2/2/2022

AHS2130 Crop Production

AMED
Session 3.... Part Two

Rainfall and Water

A Recap…
Crop Production; The branch of agriculture that deals with growing
crops for use as food and fibre. • Rainfall is the most common form of precipitation.
Classification of Crops; Economic, by usage, by habit etc... • It is the falling of water in droplets on the surface of the Earth from
clouds. The amount and regularity of rainfall vary with location and
Crop Centres of Origin/Diversity ... Darwin, Vavilov
climate types and affect the dominance of certain types of vegetation
Factors affecting crop Production; as well as crop growth and yield.
Plant Factors,
Environmental factors...
Biotic and
Abiotic Factors****

The Hydrologic Cycle

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Light
• Light is essential in the production of chlorophyll and in
• Through precipitation, water is made available to plants as surface photosynthesis, the process by which plants manufacture food in the
water, soil water or moisture, or groundwater. form of sugar (carbohydrate). Other plant processes that are
• Most of the water absorbed by plants is lost through transpiration enhanced or inhibited by this climatic factor include stomatal
and only about 1 percent or less is used in the various biochemical movement, phototropism, photomorphogenesis, translocation,
processes. mineral absorption, and abscission

• Light is that visible portion of the solar radiation or electromagnetic • Three properties of this climatic factor that affect plant growth and
spectrum. It is a form of kinetic energy that comes from the sun. development are;
• light quality,
• light intensity, and
• daylength or photoperiod.

Light quality Light intensity

Refers to the specific wavelengths of light. • the degree of brightness that a plant receives;
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Temperature
Daylength
• This factor influences all plant growth processes such as photosynthesis, respiration,
transpiration, breaking of seed dormancy, seed germination, protein synthesis, and
The duration of the day translocation. At high temperatures the translocation of photosynthate is faster so that
plants tend to mature earlier.
with respect to the • plants survive within a temperature range of 0 to 50 C. Enzyme activity and the rate of
night period. most chemical reactions generally increase with rise in temperature. Up to a certain
point, there is doubling of enzymatic reaction with every 10 C temperature increase. at
excessively high temperatures, denaturation of enzymes and other proteins occur.
• Excessively low temperatures can also cause limiting effects on plant growth and
development. For example, water absorption is inhibited when the soil temperature is
low because water is more viscous at low temperatures and less mobile, and the
protoplasm is less permeable. At temperatures below the freezing point of water, there
is change in the form of water from liquid to solid. The expansion of water as it solidifies
in living cells causes the rupture of the cell walls
• The favourable or optimal day and night temperature range for plant growth and
maximum yields varies among crop species.

Air
• A mixture of gases in the atmosphere. With about 75% of this air is found in the
troposphere (the innermost layer) which extends about 17 km above sea level at
the equator and about 8 km over the poles.
• Approximately 99% of the clean, dry air in the troposphere consists of 78%
nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The remainder consists of argon (slightly less than 1%),
carbon dioxide (0.036%), and traces of other gases.
• The oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air are of particular importance to the
physiology of plants. Oxygen is essential in respiration for the production of
energy that is utilized in various growth and development processes. Carbon
dioxide is a raw material in photosynthesis.
• Air also consists of suspended particles of dust and chemical air pollutants such
as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), sulfur
trioxide (SO3), nitrogen oxides, methane (CH4), propane, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), solid particles of dust, soot, asbestos and lead, ozone and many more.

Relative Humidity
• Relative humidity (RH) is the amount of water vapour in the air,
expressed as the proportion (in percent) of the maximum amount of
water vapor it can hold at certain temperature. The amount of water
vapor that the air can hold depends on its temperature; warm air has
the capacity to hold more water vapor than cold air.
• The relative humidity affects the opening and closing of the stomata
which regulates loss of water from the plant through transpiration as
well as photosynthesis. A substantial understanding of this climatic
factor is likewise important in plant propagation.
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Wind Soil
• Air movement or wind is due to the existence of pressure gradient on a global or local
scale caused by differences in heating. On a global scale it consists of the jet stream flow
and movement of large air masses. On the local scale only a smaller quantity of air
moves.
• This climatic factor serves as a vector of pollen from one flower to another thus aiding in
the process of pollination. It is therefore essential in the development of fruit and seed
from wind-pollinated flowers as in many grasses.
• Moderate winds favour gas exchanges, but strong winds can cause excessive water loss
through transpiration as well as lodging or toppling of plants. When transpiration rate
exceeds that of water absorption, partial or complete closure of the stomata may ensue
which will restrict the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leaves. As a result, there will be
a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis, growth and yield.
• Each of the above discussed climatic factors has been shown to produce limiting effects
on various growth processes. However, the various climatic factors always operate
together and interact with each other under natural conditions.

Soil: Some Definitions Soil… what does it do for plants?

1. A natural body consisting of layers (soil horizons)
primarily composed of minerals, but mixed with • Offers anchorage
organic matter.
• Provides a nutrient reservoir
2. The end product of the influence of the climate,
relief (slope), organisms, parent materials (original • Acts as a moisture reserve by retaining and providing water to plants.
minerals), and time.
3. The natural layer that contains organic material
which influences and has been influenced by plant
roots and may range in depth from centimeters to
many meters

Constituents of Soil Soil Composition

• Composed of particles of broken rock (parent materials) which have
been altered by physical, chemical and biological processes, including • By volume, a good quality soil contains
weathering and erosion. approximately ;
• Created from the alteration of parent material by the interactions • 45% minerals (sand, clay, silt )
between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. • 5% organic material (both living and dead)
• A mixture of mineral and organic materials in the form of solids, gases • 25% water
and liquids. (a three state or 3 phase system) • 25% gases
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Organic
materials
5%

Gas
25%
Minerals
45%

Water
25%

Soil Composition

Note! For Next Week….

The mineral and organic components of soil are considered to be What are the mineral nutrients required by plants?
constant while the percentages of water and gas vary, whereby the Key words; structural-, macro- and micro- nutrients.
increase in one is balanced by the reduction in the other
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AMED Session 4

Hops (Humulus lupulus)

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1. A natural body consisting of layers (soil

horizons) primarily composed of minerals,
but mixed with organic matter.  Texture is the percentages of the minerals,
sand, silt and clay present in a soil.
2. The end product of the influence of the
climate, relief (slope), organisms, parent
materials (original minerals), and time.
3. The natural layer that contains organic
material which influences and has been
influenced by plant roots and may range in
depth from centimeters to many meters

The Soil Texture Triangle

 Soil is the most abundant ecosystem on Earth

with the vast majority of organisms being
microbes
 The total number of organisms and species
can vary widely according to soil type,
location, and depth.
 Estimates of the number of species vary
widely, ranging between 50,000 and
1,000,000 species per gram of soil!

 Texture + organic matter + water + gases +

time = Aggregate

 Soil can be further described in terms of

color, porosity, consistency, reaction etc…

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 The pore space of soil is shared by gases as
well as water.
 Aeration of the soil influences the health of
the soil's flora and fauna and the movement
of gases into and out of the soil.
 The pore space is influenced by the soil
texture, organic matter and its aggregation
 The greater the pore space, the better the
drainage.
 Literally, the “power of Hydrogen”
 Defined as: The Hydrogen ion concentration
of a solution.
 A measure of Acidity/Neutrality/Alkalinity of
a solution
 Measured on a logarithmic scale of zero to
fourteen (0 – 14)

 Soil temperature will affects both chemical Solution pH

Range
and physical characteristics of the soil
Lemon Juice 1.6-1.8
 Temperature also affects germination, root
Vinegar 2.5
growth, respiration, water and nutrient Acidic
assimilation. Milk 6.3-6.6
 Certain pests also thrive under specific soil Saliva 6.2-7.4
temperatures. Neutral Pure Water 7
 By monitoring/controlling soil temperature, it Blood 7.4
is possible to enhance plant growth. Egg Whites 7.6-8.0
Basic/Alkaline
Milk of Magnesia 10.5

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Food for plants…

 Simple Definition: ‘Content of Dissolved salts The simplest form of matter

in a solution’
 Saline solutions conduct electricity
 measurement of Ec is based upon how well
the solution conducts electricity
 Units of Ec are deciSeimens per meter (dS/m)
 Agricultural soils with an EC greater than 4
dS/m are generally considered saline.
Can not be broken down using any chemical
means
Pure elements contain atoms that have the
same number of protons
The chemical combination of two or more
elements forms a compound.

 Cation Exchange Capacity The number of protons in the nucleus of an

 Measure of the maximum quantity of cations a atom, which determines the chemical
soil can hold at a specific pH properties of an element and it’s place in the
 Expressed as the milliequivalent of Hydrogen per periodic table.
100 grams of dry soil (meq+/100g) or centi-mol
per kg (cmol+/kg)
 Generally, the higher the CEC, the higher the soil
fertility
 Both clay and humus attract solution ions, and
hold them.
 One way to increase CEC is to encourage the
formation of humus.

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 The study of elements and compounds
essential for plant growth.
 The study of their external supply and
internal metabolism
 Nutrients are supplied to plants in the form
of an aqueous solution of ions…
 Therefore… Plant nutrients must be dissolved
in water before uptake by the plant
2/9/2022
 The mixture of water and dissolved materials
in suspension is called the soil solution.
 Water causes precipitation and leaching of
minerals from the soil profile.
 Water affects the type of vegetation that
grows in a soil, which in turn affects the
development of the soil profile.
 Plants need 17 elements for normal growth.
 Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen come from
the air and water.
 Soil is the principle source of other nutrients.
◦ Primary nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium) are used in relatively large amounts by
plants, and often are supplemented as fertilizers.
◦ Secondary nutrients (calcium, magnesium, and
sulfur) are also used in large amounts but are
typically readily available and in adequate supply.
◦ Micronutrients or trace elements are needed only in
small amounts. These include iron, zinc,
molybdenum, manganese, boron, copper, cobalt,
and chlorine.
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 Secondary Elements

Element Proportion of Dry

weight (%)
Calcium (Ca) 0.1
Magnesium (Mg) 4.0
Sulfur (S) 0.5

 Structural Elements  Micronutrient Elements

Element Proportion of Dry Element Proportion of Dry

weight (%) weight (%)
Carbon (C) 41.0 Iron (Fe) 0.02
Hydrogen (H) 6.0 Manganese (Mn) 0.02
Oxygen (O) 42.0 Zinc (Zn) 0.003
Copper (Cu) 0.001
Boron (B) 0.006
Molybdenum (Mo) 0.0002
Chlorine (Cl) 0.1
Nickel (Ni) 0.0005

 Primary (Macro) Nutrients Nitrogen (N)

◦ Essential
Element Proportion of Dry component of all
weight (%) proteins.
Nitrogen (N) 4.0 ◦ Often the limiting
nutrient for high
Phosphorus (P) 0.5
growth
Potassium (K) 4.0
◦ Deficiency results
in stunted, slow
growth and
chlorosis.

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Phosphorus (P) Magnesium (Mg)

◦ Required for healthy
root growth, flower and ◦ Essential
fruit development.
component of
◦ Plays important role in
plant metabolism when chlorophyll
converting light to ◦ Deficiency results
energy.
◦ Deficiency leads to in interveinal
dark-green leaf color, chlorosis.
with; lower leaves
often yellow between
veins; purplish color on
leaves or petioles

Potassium (K) Sulphur (S)

◦ Regulates opening and ◦ Essential in the
closing of the stomata
◦ Builds cellulose and manufacture of
aids photosynthesis. chloroplasts
◦ Helps reduce water loss ◦ Structural component
from the leaves and of amino acid and
improves drought
tolerance vitamins
◦ deficiency may result in ◦ Symptoms of
higher risk of deficiency include
pathogens, wilting, yellowing of leaves
chlorosis and brown and stunted growth.
spotting

Calcium (Ca) Iron (Fe)

◦ Regulates transport
of other nutrients ◦ Necessary for
into the plant. photosynthesis and
◦ Is involved in the synthesis of
photosynthesis and chlorophyll
plant structure
◦ Deficiency results ◦ Deficiency results
in stunting. in interveinal
◦ Blossom end rot is chlorosis and
also a result of necrosis.
inadequate calcium

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Manganese (Mn)
◦ Necessary for the
building of
chloroplasts and
photosynthesis
◦ Deficiency results
in coloration
abnormalities such
as spots and
discoloration

Zinc (Zn)
Top
◦ Deficiency vs
sufficiency in roses
Bottom
◦ Toxicity in
hydroponic culture

Deficient nutrient Symptoms

Leaves are small and light green; lower leaves lighter than upper ones;
Nitrogen
not much leaf drop; weak stalks.
Dark-green foliage; lower leaves sometimes yellow between veins;
Phosphorus
purplish color on leaves or petioles.
Lower leaves may be mottled; dead areas near tips and margins of
Potassium
leaves; yellowing at leaf margins continuing toward center.
Tip of the shoot dies; tips of young leaves die; tips of leaves are
Calcium
hooked-shaped.
Lower leaves are yellow between veins (veins remain green); leaf
Magnesium margins may curl up or down or leaves may pucker; leaves die in later
stages.
Tip of the shoot stays alive; light green upper leaves; leaf veins lighter
Sulfur
than surrounding areas.
Tip of the shoot stays alive; new upper leaves turn yellow between
Iron
veins (large veins remian green); edges and tips of leaves may die.
Tip of the shoot stays alive; new upper leaves have dead spots over
Manganese surface; leaf may apear netted because of small veins remaining
green.
Boron Tip of the shoot dies; stems and petioles are brittle.