform to these ideals may give some learners the impression of lazy or inadequate class
preparation on your part.

1. Your behaviour

You, similarly, bring to the classroom your expectations regarding teacher behaviour. This includes your views
on appropriate behaviour within society in general, as well as in the classroom.
For example, if you come from a culture of self-reliance, are at ease in expressing and defending personal
opinions, and are interested in personal advancement, you will likely provide instruction that addresses these
goals. You may unconsciously attribute these same goals to your learners.
The potential for conflicting expectations and evaluations of behaviour between you and your learners is
evident.

1. Gender
Find out whether learners have ever experienced mixed educational groupings, whether they expect male and
female teachers to behave differently, and how different classroom activities, e.g., roleplays or dialogue
practice, might affect learners adversely because of their native cultural constraints.
Failure on your part to take this into account may affect learner learning.

1. Female participation

In encouraging women learners to speak up and take an active role in class, you may sometimes encounter
reluctance from both men and women from cultures in which women have historically been constrained by
social roles that do not promote active participation in mixed-sex settings.
You must reflect on this point continuously.

1. Culture: Appropriate topics for learning

Cultural expectations regarding the nature of education and what is appropriate to talk about may also affect
the kinds of topics learners are willing to pursue in class and their motivation to learn. Cultural as well as
personal sensitivity is vital in knowing if, when, and how to introduce topics or lessons that may be
inappropriate (for some) or complicated.

1. Classroom Participation

The communicative classroom creates a lively, vibrant environment. This is generally a motivating learning
environment for those who enjoy working with others. But not always.
What about the learner who prefers to work alone? Verbally expressing ideas and asking questions during
class can prove difficult for learners who are unaccustomed to this form of active and lively pair and group
participation.
And what about the situation where a learner loves to be with the same partner all of the time, in a pair? She
may not like being moved into a group.
There are communicative approach proponents who see pair work and group work as the answer to
everything. This is not the case. We need to observe well and consider our learners’ preferences, at least for
some of the time.

1. Communication styles

There are patterns of expression and rules of interaction that reflect the norms and values of a culture.
If you lack understanding of these communication styles, this could lead to confusion, anxiety and conflict –
and a reduction in learning. Let’s consider just two of these styles.

A. Direct Style V Indirect Style

Direct Style
Here are the key indicators of a direct style of communication presented by the teacher and, perhaps, some
learners in the classroom:

 Straightforward talking
 No beating about the bush – straight and to the point
 Directness means there is respect for the other person.
 Avoiding ambiguity
Here are the key indicators of an indirect style of communication presented by the teacher and, perhaps,
some learners in the classroom:

Indirect Style
 Meaning is conveyed by subtle means, stories, implication – not getting to the point
 Indirectness means politeness and respect for the other person.
 Frequent use of implication – not directness

B. Idea-Focussed Style V Person-Focussed

Styles
Idea-Focussed
 Ideas and person are separate
 Open disagreement is acceptable
 Disagreement with a person’s views is not seen as a personal attack

Person-Focussed
 Ideas and person are not separate
 Feelings are important
 Disagreement is handled very carefully
 Disagreement is an attack on the person

So, here we have conflicting ways of looking at communication. This is a potential boiling pot.
Learning will be affected, and your critical task will be to find a balance. It’s not your role to try and
change people’s cultural ways of working. It is your role to find a solution to this.
So, there are lots of ways an L2 learner’s learning can be influenced.
1.8. Effective Learning Strategies (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

Language learning strategies are the conscious steps or behaviours used by language learners to enhance the
acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information.
The more proficient learners use learning strategies that are appropriate to the material, to the task, and their
own goals, needs, and stage of learning.
For example, strategies could be techniques such as diaries, think-aloud procedures, observations, and
surveys.
More proficient learners appear to use a broader range of strategies in a significant number of situations than
less skilled learners. For example, more proficient learners:

 employ appropriate language learning strategies that often result in improved proficiency or
achievement overall or in specific skill areas.
 tend to use strategies that work well together and which are tailored to the requirements of the
language task. These learners can easily explain the strategies they use and why they employ them.
 use metacognitive strategies, such as translating and analysing, and other strategies, such as planning
and organising. Using combinations of strategies often has more impact than relying on a single
strategy.
 use specific strategies or clusters of strategies that are linked to particular language skills or tasks.

Learners may have created their own strategies or may have picked up some strategies from their teachers,
their parents or siblings, or their friends. They may also have gained some useful strategies from a library or
internet search.
There are many different and preferred strategies that learners may use. The following list is not definitive but
it will give you a good idea of the commonly-used types of strategies that some learners use. Note that no
definitive list of strategies has been agreed on by language researchers.
Anyhow, you can pass on some of these ideas to those of your learners who have no concrete strategies for
learning and studying.

1. Circumlocution

This is best explained via an example. The more proficient learner doesn’t know the word ‘nephew’ but she
doesn’t give up. So, she uses different words or phrases to express the intended meaning, e.g. my brother’s
son.

 Avoidance

Avoidance is where a more proficient learner may learn to avoid talking about topics for which she lacks the
necessary lexis or other language skills. She may also come to a halt mid-utterance once she realises she does
not have the language resources needed to complete her communication.

 Word coinage

This is the term for more proficient learners creating new words or phrases for words that they do not know.
For example, the learner doesn’t know the word freezer and she constructs and uses a new word ice
cabinet instead.

 Language switching or code switching

This is where a more proficient learner doesn’t know a word and uses a word with the same meaning from her
first language, hoping that her communication partner will understand. For example: My aunt and uncle are
coming for Christmas. They will be staying chez nous.

 Clarification and comprehension checks

Some learners are often too shy or embarrassed to say anything when they do not understand the other
speaker. More proficient learners, however, use clarification and comprehension checks. For example:
For clarification check:

 Do you mean …?
 Could you explain what you mean by …?
 Could you give me an example, please?

For comprehension check:

 Sorry, I don’t understand.

 Sorry, I don’t know what you mean.
 Sorry, I’m not sure I’m following you.

Note that this appeal for assistance may also be done indirectly via a puzzled expression, raising eyebrows,
etc.

 Non-verbal strategies

This refers to strategies such as the use of body language, gestures, mime, facial expressions, sound imitation
to support or replace verbal communication.

 Approximation

This is where the more proficient learner uses an alternative term that approximates the meaning of the target
word or phrase as closely as possible. For example, she may say ship instead of (the more difficult)
word yacht.

 Use of all-purpose words

When the more proficient learner lacks a specific word in a conversation, she may use a general, empty lexical
word or phrase to replace it; for example, stuff, thingie.

 Using minimal responses

More proficient learners build up a stock of minimal responses, to help them engage.
Minimal responses are predictable phrases that conversation participants use to indicate understanding,
agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is saying; for example: Oh, I see. Is that so?
That’s good. Oh, sorry. I didn’t catch that.
These minimal responses enable a learner to concentrate on what the other participant is saying, without
having to plan a reply simultaneously.

1. Recognising scripts/patterns opportunities

More proficient learners understand that many communication situations are associated with a predictable set
of spoken exchanges. For example, greetings, compliments, apologies, invitations, and other functions that
are influenced by social and cultural norms often follow scripts or patterns. For example:
Can I help you?
Yes, please.
It’s the same with exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making a purchase. In
these scripts, the relationship between a speaker’s turn and the one that follows it can often be anticipated.

1. Fillers and hesitation devices

This is where the more proficient learner uses fillers or hesitation devices to fill pauses and to gain a bit of time
to think.
Fillers:

 em …
 er …
 mm …
 uh …
 As a matter of fact, …
 Well, …
 Actually, …
 To be honest/frank, …

Hesitation Devices/Stalling For Time To Think

Let’s see, …
Wow, that’s a difficult one.
Now, let me think.
Now, just a minute.
That’s a good question.
I’ll have to think about that for a moment.
What I’m trying to say is… How shall I put it?
How can I best explain this?
Let’s put it this way.
Where should I start?

1. SMART goals

More proficient learners know how to set SMART goals:

 Specific
 Measurable
 Achievable
 Realistic
 Time-based

Smart goals provide the benchmark, focus and plan for surging ahead. The more proficient learner also knows
and understands what it is to be too ambitious. It will take lots of practice and lots of time before she can
consider how fluent she is. But it will all be worth it in the end.

1. Using authentic material and practising in authentic situations

The more proficient learner listens to the teacher’s advice that the best route to fluency is through consuming
lots of authentic material. What is learned and practised in the classroom is not enough. Consuming lots of
authentic material outside the classroom, in different formats, is vital for fluency success. As is practising the
language in real-life situations with native speakers.

1. Self-monitoring

The more proficient learner does not just rely on teacher comments and the institution’s assessments to tell
her how she is doing. She assesses her own capabilities frequently by taking relevant, external proficiency
tests and quizzes. This helps her to further determine what areas she needs to develop.
She knows that another way to assess her own skills without a proficiency test/quiz is to think through what
she’s most comfortable with. If she had to communicate with a native speaker, would she feel more
comfortable with:

 Listening to the native speaker, then responding in speech

 Speaking with the native speaker and responding in speech
 Writing to the native speaker
 Reading about the native speaker and then responding to some questions

It’s likely that the option she chooses is her strongest skill and, thus, she knows what other skills she needs to
focus on.
The four skills (listening, speaking, writing, reading)
Finally, with regard to the four skills, the more proficient learner will likely demonstrate a cocktail of some of
these strategies:

1. Listening: Comprehension gains from strategies of elaboration, inference, selective attention, and
self-monitoring.
2. Speaking: Speaking demands strategies such as risk-taking, paraphrasing, circumlocution,
selfmonitoring, and self-evaluation.
3. Writing: Writing benefits from the learning strategies of planning, self-monitoring, deduction, and
substitution.
4. Reading: Comprehension benefits from using strategies like reading aloud, guessing, deduction, and
summarising.

Help your learners to develop and enhance their learning strategies so that, eventually, they will become
independent learners with the ability to use robust strategies in a variety of contexts.
Well done! You have learned a lot already. Every piece of information above will help you become a
competent and effective EFL teacher. And there’s lots more to come!
End of Module 1 (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson's quiz achieving 93%
There is only one correct answer for each question. Select the correct answer.
Although you will not fail the whole course if you score below 40% in the End Of Module Quiz it will count
towards your final assessment. You will be able to retake this quiz. When you are finished be sure to look
over the questions again and take note of any errors and use this to learn, you may be asked similar questions
in your final assessment.

End of Module 1 (150) Quiz

Congratulations! You have passed this quiz achieving 93% NEXT LESSON

1. The dominant achievement goal of Communicative Language Teaching is to enable

students:1

 to write well

 to listen in the target language

 to communicate knowledge and opinions around a topic in the target language

 to achieve accuracy in grammar and punctuation in the target language

Grade: 1
2. It’s imperative that you try to find out how your students have learned previously and
how they prefer to learn now.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
3. A learner who has language proficiency in his L1 has a head start when learning an L2.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
4. In the statement, I put it down to experience, the underlined part is an example of:1

 a phrasal verb

 an adjective

 an adverb

 an article
Grade: 1
5. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a broad term for:1

 Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

  learner-centred, authentic and meaningful language acquisition principles

 teacher-centred, authentic and meaningful language acquisition principles

 everything in the Teaching English arena

Grade: 1
6. L2 is a student’s native language.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
7. Students should always be exposed to fine-tuned input.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
8. Which of the following is incorrect?1

 The ‘I do, We do, You do’ model is the same as the Presentation, Practice, Production (PPP)
model.

 TEFL and EFL are perhaps the most common terms.

 TESOL and TEFL concepts are generally much the same.

 There should be more Teacher Talking Time (TTT) than Student Talking Time (STT).
Grade: 1
9. Less proficient L2 learners use the same range and number of learning strategies as
proficient L2 learners.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
10. The name for extra letters added to nouns, verbs and adjectives in their different
grammatical forms is:1

 diacritics

 inflexion

 receptiveness

 pitch
Grade: 1
11. Which of the following is correct?1

 L1 and L2 learners are regularly corrected.

 L1 and L2 learners learn language differently.

  L1 and L2 learn in controlled settings with controlled activities.

 L1 and L2 learners are praised to the same degree.

Incorrect - Right Answer: L1 and L2 learners learn language differently.
12. English is a tonal language.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
13. English has a predictable connection between word sound and word spelling.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
14. The English language’s word order is typically:1

 object then verb then subject (OVS)

 subject then verb then object (SVO)

 subject then object then verb (SOV)

 verb then subject then object (VSO)

Grade: 1
15. Functions are speech acts that students are likely to face, e.g. making a request.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1