Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A.

Part I

Factors for Unit Conversions

Quantity Equivalent Values

Mass 1 kg = 1000 g = 0.001 metric ton (tonne) = 2.20462 lbm = 35.27392 oz
1 lbm = 16 oz = 5 *10-4 ton = 453.593 g = 0.453593 kg
Length 1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm = 106 micros (µm) = 1010 angstroms (𝐴̇) = 39.37 in = 3.2808 ft = 1.0936 yd = 0.0006214 mile
Volume 1 m3 = 1000 L = 106 cm3 = 106 mL = 35.3145 ft3 = 264.17 gal = 1056.68 qt
1 ft3 = 1728 in3 = 7.4805 gal = 29.922 qt = 0.028317 m3 = 28.317 L
Density 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.43 lbm = density of liquid water at 4oC (reference for specific gravity)
Force 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2 = 105 dyne = 105 g.cm/s2 = 0.22481 lbf
1 lbf = 32.174 lbm.ft/s2 = 4.4482 N = 4.4482*105 dyne
Pressure 1 atm = 1.01325 * 105 N/m2 (Pa) = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar = 1.01325 dynes/cm2 = 14.696 lbf/in2 (psi) = 760 mm Hg at 0oC (torr)
= 10.333 m H2o (1) at 4oC = 29.921 inches Hg at 00C = 460.8 inches H2o(l) at 4oC
Energy 1 J = 1 N.m = 107 ergs = 107 dyne.cm = 1 kg.m2/s2 = 2.778*10-7 kW.h = 0.23901 cal = 0.23901*10-3 kcal (food calorie) = 0.7376 ft.lbf
= 9.486*10-4 Btu
Power 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N.m/s = 0.23901 cal/s = 0.7376 ft.lbf/s = 9.486*10-4 Btu/s = 1.341*10-3 hp
Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Part One
Chemical Engineering Concepts

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Chemical Engineering Concepts

Dimensions

Dimensions are the general expression of a characteristic of measurement such as length, time,
mass, temperature, and so on, or calculated by multiplying or dividing other dimensions, such as,
length/time (velocity), mass/(length)3 (density)

Units

Units are the means of explicitly expressing the dimensions, such as feet or centimeters for length,
or hours or seconds for time. Furthermore, units could be treated like algebraic variables when
quantities are added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided

Note:

• two quantities may be added or subtracted only if their units are the same

3 cm – 2 cm= 1 cm (3x-2x=1x),

But, 7 cm + 3 in =? (7x + 3y=?)

• on the other hand, numerical values and their corresponding units may always be combined
by multiplication or division

3 N * 4 m = 12 N.m

6 cm * 3 cm/s = 18 cm2/s

6 g/3 g = 2  (2 is a dimensionless quantity)

Dimensions/Units

Fundamental (or basic): are those

that can be measured independently Derived dimensions: are those that
and are sufficient to describe most can be developed in terms of the
physical quantities such as length, fundamental dimensions
mass, time, and temperature

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

However, based on the fundamental dimension that systems of units are classified as shown below
in Table1. Note; please, see tables 2.1 & 2.2 in your book pages 14 & 15, respectively.

Table1. SI, CGS and AE systems of units

Base Units
Symbol
Quantity
SI cgs AE
Length m cm in or ft
Mass kg g lbm
Moles mol g-mol lbm-mol
Time s s s
Electric current A A A
Light intensity cd cd cd

Table 2. Multiple Unit Preferences

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

1012 tera T
109 giga G 10-9 nano n
106 mega M 10-6 micro µ
103 kilo K 10-3 milli m
102 hecto H 10-2 centi c
101 deka da 10-1 deci d

Systems of Units:

1. SI, system International

2. AE, American Engineering System of Units

Conversion of units: A measured quantity can be expressed in terms of any units having the
appropriate dimension. For instance, velocity may be expressed in ft/s, miles/hr, cm/ys, or any other
ratio of a length unit to time unit. The numerical value of the velocity naturally depends on the units
chosen. However, the equivalence between two expressions of the same quantity may be defined in
terms of a ratio;

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

1 𝑐𝑚
(1)
10 𝑚𝑚
Ratio of the form of eq [1] is known as conversion factor

Let’s convert a velocity with unit’s ft/s to mi/hr.

1 𝑓𝑡 3600 𝑠 1 𝑚𝑖 (1 ∗ 3600) 𝑚𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑚𝑖
| | = = 0.681818 ≅ 0.682
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 5280 𝑓𝑡 5280 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟

Ex. 1:

Change 400 in3/day to cm3/min

Solution;

400 𝑖𝑛3 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 ℎ𝑟 2.54 𝑐𝑚 3 𝑐𝑚3

| | |( ) = 4.56
𝑑𝑎𝑦 24 ℎ𝑟 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Ex. 2:

In biological system, enzymes are used to accelerate the rates of certain biological reactions.
Glucoamylase is an enzyme that aids in the conversion of starch to glucose (a sugar that cells use for
energy). Experiments show that 1 µg mol of glucoamylase in a 4% starch solution results in a
production rate of glucose of 0.6 µg mol/(mL) (min). Determine the production rate of glucose for
this system in units of lb mol/(ft3) (day).

0.6 𝜇𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑙 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 24 ℎ𝑟 1000 𝑚𝐿 1000 𝐿

| 6 | | | | |
(𝑚𝐿)(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 10 𝜇𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 454 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1𝐿 35.3145 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑙𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 0.0539
(𝑓𝑡 3 )(𝑑𝑎𝑦)

Ex. 3:

Convert 23 lbm. ft/min2 to its equivalent in kg.cm/s2

23 𝑙𝑏𝑚 . 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 100 𝑐𝑚 0.453593 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑐𝑚

2
|( ) | | = 0.088
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠 3.2 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠2

Force and Weight

According to Newton’s law of motion, force is proportional to the product of mass and
acceleration (length/time2). Natural force units are, therefore, kg.m/s2 (SI), g.cm/s2 (CGS), and

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

lbm.ft/s2 (AE). To avoid having to carry around these complex units in all calculations involving forces,
derived force units have been defined in each system. In the matric systems, the derived force units
(the newton in SI, the dyne in the CGS system) are defined to equal the natural units:

1 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 (𝑁) ≡ 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠 2 (2)

1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 ≡ 1 𝑔. 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2 (3)
In AE system of units, the derived force unit-called a pound-force (lbf) is defined as the product of a
unit mass (1 lbm) and the acceleration of gravity at sea level, which is 32.174 ft/s2:

1 lbf ≡ 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚 . 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2 (4)

Equations (2 to 4) define conversion forces factors between natural and derived force units. For
example, the force in newtons required to accelerate a mass of 4.00 kg at rate of 9.00 m/s2 is

4.00 𝑘𝑔 9.00 𝑚 1𝑁
𝐹= | 2 | = 36.0 𝑁
𝑠 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠 2

The force in lbf required to accelerate a mass of 4.00 lbm at a rate of 9.00 m/s2 is

4.00 𝑙𝑏𝑚 9.00 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓

𝐹= | | = 1.12 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑠2 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚 . 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2

Note; the symbol 𝑔𝑐 is sometimes used to denote the conversion factor from natural to derived force
units: for example,

1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚 . 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 2

𝑔𝑐 = =
1𝑁 1𝑙𝑏𝑓

The weight of an object is the force exerted on the object by gravitational attraction. Suppose that an
object of mass m is subjected to a gravitational force W (W is by definition the weight of the object)
and that if this object were falling freely its acceleration would be 𝑔. The weight, mass, and free-fall
acceleration of the object are related by equation (5)

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 (5)
Note;
𝑚
𝑔 = 9.8066 𝑠2 (SI)
𝑐𝑚
𝑔 = 980.66 𝑠2
(CGS)
𝑓𝑡
𝑔 = 32.174 𝑠2 (AE)

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Ex. 4:

What is the potential energy in (ft)(lbf) of a 100 lbm drum hanging 10 ft above the surface of the Earth
with reference of the surface of the Earth?

Drum
100lbm

10 ft

Potential Energy = 𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉

m = 100 lbm

𝑔= gravity = 32.174 ft/s2

h = height = 10 ft

PE =?

100 𝑙𝑏𝑚 32.174 𝑓𝑡 10 𝑓𝑡 (𝑠 2 )(𝑙𝑏𝑓 )

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = | | | = 1000 (𝑓𝑡)(𝑙𝑏𝑓 )
𝑠2 32.174 (𝑓𝑡)(𝑙𝑏𝑚 )

Dimensional consistency

Accordingly, what mentioned earlier that all equations must be dimensionally consistent, which
means that each term in an equation must have the same net dimensions and units as every other
term to which it is added or subtracted or equated. Consequently, dimensional considerations can
be used to help identify the dimensions and units of terms or quantities in an equation

Ex 5:

The following equation is proposed to calculate the pressure drop (∆𝑝) across a length of pipe (𝐿)
due to flow through the pipe. Determine the dimensional consistency of this equation:

𝐿
∆𝑝 = 1⁄2 𝑣 2 ( ) 𝑓
𝐷

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Where:

𝑣; average velocity (m/s)

𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿; diameter and length of the pipe, respectively. (m)

𝑓; fraction factor (dimensionless coefficient)

Solution;

Lift-side of equation has pressure drop (∆𝑝), which is unit of force divided by area (N/m2). Hence, all
the other side of equation (right-side) must be in same unit.

𝑁 (𝑘𝑔)(𝑚) (𝑘𝑔)
(∆𝑝) = 2
= | →
𝑚 (𝑠 2 ) 𝑚2 (𝑠 2 )(𝑚)

Right-side of equation is;

𝑚 2 𝑚 𝑚2
( ) | →
𝑠 𝑚 𝑠2

(𝑘𝑔) 𝑚2
≠ … … … … … … … … (𝑎)
(𝑠 2 )(𝑚) 𝑠 2

Divided equation (a) by lift-side will get;

𝑘𝑔
≠1
𝑚3

Then, lift-side of equation missed the density (𝜌), therefore, if the density is included, this equation
is shown to be dimensionally consistent.

𝐿
∆𝑝 = 1⁄2 𝑣 2 𝜌 ( ) 𝑓
𝐷

Ex 6:

Explain in detail whether the following equation for flow over a rectangular weir is dimensionally
consistent.

𝑞 = 0.415(𝐿 − 0.2ℎ0 )ℎ1.5

0 √2𝑔

Where 𝑞= volumetric flow rate (ft3/s)

𝐿= crest height (ft)

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

ℎ0 = weir head (ft)

𝑔= acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/s2)

Solution;

Lift-side of the equation is volumetric units which;

𝑓𝑡c3
𝑞=
𝑠

Right-side of the equation is;

0.415 (𝑓𝑡)(𝑓𝑡)0.5 (𝑓𝑡)1.5 0.415 ∗ 0.2(𝑓𝑡)(𝑓𝑡)1.5 (𝑓𝑡)0.5

𝑅. 𝑆. 𝐸 = −
𝑠 𝑠

(𝑓𝑡)3 (𝑓𝑡)3
𝑅. 𝑆. 𝐸 = 3.33 − 0.667 c
𝑠 𝑠

Hence, the equation is dimensionally consistent

Extrapolation and Interpolation

In the mathematical field of numerical analysis, interpolation is a type of estimation, a method

of constructing new data points within the range of a discrete set of known data points (as shown the
red point in Figure 1). Meanwhile, extrapolation is a type of estimation as well, but beyond the
original observation range, the value of a variable on the basis of its relationship with another
variable (as shown the green point in Figure 1).

Figure 1. The interpolated and the extrapolated points over the numerical or experimental data

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

However, an unknown value (the red

point) could be calculated by using the
below equation (6).

(𝑦−𝑦1 ) (𝑥−𝑥1 )
(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )
= (𝑥
2 −𝑥1 )

(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) (6)
(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )

Scientific notation, significant figures, and precision

Scientific notation; the limit of any number has long digits could be explanted by using the
power with respect of the (0.1 to 10).

130,000,000 to (1.3 * 108) or (0.13 * 109)

0.000028 to (2.8 * 10-5) or (0.28 * 10-4)

Significant figures; are the digits from the first nonzero digit on the lift to either (1) the last digit
(zero or nonzero) on the right if there is a decimal point, or (2) the last nonzero digit of the number
if there is decimal point

2300 or 2.3 * 103 has two significant figures

2300. or 2.300 * 103 has four significant figures

23,040 or 2.304 * 104 has four significant figures

Precision; the number with more significant figures, the more precise is the value.

If you have value, for instance, (8.3) that mean you off or add the third digit number
(i.e. 8.35 or 8.25).

But, if 8.300 that mean you off or add 8.3005 or 8.2995, therefore, the second figure
would be more precise and with lower error

Note: when two or more of quantities are combined by multiplication and/or division, the number of
significant figures in the result should equal the lowest number of significant figures of any of the
multiplicands or divisors.

Ex, 3.57 * 4.286 = 15.30102 ≈ 15.30

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Processes and Process Variables

Basis

A basis is a reference chosen by you for the calculations you plan to make in a particular problem,
and a proper choice often can make a problem much easier to solve than a poor choice. The basis may
be a period of time, or a given mass of materials, or some other convenient quantities. The good thing
about the basis, it could be assumed in your solution, in particular, when the variables were missed.

Density and Specific gravity

The density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of the substance (kg/m 3, g/cm3, lb/ft3,
etc.) Usually we use the Greek symbol (𝝆) for density as in equation. While, the specific volume is the
volume occupied by a unit of mass (i.e. the invers of the density), and we usually used to use the
̂ ).
symbol (𝑽

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = (7)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
𝑉̂ = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = = (8)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
The specific gravity (sp.gr.), is the ratio of the density of substance to the density of the reference
substance as shown in equation (9), which usually the reference substance is air and water when the
specific gravity related to gas and liquid or solid, respectively.

𝜌𝐴
𝑠𝑝. 𝑔𝑟. 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 = (9)
𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓
Note: regarding of high effect for the temperature on the density, hence, temperatures of both the
substance and the reference should be combined with the value of the specific gravity (sp.gr.), for
0
example, sp.gr. for substance 𝐴 = 0.73 20 ⁄ 0
4

In petroleum industry the specific gravity of petroleum products in often reported in terms of a
hydrometer scale called oAPI.

𝑜 141.5
𝐴𝑃𝐼 = − 131.5
60 𝑜𝐹 (10)
𝑠𝑝. 𝑔𝑟.
60 𝑜𝐹
Hence,

600 141.5
𝑠𝑝. 𝑔𝑟. 0
= 𝑜 (11)
60 𝐴𝑃𝐼 + 131.5

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Mass and Volumetric Flow Rate

mass flow rate (𝑚̇) = mass/time = (velocity * density * cross-sectional-area) (12)

volume flow rate (𝑉̇ ) = volume/time (13)
density (𝜌) = m/V = 𝑚̇/𝑉̇ (14)

𝑚̇ (kg fluid/s)

𝑉̇ (m3 fluid/s)

Moles (mol) and Molecular weight (Mwt)

The number of moles (= mass / molecular weight) and have units of g-mole (mol), kg-moles
(kmol), or lb-moles

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔)
i.e. 𝑔 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 (𝑚𝑜𝑙) = 𝑔
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑔−𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙) = 𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑘𝑔−𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑙𝑏𝑚 )
𝑙𝑏 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑙𝑏𝑚−𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

Hence, Molecular weight has unit (mass/mole)

Ex7;

How many moles in 100 g of CO2(M=44.01)? (1) mol CO2; (2) lbm-moles CO2

100.0 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂

1. |44.01 𝑔 𝐶𝑂2 = 2.273 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
2

2.273 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝑙𝑏−𝑚𝑜𝑙

2. |453.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 5.011 ∗ 10−3 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑂2

Mass and Mole fractions and Average Molecular Weight

Process streams occasionally contain one substance, but more often they consist of mixtures of
liquids or gases, or solutions of one or more solutions in a liquid solvent.

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑘𝑔 𝐴 𝑔𝐴 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐴
Mass fraction: 𝒙𝑨 = ( 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 ) (15)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴 𝑙𝑏−𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐴

Mole fraction: 𝒚𝑨 = ( 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 ) (16)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑙𝑏−𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

The percent by mass of A is 100𝒙𝑨, and the mole percent of A is 100𝒚𝑨

Ex8;

A solution contains 15% A by mass (𝑥𝐴 =0.15) and 20 mole% B by mole (𝑦𝐵 = 0.20).

1- Calculate the mass of A in 175 kg of the solution.

175 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0.15 𝑘𝑔 𝐴

| = 26 𝑘𝑔 𝐴
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2- Calculate the mass flow rate of A in a stream of solution flowing at a rate of 53 lbm/h.
53 𝑙𝑏𝑚 0.15 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐴 𝑙𝑏𝑚
| = 8.0 𝐴
ℎ 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ℎ
3- Calculate the molar flow rate of B in a stream flowing at a rate of 1000 mol/min.

1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.20 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵

| = 200
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛

4- Calculate the total solution flow rate that corresponds to a molar flow rate of 28 kmol B/s.
28 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
| = 140
𝑠 0.2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵 𝑠
5- Calculate the mass of the solution that contains 300 𝑙𝑏𝑚 of A.
300 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐴 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
| = 2000 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
0.15 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐴

Ex9; A mixture of gases has the following composition by mass:

O2 16% (𝑥𝑂2 = 0.16g O2/total)

CO 4.0%
CO2 17%
N2 63%

What is the molar composition?

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Basis: 100g of the mixture

A convenient way to perform the calculations is to set them up in tabular form.

Composition Mass Fraction Mass (g) Molecular weight Moles Mole Fraction
𝑔
i 𝑥𝑖 (𝑔𝑖 /𝑔) 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑖 ( ) 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 /𝑀𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 /𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙
O2 0.16 16 32 0.50 0.15
CO 0.04 4 28 0.14 0.04
CO2 0.17 17 44 0.39 0.12
N2 0.63 63 28 2.20 0.69
Total 1.00 100 3.28 1.00

̅ (kg/kmol, lbm/lb-mole,
The average molecular weight (or mean molecular weight) of a mixture, 𝑀
etc.), is the ratio of the mass of a sample of the mixture (𝑚𝑖 ) to the number of moles of all species (𝑛𝑖 )
in the sample, as in equations (17 and 18).

𝑛
̅ = 𝑦1 𝑀1 + 𝑦2 𝑀2 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖
𝑀 (17)
𝑖
𝑛
1 𝑥1 𝑥1 𝑥𝑖
= + +⋯=∑ (18)
̅ 𝑀1 𝑀2
𝑀 𝑀𝑖
𝑖
Ex10;

Calculate the average molecular weight of air (1) from its approximate molar composition of 79% N2,
21% O2 and (2) from its approximate composition by mass 76.7% N2, 23.3% O2.

1- From equation (17), with 𝑦𝑁2 = 0.79, 𝑦𝑂2 = 0.21,

̅ = 𝑦𝑁 𝑀𝑁 + 𝑦𝑂 𝑀𝑂
𝑀 2 2 2 2

0.79 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 28 𝑘𝑔 𝑁2 0.21 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 32 𝑘𝑔 𝑂2

= | + |
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑘𝑔 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑔
= 29 = = 29
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙

2- From equation (18)

1 0.767 𝑔𝑁2 ⁄𝑔 0.233 𝑔𝑂2⁄𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙

= + = 0.035 ⇒ ̅ = 29 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀
̅ 28 𝑔𝑁2 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 32 𝑔𝑂2⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀 𝑔

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Concentration

1. Mass concentration; is the mass of a component per unit volume of the mixture (g/cm 3,
lbm/ft3, kg/m3, .....)
2. Molar concentration; is the number of mole a component per unit of volume of the mixture
(mol/cm3, lb-mol/ft3, kmol/m3, .....)

Ex11;

A 0.5-molar aqueous solution of sulfuric acid flows into a process unit at a rate of 1.25 m 3/min. The
specific gravity of the solution is 1.03. Calculate (1) the mass concentration of H2SO4 in kg/m3, (2) the
mass flow rate of H2SO4 in kg/s, and (3) the mass fraction of H2SO4.

𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 0.50 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 98 𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔 103 𝐿 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

1- 𝐶𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ( 𝑚3
) = 𝐿
| 𝑚𝑜𝑙 |103 𝑔 |1 𝑚3 = 49 𝑚3

𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 1.25 𝑚3 49 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

2- 𝑚̇𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ( 𝑠
) = 𝑚𝑖𝑛
| 𝑚3
| 60 𝑠 = 1.0 𝑠

3- The mass fraction of H2SO4 equals the ratio of the mass flow rate H2SO4 to the total mass flow
rate, which can be calculated from the total volumetric flow rate and the solution density.

1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (1.03) ( 3
) = 1030 3
𝑚 𝑚

𝑘𝑔 1.25 𝑚3 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1030 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔

𝑚̇𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( ) = | 3 | = 21.46
𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 60 𝑠 𝑠

𝑚̇𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 1.0 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 /𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4

𝑥𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 = = = 0.048
𝑚̇𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 21.46 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Temperature

∆ 𝑜𝐹 = ∆ 𝑜𝑅

∆ 𝑜𝐶 = ∆ 𝐾

1 ∆ 𝑜𝐶 = 1 ∆ 𝐾 = 1.8000 ∆ 𝑜𝐹 = 1.8000 ∆ 𝑜𝑅 (19)

1.8 ∆ 𝑜𝐹
𝑇 𝑜
𝐹 =𝑇 𝑜
𝐶 ( ) + 32 (20)
1 ∆ 𝑜𝐶

1 ∆ 𝑜𝐾
𝑇 =𝑇 𝑜
𝐶 ( ) + 273 (21)
𝐾 1 ∆ 𝑜𝐶

1 ∆ 𝑜𝑅
𝑇 𝑜𝑅 = 𝑇 𝑜
𝐹 ( ) + 460 (22)
1 ∆ 𝑜𝐹

Ex12;

The heat capacity of ammonia, defined as the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of unit
mass of ammonia by precisely 1o at a constant pressure, is, over a limited temperature range, given
by the expression

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐶𝑝 ( ) = 0.487 + 2.29 × 10−4 𝑇( 𝑜𝐹 )
𝑙𝑏𝑚 . 𝑜𝐹

Determine the expression for 𝑐𝑝 in J/(g.oC) in terms of 𝑇( 𝑜𝐶 ).

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Solution: the 𝑜𝐹 in the units of 𝐶𝑝 refers to a temperature interval, while the unit of 𝑇 is a temperature.
The calculation is best done in two steps.

1. Substitute for 𝑇( 𝑜𝐹 ) and simplify the resulting equation:

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐶𝑝 ( ) = 0.487 + 2.29 × 10−4 [1.8𝑇( 𝑜𝐶 ) + 32]
𝑙𝑏𝑚 . 𝑜𝐹

= 0.494 + 4.12 × 10−4 𝑇( 𝑜𝐶 )

2. Convert to the desired temperature interval unit using equation (19):

𝐽 (𝐵𝑡𝑢) 1.8 𝑜𝐹 1𝐽 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚

𝐶𝑝 ( ) = [0.494 + 4.12 × 10−4 𝑇( 𝑜𝐶 )] 𝑜 | 𝑜 | |
𝑔. 𝑜𝐶 −4
𝑙𝑏𝑚 . 𝐹 1.0 𝐶 9.486 × 10 𝐵𝑡𝑢 454 𝑔

𝐽
𝐶𝑝 ( ) = 2.06 + 1.72 × 10−4 𝑇( 𝑜𝐶 )
𝑔. 𝑜𝐶

Pressure 𝑃𝑜 (𝑁/𝑚2)
𝐴 (𝑚2)

A pressure is the ratio of a force to the area on which the force acts.
Accordingly, pressure units are force units divided by area units (N/m2, Fluid density 𝜌 (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3)

dyne/cm2, and lbf/ft2 or psi). The SI pressure unit, N/m2, is called a ℎ (𝑚) 2
𝑃(𝑁/𝑚 )

pascal (Pa).

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
𝑃=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)

1. The hydrostatic pressure:

𝑚𝑔 𝜌 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙.× 𝑔 𝜌 × 𝐴 × ℎ × 𝑔
𝑃= = = = 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝒐𝒓 𝜌𝑔𝑃ℎ (ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑) (23)
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Ex13;

Express a pressure of 2.00*105 Pa in terms of mm Hg.

Solution; by using equation (23) for 𝑃ℎ (mm Hg), and assuming that 𝑔 = 9.807 𝑚/𝑠 2 and the density
is for mercury 13.6*1000 kg/m3.

𝑃
𝑃ℎ =
𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

2.00×105𝑁 𝑚3 𝑠2 1 𝑘𝑔.𝑚/𝑠2 103 𝑚𝑚

𝑃ℎ = 𝑚 2 | |
13600 𝑘𝑔 9.807 𝑚
| 1𝑁
| 1𝑚 = 1.50 × 103 mm Hg

2. Absolute pressure and vacuum pressure

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐
Pressure, like temperature can be expressed in either absolute (psia)
or related scales. Rather than using the word relative, the relative
pressure is usually called gauge pressure (psig). The atmospheric
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
pressure is nothing more than the barometer pressure. The
relationship between gauge and absolute pressure is given by the
following expression;

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐

𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

General Monometer Equation

𝑃1 + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑑1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌2 𝑔𝑑2 + 𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ (24)

if fluid 1 and fluid 2 are same (i.e. 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 )

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = (𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌1 )𝑔ℎ (25)

if fluid 1 or 2 is a gas, the density of the fluid is 100 or
1000 times lower than the density of the manometer
fluid.

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ (26)
Ex14;
1- A differential manometer is used to measure the drop-in pressure between two
points in a process line containing water. The specific gravity of the manometer fluid
is 1.05. The measured levels in each arm are shown below. Calculate the pressure
drop between points 1 and 2 in dynes/cm2.

2- The pressure of gas being pulled through a line by a vacuum pump is measured
with an open-end mercury manometer. A reading of _2 inches is obtained. What is
the gauge pressure of the gas in inches of mercury? What is the absolute pressure if
Patm. 30 in Hg?

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Solution:

1- ℎ = (382 − 374)𝑚𝑚 = 8 𝑚𝑚. From Equation (25)

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = (𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌1 )𝑔ℎ

(1.05 − 1.00)𝑔 980.7 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 8 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑐𝑚

= | | | |
𝑐𝑚3 𝑠2 1 𝑔. 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 2 10 𝑚𝑚

𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠
= 40
𝑠2

2- From Equation (26) and the definition of a gauge pressure,

P1 – Patm = Pgauge = -2 in.Hg

P1 = Patm + Pgauge = (30-2) in.Hg

Ex15;

A fluid of unknown density is used in two manometers—one sealed-end, the other across an orifice
in a water pipeline. The readings shown here are obtained on a day when barometric pressure is 756
mm Hg. What is the pressure drop (mm Hg) from point (a) to point (b)?

Patm = 𝜌𝑓 . 𝑔. ℎ

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 756 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 101325 𝑁/𝑚2 𝑠2 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠 2

𝜌𝑓 = = | | | |
𝑔. ℎ 760 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 9.807 𝑚 7.23 𝑚 1𝑁

𝑘𝑔
= 1421.5
𝑚3

From equation (25),

𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏 = (𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌𝐻2 𝑜 )𝑔ℎ

(1421.5 − 1000)𝑘𝑔 9.807 𝑚 0.26 𝑚 1𝑁

= 3
| 2 | | = 1074.75 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑚 𝑠 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠 2

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Principles of Chemical Engineering | Dr. Hayder A. Part I

Hence, from equation (23)

𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏 1074.75 𝑁 𝑠2 𝑚3 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠 2

𝑃ℎ = = | | |
𝑔. 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑚2 9.807 𝑚 (1360 − 1000) 𝑘𝑔 1𝑁

= 0.3044 𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = 304.4 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔

If the density of unknown liquid was for mercury (i.e. Hg), how much the pressure drop will be in
between point (a) and point (b), in term mm Hg?

Ex16;

Three different liquids are used in the manometer shown here. (a) Derive an expression
for P1-P2 in terms of ρA, ρB, ρC, h1, and h2. (b) Suppose fluid A is methanol, B is water, and
C is a manometer fluid with a specific gravity of 1.37; pressure P2. 121.0 kPa; h1. 30.0 cm;
and h2. 24.0 cm. Calculate P1 (kPa).

Solution:

(a) 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝐴 . 𝑔. (ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) = 𝜌𝐶 . 𝑔. ℎ2 + 𝜌𝐵 . 𝑔. ℎ1 + 𝑃2

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝐶 . 𝑔. ℎ2 + 𝜌𝐵 . 𝑔. ℎ1 − 𝜌𝐴 . 𝑔. (ℎ1 + ℎ2 )

(b)

1370 𝑘𝑔 9.807 𝑚 0.24 𝑚 1𝑁 1000 𝑘𝑔 9.807 𝑚 0.30 𝑚 1𝑁

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 3 | 2 | | 2
+ 3 | 2 | |
𝑚 𝑠 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚⁄𝑠 𝑚 𝑠 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚⁄𝑠 2
792 𝑘𝑔 9.807 𝑚 0.54 𝑚 1𝑁 121000 𝑁
+ 3 | 2 | | 2
+
𝑚 𝑠 1 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚⁄𝑠 𝑚2

𝑁
= 132208.2 = 132.208 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑚2

Page 20 of 20