Indian History by Ranjit Patel, SO, Collectorate, Jharsuguda

INDIAN HISTORY
(ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL,
MODERN, INDEPENDENT INDIA)
BY
RANJIT PATEL
COLLECTORATE,
JHARSUGUDA
INDIAN HISTORY by Ranjit Patel www.amlanworld.com
INDIAN HISTORY
ANCIENT INDIA
1. The Stone Age Cultures:
The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric period during which humans widely used stone for tool
making. Stone tools were made from a variety of different sorts of stone. For example, flint
and chert were shaped (or chipped) for use as cutting tools and weapons, while basalt and
sandstone were used for ground stone tools, such as quern-stones. Wood, bone, shell,
antler (deer) and other materials were widely used, as well. During the most recent part of 1
the period, sediments (like clay) were used to make pottery. A series of metal technology
innovations characterize the later Chalcolithic (Copper Age), Bronze Age and Iron Age.
The period from 2.9 million years ago (Maya) encompasses the first use of stone tools in
Gona, Ethiopia and its spread and widespread use elsewhere soon thereafter. It ends with
the development of agriculture, the domestication of certain animals, and the smelting of
copper ore to produce metal. It is termed prehistoric since humanity had not yet started
writing—the traditional start of history (i.e., recorded history).
It is the first age in the three-age system. A division of the Stone Age into older and younger
parts was first proposed by Jens Jacob Worsaae in 1859 through his work with Danish
kitchen middens that began in 1851. The subdivision into the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and
Neolithic periods that still is in use today, was made by John Lubbock in his now classic 1865
book Pre-historic Times. These three periods are further subdivided. In reality, the
succession of phases varies enormously from one region (and culture) to another, indeed,
humanity continued to expand into new areas even during the metal ages. Therefore, it is
better to speak of a Stone Age, instead of the Stone Age. As a description of people living
today, the term stone age is controversial. The Association of Social Anthropologists
discourages this use. Content
The Stone Age in archaeology:
Obsidianprojectile point A variety of stone tools
The date range of this period is ambiguous, disputed, and variable according to the region in
question. While it is possible to speak of a general 'stone age' period for the whole of
humanity, some groups never developed metal-smelting technology, so remained in a
'stone age' until they encountered technologically developed cultures. However, it is
believed that this period began somewhere around 2.5 million years ago with the first
hominid tool makers in Africa, most likely Australopithecus garhi. Due to the prevalence of
stone artifacts, which are frequently the only remains which still exist, lithic analysis is a
major and specialised form of archaeological investigation for the period. This involves the
measurement of the stone tools to determine their typology, function and the technology
involved. This frequently involves an analysis of the lithic reduction of the raw materials,
examining how the artifacts were actually made. This can also be examined through
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experimental archaeology, by attempting to create replica tools. This is done by
flintknappers who reduce flintstone to a flint tool.
Modern use of the term
The term inexactly suggests that human advancement and time periods in prehistory are
only measured by the type of tool material, rather than, for example, social organization,
food sources exploited, or adaptation to climate. This is a product of a time when finds of
artifacts were the main goal of an archaeological excavation. Modern archaeological
techniques stress a wider collection of information. Neat divisions such as the term Stone
Age are increasingly limited. Changes in past societies over the millennia were complex and
involved multiple factors such as the adoption of agriculture, settlement and religion.
2
Another problem connected with the term Stone Age is that it was created to describe the
archaeological cultures of Europe, and that it is inconvenient to use it in relation to regions
such as some parts of the Indies and Oceania, where farmers or hunter-gatherers used
stone for tools until European colonisation began. Metal-working was a much less important
part of people's lives there and it is more useful to use other terms when dividing prehistory
in those areas. The same incongruence applies to the Iron Age worldwide, because in the
Americas iron (but not copper, silver or gold) was unknown until around 1000 CE, in Oceania
until the 17th century or the 18th century.
In a given location, a Stone Age was usually followed by a Bronze Age, during which
metalworking technology allowed bronze (copper and tin or other metals) tools to become
more common. The transition out of the Stone Age occurred between 6000 BCE and 2500
BCE for much of humanity living in North Africa, Asia and Europe. In regions such as Sub-
Saharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by an Iron Age. The Middle East and
south-eastern Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BC. Europe,
and the rest of Asia became post–Stone Age societies by about 4000 BCE. The proto-Inca
cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BCE, when gold,
copper and silver made their entrance, the rest following later. Australia remained in a
Stone Age until the 17th century. The transition from a Stone Age to a Bronze Age was a
gradual process involving the working of gold and copper at Neolithic sites. This "transition"
period is known as the Copper age or Chalcolithic. It was a short and more a regional
development, because alloying tin with copper began quite soon, except in regions lacking
tin. Between the 5th and 6th millennium BCE First evidence of Human Metallurgy was found
in Archaeological sites of Majdanpek, Yarmovac and Plocnik (Copper Axe from 5500BCE
belonging to the Vincha culture) and Rudna Glava Mine in Serbia. Ötzi the Iceman for
instance, a mummy from about 3300 BCE carried with him a copper axe and a flint knife.
Stone tool manufacture continued long into the succeeding metal-using ages, possibly even
until the Early Middle Ages. In Europe and North America, millstones were in use until well
into the 20th century, and still are in many parts of the world.
2. Paleolithic:
The Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek: παλαιός, palaios, "old"; and λίθος, lithos,
"stone" lit. "old age of the stone"; was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865.) is a
prehistoric era distinguished by the development of stone tools. It covers the greatest
portion of humanity's time (roughly 99% of human history) on Earth, extending from 2.5 or
2.6 million years ago, with the introduction of stone tools by hominids such as Homo habilis,
to the introduction of agriculture and the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 BCE. The
Paleolithic era ended with the Mesolithic, or in areas with an early neolithisation, the
Epipaleolithic.
During the Paleolithic age, humans were grouped together in small scale societies such as
bands and gained their subsistence from gathering plants and hunting wild animals. The
Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time, humans
also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools,
including leather and vegetable fibers; however, given their nature, these have not been
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preserved to any great degree. Humankind gradually evolved from early members of the
genus Homo such as Homo habilis, who used simple stone tools into fully behaviorally and
anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) during the Paleolithic era. DNA and
fossil evidence indicates that modern humans originated in east Africa about 200,000 years
ago. During the end of the Paleolithic specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic
humans began to produce the earliest works of art and engage in religious and spiritual
behavior such as burial and ritual. The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of
glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm
and cool temperatures.
a. Lower Palaeolithic: 3
Near the end of the Plioceneepoch in Africa, an early ancestor of modern humans, called
Homo habilis, developed the earliest stone tools. These were relatively simple tools known
as choppers. Homo habilis is presumed to have mastered the Oldowan era tool case which
utilized stone flakes and cores. This industry of stone tools is named after the site of Olduvai
Gorge in Tanzania. These humans likely subsisted on scavenged meat and wild plants, rather
than by hunting prey. Around 1.5 million years ago, a more evolved human species, Homo
erectus, appeared. H. erectus learned to control fire and created more complex chopper
tools, as well as expanding out of Africa to reach Asia, as shown by sites such as
Zhoukoudian in China. By 1 million years ago, the earliest evidence of humans in Europe is
known, as well use of the more advanced handaxe tool.
b. Middle Palaeolithic:
This period is most well-known as being the era during which the Neanderthals lived (c.
120,000–24,000 years ago). The stone artefact technology of the Neanderthals is generally
known as the Mousterian or more precisely Neandertal traits was found also in younger
Châtelperronian, Aurignacian and Gravettian archeological cultures. The Neanderthals traits
eventually disappeared from the archaeological record, replaced by modern humans traits
which first appeared in Ethiopia around 120,000 years ago although often identified as
Archaic Homo sapiens. Neanderthals nursed their elderly and practised ritual burial
indicating an organised society. The earliest evidence (Mungo Man) of settlement in
Australia dates to around 40,000 years ago when modern humans likely crossed from Asia
by hopping from island to island. Middle Palaeolithic peoples demonstrate the earliest
undisputed evidence for art and other expressions of abstract thought such as intentional
burial of the dead.
c. Upper Palaeolithic:
From 35,000 to 10,000 years ago (the end of the last ice age) modern humans spread out
further across the Earth during the period known as the Upper Palaeolithic. In the time
when Cro-Magnon and Neanderthal traits mixed in Europe (35–24.5 ky) a relatively rapid
succession of often complex stone artefact technologies took place. During period between
35 and 10 kya evolved: from 35 to 29 kya Châtelperronian, 32–26 Aurignacian, 28–22
Gravettian, 22–17 Solutrean, and 18–10 Magdalenian. The last two occurred after the
disappearance of Neanderthal traits from paleoantropological specimens.
The Americas were colonised via the Bering land bridge which was exposed during this
period by lower sea levels. These people are called the Paleo-Indians, and the earliest
accepted dates are those of the Clovis culture sites, some 13,500 years ago. Globally,
societies were hunter-gatherers but evidence of regional identities begins to appear in the
wide variety of stone tool types being developed to suit very different environments.
d. Epipalaeolithic/Mesolithic:
The period starting from the end of the last ice age, 10,000 years ago, to around 6,000 years
ago was characterised by rising sea levels and a need to adapt to a changing environment
and find new food sources. The development of microlith tools began in response to these
changes. They were derived from the previous Palaeolithic tools, hence the term
Epipalaeolithic. However, in Europe the term Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) is used, as the
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tools (and way of life) were imported from the Near East. There, microlith tools permitted
more efficient hunting, while more complex settlements, such as Lepenski Vir developed
based on fishing. Domestication of the dog as a hunting companion probably dates to this
period.
The earliest known battle occurred during the Mesolithic period at a site in Egypt known as
Cemetery 117.
e. Neolithic:
The Neolithic, New Stone Age, was characterized by the adoption of agriculture, the so-
called Neolithic Revolution, the development of pottery, polished stone tools and more
complex, larger settlements such as Çatal Hüyük and Jericho. The first Neolithic cultures 4
started around 7000 BC in the Fertile Crescent. Agriculture and the culture it led to spread
to the Mediterranean, the Indus valley, China and Southeast Asia.
Due to the increased need to harvest and process plants, ground stone and polished stone
artifacts became much more widespread, including tools for grinding, cutting, and chopping.
The first large-scale constructions were built, including settlement towers and walls, e.g.,
Jericho and ceremonial sites, e.g.: Stonehenge. These show that there was sufficient
resources and co-operation to enable large groups to work on these projects. To what
extent this was a basis for the development of elites and social hierarchies is a matter of on-
going debate.[17] Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified
chiefdoms similar to Polynesian societies such as the Ancient Hawaiians, most Neolithic
societies were relatively simple and egalitarian[18] though Neolithic cultures were
noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and Hunter-
gatherer cultures in general.[19] The earliest evidence for established trade exists in the
Neolithic with newly settled people importing exotic goods over distances of many
hundreds of miles. The Ġgantija temples of Gozo in the Maltese archipelago are the oldest
surviving free standing structures in the world, erected c. 3600-2500 BCE. Skara Brae located
on Orkney island off Scotland is one of Europe's best examples of a Neolithic village. The
community contains stone beds, shelves and even an indoor toilet linked to a stream.
Ġgantija temples, Gozo. Some of the world’s oldest free standing

Skara Brae, Scotland. Europe's most complete Neolithic village
structures
3. Material Cultures
a) Food and drink
Food sources of the hunter-gatherer humans of the Stone Age included both animals and
plants that were part of the environment in which these humans lived. These humans liked
animal organ meats, including the livers, kidneys and brains. They consumed little dairy
product or carbohydrate-rich plant foods like legumes or cereal grains rather they ate leaves
and roots. Large seeded legumes were part of the human diet long before the neolithic
agricultural revolution as evident from archaeobotanical finds from the Mousterian layers of
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Kebara Cave, in Israel. Moreover, recent evidence indicates that humans processed and
consumed wild cereal grains as far back as 23,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic.
Near the end of the Wisconsin glaciation, 15,000 to 9,000 years ago, mass extinction of
Mega-fauna occurred in Asia, Europe, North America and Australia. This was the first
Holocene extinction event. This event possibly forced modification in the dietary habits of
the humans of that age and with the emergence of agricultural practices, plant-based foods
also became a regular part of the diet. This extinction may have been caused by humans
over hunting wild game animals such as the Wooly mammoth although other scientists
believe that the mega-fauna extinction was instead caused by climate change.
“The first wine-tasting may have occurred when Paleolithic humans slurped the juice 5
of naturally fermentedwild grapes from animal-skin pouches or crude wooden bowls.”
—William Cocke, National Geographic News
A Stone Age diet or Paleolithic diet is a modern diet that seeks to replicate the dietary habits
of Stone Age hunter-gatherers.
b) Shelter and habitat
Around 2 million years ago, Homo habilis is believed to have constructed the first man-made
structure in East Africa, consisting of simple arrangements of stones to hold branches of
trees in position. A similar stone circular arrangement believed to be around 500 thousand
years old was discovered at Terra Amata, near Nice, France. Several human habitats dating
back to the Stone Age have been discovered around the globe, including:
 A tent-like structure inside a cave near the
Grotte du Lazaret, Nice, France.
 A structure with a roof supported with
timber, discovered in Dolni Vestonice, The Czech
Republic, dates to around 23,000 BCE. The walls
were made of packed clay blocks and stones.
 Many huts made of mammoth bones were
found in Eastern Europe and Siberia. The people
who made these huts were expert mammoth
hunters. Examples have been found along the
Dniepr river valley of Ukraine, including near
Poulnabrone dolmen in County Clare, Irel and Chernihiv, in Moravia, Czech Republic and in
southern Poland.
 An animal hide tent dated to around 15000 to 10000 BCE, in the Magdalenian, was
discovered at Plateau Parain, France.
 Megalithic tombs, multichambered, and dolmens, single-chambered, were graves
with a huge stone slab stacked over other similarly large stone slabs; they have been
discovered all across Europe and Asia and were built in the Neolithic. Several tombs
with copper and bronze tools have also been discovered, illustrating the problems of
attempting to define periods based on technology.
c) Art:
Pre-historic art can only be traced from surviving artifacts. Prehistoric music is inferred from
found instruments, while parietal art can be found on rocks of any kind. The latter are
petroglyphs and rock paintings. The art may or may not have had a religious function.
 Petroglyphs
Petroglyphs appeared in the New Stone Age, commonly known as Neolithic period. A
Petroglyph is an abstract or symbolic image recorded on stone, usually by prehistoric
peoples, by means of carving, pecking or otherwise incised on natural rock surfaces. They
were a dominant form of pre-writing symbols used in communication. Petroglyphs have
been discovered in different parts of the world, including Asia (Bhimbetka, India), North
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America (Death Valley National Park), South America (Cumbe Mayo, Peru), and Europe
(Finnmark).
 Rock paintings:
Rock paintings were painted on rock and were more naturalistic depictions than
petroglyphs. In paleolithic times, the representation of humans in cave paintings was rare.
Mostly, animals were painted: not only animals that were used as food but also animals that
represented strength like the rhinoceros or large cats (as in the Chauvet Cave). Signs like
dots were sometimes drawn. Rare human representations include handprints and half-
human/half-animal figures. The Cave of Chauvet in the Ardèchedépartement, France,
contains the most important preserved cave paintings of the paleolithic era, painted around 6
31,000 BCE. The Altamira cave paintings in Spain were done 14,000 to 12,000 BCE and show,
among others, bison’s. The hall of bulls in Lascaux, Dordogne, France, is one of the best
known cave paintings from about 15,000 to 10,000 BCE.
The meaning of the paintings remains unknown. The caves were not in an inhabited area, so
they may have been used for seasonal rituals. The animals are accompanied by signs which
suggest a possible magic use. Arrow-like symbols in Lascaux are sometimes interpreted as
calendar or almanac use. But the evidence remains inconclusive.[citation needed] The most
important work of the Mesolithic era were the marching Warriors, a rock painting at Cingle
de la Mola, Castellón in Spain dated to about 7,000–4,000 BCE. The technique used was
probably spitting or blowing the pigments onto the rock. The paintings are quite naturalistic,
though stylized. The figures are not three-dimensional, even though they overlap.
A rock painting at Bhimbetka, India, a World heritage site

A bison from the Altamira cave ceiling, one of the most
famous paintings from there
 Stone Age rituals and beliefs
Modern studies and the in-depth analysis of finds dating from the Stone Age indicate certain
rituals and beliefs of the people in those prehistoric times. It is now believed that activities
of the Stone Age humans went beyond the immediate requirements of procuring food, body
coverings, and shelters. Specific rites relating to death and burial were practiced, though
certainly differing in style and execution between cultures.
4. Popular culture of The Stone Age
 The image of the caveman is commonly associated with the Stone Age. For example,
the 2003 documentary series showing the evolution of humans through the Stone
Age was called Walking with Cavemen, although only the last programme showed
humans living in caves. While the idea that human beings and dinosaurs coexisted is
sometimes portrayed in popular culture in cartoons, films and computer games, such
as The Flintstones, One Million Years B.C. and Chuck Rock, the notion of hominids
and non-avian dinosaurs co-existing is not supported by any scientific evidence.
 Other depictions of the Stone Age include the best-selling Earth's Children series of
books by Jean M. Auel, which are set in the Paleolithic and are loosely based on
archaeological and anthropological findings. The 1981 filmQuest for Fire by Jean-
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Jacques Annaud tells the story of a group of neanderthals searching for their lost fire.
A twenty first century series, "Chronicles of Ancient Darkness" by Michelle Paver tells
of two New Stone Age children fighting to fulfill a prophecy and save their Clans from
the evil Soul Eaters.
 The phrase "bomb them back into the Stone Age", was made by then Chief of Staff,
US Air Force General Curtis E. Lemay, when in 1965, he made the statement towards
the North Vietnamese, during the Vietnam War; "They've got to draw in their horns
and stop their aggression, or we're going to bomb them back into the stone age."
The gist of that statement implied a fierce aerial attack that would have utterly
destroyed its target's infrastructure, forcing its survivors to revert to primitive
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technology in order to survive.
5. Chalcolithic Culture
 The Chalcolithic (Ancient Greek: χαλκός khalkos "copper" + Ancient Greek: λίθος lithos
"stone") period or Copper Age, also known as the Eneolithic/Æneolithic (from Latin aeneus
"of bronze"), is a phase in the development of human culture in which the use of early metal
tools appeared alongside the use of stone tools.
 The period is a transitional one outside of the traditional three-age system, and occurs
between the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. It appears that copper was not widely exploited at
first and that effort in alloying it with tin and other metals began quite soon, making
distinguishing the distinct Chalcolithic cultures and later periods difficult. The boundary
between the Copper and Bronze Ages is indistinct, since alloys sputtered in and out of use
due to the erratic supply of tin.
 The emergence of metallurgy occurred first in the Fertile Crescent, where it gave rise to the
Bronze Age in the 4th millennium BC. There was an independent and limited invention of
copper and bronze smelting by the Incas in South America and Mesoamerican civilization in
West Mexico (see Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica).
 The literature of European archaeology, in general, avoids the use of 'chalcolithic' (the term
'Copper Age' is preferred), whereas Middle-Eastern archaeologists regularly use it. The
Copper Age in the Middle East and the Caucasus begins in the late 5th millennium BC and
lasts for about a millennium before it gives rise to the Early Bronze Age. Transition from the
European Copper Age to Bronze Age Europe occurs about a millennium later, between the
late 4th and the late 3rd millennia BC.
 According to Parpola,[1] ceramic similarities between the Indus Civilization, southern
Turkmenistan, and northern Iran during 4300–3300 BC of the Chalcolithic period (Copper
Age) suggest considerable mobility and trade.
 Europe
 Ötzi the Iceman, who was found in the Ötztal Alps and whose remains were dated to about
3300 BC, was found with a copper axe, which indicates that copper mining existed in Europe
at least 5,300 years ago (500 years earlier than previously believed).[2]
 In Serbia a copper axe was found at Prokuplje, which indicates that human use of metals
started in Europe around 7,500 years ago (~5,500BCE), many years earlier than previously
believed.[3]
 Knowledge of the use of copper was far wider spread than the metal itself. The European
Battle Axe culture used stone axes modelled on copper axes, with imitation "mold marks"
carved in the stone.[4]
 Examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Los Millares
on the Iberian Peninsula.[5] Pottery of the Beaker people has been found at both sites,
dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to
have spread copper and bronze technologies in Europe, along with Indo-European
languages.[6]
South Asia
 The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh fashioned tools with local copper ore between
7700–3300 BC.
East Asia
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 5th millennia BC copper artifacts start to appear in East Asia, such as Jiangzhai and Hongshan
culture, but those metal artifacts were not widely used.
Africa
 The Iron Age and Bronze Age occurred simultaneously in much of Africa. In North Africa and
the Nile Valley imported its iron technology from the Near East and followed Near Eastern
course of Bronze Age and Iron Age development. The earliest dating of iron in Sub-Saharan
Africa is 2500 B.C. at Egaro, west of Termit, making it contemporary to the Middle East.[8]
The Egaro date is debatable with archaeologist, due to method used to attain it.[9] The
Termit date of 1500 B.C. is widely accepted. Iron use, in smelting and forging for tools,
appears in West Africa by 1200 BC, making it one of the first places for the birth of the Iron
Age.[10][11][12] Before the 19th century, African methods of extracting iron were employed
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in Brazil, until more advanced European methods were instituted.[13]
 In the region of the Aïr Mountains in Niger we have the development of independent copper
smelting between 3000–2500 BCE. The process was not in a developed state, indication
smelting was not foreign. It became mature about the 1500 BCE.[14]
Mesoamerica
 The term is also applied to American civilizations that already used copper and copper alloys
thousands of years before European conquest. The Old Copper Complex, located in present-
day Michigan and Wisconsin in the United States, used copper for tools, weapons, and other
implements. Artifacts from these sites have been dated from 4000 to 1000 BC, making them
some of the oldest Chalcolithic sites in the entire world
 Ahar Culture (C. 2800-1500 B.C)
 Ahar is a town and the capital of Ahar County in East Azarbaijan province, Iran. The
town is known on the market place for its Ahar rugs. Ahar is one of the ancient cities
of Azarbayjan, its name before islam was "meimad" , after presentation of islam this
city has been named "ahar" or "ahrich" that was chief town of region Garadagh.
Ahar in Arabic means "Ash tree". Ash (Vaan) is a tree that was abundant in Ahar
region.
 In the 12th-13th centuries, Ahar was a minor and short-lived, but prosperous
emirate ruled by the Pishteginid dynasty of Georgian origin (1155—1231).
Ahar town lies on the north-west face of

Mount Sabalan
Arasbaran forests in the vicinity of Ahar
(Kaleibar country)
Sheikh-shahab tomb, Ahar, Iran
 Kayatha Culture (C. 2450-1700 B.C.)

 Malwa Culture (C. 1900-1400 B.C.)
 Savalda Culture (C. 2300-2000 B.C.)
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 Jorwe Culture (C. 1500-900 B.C.)
 Prabhas Culture (C. 2000-1400 B.C.)
 Rangpur Culture (C. 1700-1400 B.C.)
6. Copper Hoard Culture:
Since the first report discovery of a copper harpoon from Bithur in Kanpur district in 1822,
nearly 1000 copper objects have found from almost 90 localities from various parts of India.
As these copper objects have mostly been found in hoards, they are known as Copper
Hoards. The largest hoard from Gungeria (M.P.) comprises 424 pieces of copper objects and
102 thin sheets of Silver. The main types of objects are various kinds of celts, harpoons, 9
antennae swords, rings and anthropomorphs. We find that harpoons, antennae swords and
anthopomorphs are basically confined to U.P. while various kinds of celts,rings and other
objects are found from such diverse geographical areas as Rajasthan, Gujarat, M.P., Bihar,
Orissa, W.B., and Maharashtra. In the Gangetic plains a few pieces of these copper hoards
have been found associated with Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP).
7. Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Culture:
Almost contemporary to the latter half of the mature Harappa Civilisation, there flourished
a culture in the upper Gangetic plains which is identified by the use of pottery with bright
red slip and painted a black. This pottery has been found all over upper Gangetic plains.
During the course of excavation, copper hoard objects were found in association with OCP
deposit in Saipai, in District Etah. Also, from almost all the places in Ganga-Yamuna doab
from where copper hoards have been found, the OCP has also been found.
8. Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) or Harappan Civilisation
9. Early Vedic Age or Rig Vedic Age (C. 1500-1000 BC)
10. Later Vedic Culture and Civilisation (1000-600 BC)
11. Sangam Age (The Early Kingdoms)
 Chola
 Chera
 Pandyas
12. Social Order and Structure in Ancient India
13. Some important religious sects
 Jainism
 Goutam Buddha and Buddhism
14. India in the 600 B.C.
15. 16 Mahajanapadas
a. Anga : Champa
b. Kasi : Varanasi
c. Koslala : Sravasti and Kusavati
d. Vrijji : Vaishali
e. Malla : Kusinara and Pava
f. Chedi : Sotthivati nagara
g. Vatsa : Kaushambhi
h. Panchala : Ahichchahtra
i. Matsya : Viratanagara
j. Surasena : Mathura
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k. Asvaka : Potana or Potali
l. Avanti : Mahishmarti and Ujjain
m. Gandhara : Taxila
n. Kamboja : Rajapura
o. Kuru : Indraprastha
p. Magadha : Girivraja (Rajgriha)
16. Magadha Imperialism
i. Bimbisara 10
ii. Ajatashatru
iii. Udaybhadra
iv. Anuruddha
v. Munda
vi. Nagadasaka
vii. Sishunaga
viii. Kalasoka
ix. Ten sons of Kalasoka
 Bhadrasena
 Korondavarna
 Mangura
 Sarvanjaha
 Jalika
 Ubhaka
 Sanjaya
 Koravya
 Nandivarman
 Panchamaka
17. Mauryan Empire
i. Chandragupta Maurya (324-300 BC)
ii. Bindusara (298-273 BC)
iii. Ashoka (273-232 BC)
iv. Kunala
v. Bandupalita
vi. Indrapalita
vii. Dasona
viii. Dashratha
ix. Samprati
x. Shalishuka
xi. Devavarman
xii. Satadhanvan
xiii. Brihadratha
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18. Sunga Dynasty-
i. Pushyamitra Shunga (185-148 BC)
ii. Agnimitra (148-141 BC)
iii. Sujyestha (141-133 BC)
iv. Vasumitra (133-123 BC)
v. Vajramitra (123-114 BC)
vi. Bhagavata (114-82 BC)
vii. Devbhuti (82-72 BC) 11
19. Kanva Dynasty

i. Vasudev (72-63 BC)
ii. Bhumimitra (63-49 BC)
iii. Narayana (49-37 BC)
iv. Susarman (37-27 BC)
20. Mahameghavahanas of Kalinga
i. Mahameghavahana
ii. kharvela
21. Indo-Greek Rulers
i. Euthydemus
ii. Demetrius I
iii. Apollodotus
iv. Menander
v. Strabo I
vi. Strabo II
vii. Others
22. Sakas (Sai-Wang)
i. Maues (Moga)
ii. Azes I
iii. Azilises
iv. Azes II
23. Ksaharata (western Kshatrapas of Maharashtra)
i. Bhumaka
ii. Nahapana (defeated by Gautamiputra Satakarni)
24. Kardamaka (western Kshatrapas of Ujjaini)
i. Chastana
ii. Jayadaman
iii. Rudradaman
iv. Damaghsada
v. Rudrasimha I
vi. Jivadaman
vii. Rudrasena I
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viii. Sanghadaman
ix. Damasena
x. Viradamana
xi. Yosodaman
xii. Vijayasena
xiii. Damajadasri
xiv. Rudrasena II
xv. Visvasimha 12
xvi. Bhartidaman
xvii. Visvasena
xviii. Rudrasena III
25. Kushanas
i. Kujula Kadphises (15-64 AD)
ii. Wema Kadphises (64-78 AD)
iii. Kanishka I (founder of Sakha Era)(78-101 AD)
iv. Jushka (101-106 AD)
v. Huvishka (106-138 AD)
vi. Kanishka II (Kaiser)
vii. Vasudeva I (138-176 AD)
viii. Kanishka III (180-210 AD)
ix. Vasudeva II (210-230 AD)
26. Satavahana
i. Andhra Simuka
ii. Krishna
iii. Sri Satakarni
iv. Purnut Sang
v. Skanda Stambhi
vi. Satkarni
vii. Lambodara
viii. Apilaka
ix. Megaswati
x. Svati
xi. Skanda Svati
xii. Mrigendra Satakarni
xiii. Kuntala Satakarni
xiv. Satakarni
xv. Pulomavi
xvi. Arishtakarna
xvii. Hala
xviii. Mandalaka
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xix. Purindrasena
xx. Sundar Satakarni
xxi. Chakora Satakarni
xxii. Siva Svati
xxiii. Gautamiputra
xxiv. Pulumayi
xxv. Sri Satakarni
xxvi. Siva Sri 13
xxvii. Sivaskanda Satakarni

xxviii. Sri yajna Satakarni
xxix. Madhariputra Sakasena
xxx. Vijaya
xxxi. Srichandra Sutakarni
xxxii. Pulumayi
27. The Guptas (275-500 AD)
i. Srigupta (275-300 AD)
ii. Ghatotkacha (300-314-20 AD)
iii. Chandragupta I (319-20-330 AD)
iv. Samudragupta Parakramanka (330-380 AD)
v. Ram Gupta
vi. Chandra Gupta II (380-414-415 AD)
vii. Kumar Gupta I (415-455 AD)
viii. Skanda Gupta (455-460 AD)
ix. Purugupta (468-469 AD)
x. Buddhagupta (477-500 AD)
xi. Narsingh Gupta
 Kumargupta II
 Kumaragupta III
 Budhgupta II
28. Contemporary Rulers of the Guptas
i. Vakatakas
ii. Maukharis
iii. Harsh Vardhan
iv. Chalukyas
v. Chalukyas of Kalyani
vi. Pallavas
29. 6 Philosophical Systems or ‘Shada Darsana’
 Samkhya
 Yoga
 Vaisesika
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 Nyaya
 Purvamimansa
 Vendanta or Uttara Mimansa
30. Education in Ancient India
 Taxila
 Nalanda
 Vikramsila
 Valabhi 14
MEDIEVAL INDIA (800-1200)

31. Rajput Age (750-1200 AD)
32. Tripartite struggle
 Rastrakuta Dynasty : Nannaraja
 Gurjar Pratiharas (Ujjani Branch) : Nagbhatt I
 Pala Dynasty : Gopal
 Chandela Dynasty
 Paramar Dynasty : Vakpati Munj
 Gadhawal Dynasty : Cdandra Dev
 Sena or Sen Dynasty : Vijaya Sen
 Shahi Dynasty : Kallar
 Kalchuri Dynasty : Vam-Rajdeo
 Mall Dynasty : Arimall Deo
 Lohar Dynasty : Sangram Raj
 Karkot Dynasty : Durlabh Varman
 Utpala Dynasty : Avanti Varman
 Chahamanas
 Chalukayas of Gujrat
 Gahadavalas of Kannauj
 Jayachandra
33. Shankaracharya
34. Chola Empire
35. Indo-Arab Relations
36. Muhammud-bin-Qasim
37. Mahmud Ghaznavi / Ghazni
38. Alberuni
39. Mohammed Ghori/Ghauri
MEDIEVAL PERIOD (1200-1707)
Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)
40. Qutubi Dynasty
 Qutub-ud-din Aibak
 Adopted son  Aram Shah
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 Son-in-law  Illtutmish
41. Illabari Turks/ Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)
i. Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210)
ii. Aram Shah (Adopted son)
iii. Shams-ud-din Illtutmish (1211-1236)
iv. Rukun-ud-din Feroz (Died 1236)
v. Razia Sultan (1236 died 1240)
vi. Muiz-ud-din Behram (1240-May 1242) 15
vii. Ala-ud-din Masud (1242-4246)

viii. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246-1266)
ix. Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-1286)
x. Muiz-ud-din Kaikubad (1290)
xi. Kaimurs
42. Khalji Empire (1290-1320)
Turk
43. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
Turk
44. Syed Dynasty (1414-1451)
Descends of Prophet Mohammed
45. Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)
Afghans
 Bahlol Lodi
 Sikander Lodi
 Ibrahim Lodi
 Daulat Khan Loadi
 Alam Khan Lodi
46. Sangam Dynasty (1336-1486)

47. Mirza (Muslim) Dynasty (1339-1540)
48. Iliyas Shahi Dynasty (1345-1412)
49. Farruki Dynasty (1390-1601)
50. Sharqi Dynasty (1394-1500)
51. Mujjaffar Shahi Dynasty (1401-1537)
52. Hoshang Shahi Dynasty (1406-1436)
53. Bhaduri (Kans) Dynasty (1415-1442)
54. Surya Dynasty (1434-1542)
55. Imad Shahi Dynasty (1484-1574)
56. Adil Shahi Dynasty (1489-1686)
57. Hussain Shah Dynasty (1493-1538)
58. Tulluv Dynasty (1505-1567)
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59. Qutub Sahi Dynasty (1512-1527)
60. Barid Sahi Dynasty (1527-1619)
61. Arbind Dynasty (1567-1620)
62. Adyar Dynasty (1612-1762)
63. Vijaynagar Empire (1336-1356)

 Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505)
 Taluva Dynasty (1505-0556) 16
 Aravidu Dynasty (1556-1672)
64. Bahamani Dynasty (1347-1527)

i. Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahmani (1347)
ii. Muhammad Shah I (1358)
iii. Ala-ud-din Mujahid (1375)
iv. Daud Shah (April 1378)
v. Muhammad Shah II (May 1378)
vi. Ghias-ud-din Tasmtan (April 1397)
vii. Shams-ud-din Daud II (June 1397)
viii. Taj-ud-din Feroze (Nov 1397)
ix. Shiahab-ud-din Ahmed I (1422)
x. Ala-ud-din Ahmed II (1436)
xi. Humayun Shah (1458)
xii. Nizam-ud-din Ahmed III (1461)
xiii. Shams-ud-din Muhammad III (1463)
xiv. Shihab-ud-din Mahmud II (1482)
xv. Ahmed Shah IV (1518)
xvi. Ala-ud-din (1520)
xvii. Waliullah (1523)
xviii. Kalimullah (1526)
65. Sufism
66. Bhakti Movement
 Ramanand
 Kabir
 Guru Nanak
 Meera Bai
 Vallabhacharya
 Dadu
 Surdas and Tulasidas
 Maharashtra Dharma
 Chaitanya
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67. Regional States
 Bengal
 Kashmir
 Gujrat
 Malwa
 AHOM State
68. Ranas of Mewar
17
69. Mughal Empire

i. Zahir-ud-din Mohammad Babur (1526-1530)
Baber vs. Ibrahim Lodi  Panipat  1526 A.D.
ii. Humayun (1530-1540 & 1555-1556)
iii. Jalal-ud-din Mohammed Akbar (1556-1605)
iv. Jahangir (1605-1627)
v. Shahjahan (1628-1658)
vi. Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
vii. Muajwam (1707-1712)
70. Afghan (Suri) EmpireSher Shah Suri
71. Maratha Empire
i. Shivaji
ii. Sambhuji
iii. Sahuji
iv. Rajaram
72. Peswa Dynasty
i. Balaji Viswanath(1713-1720)
ii. Baji Rao I (42) (1720-1740)
iii. Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761) (Nana Saheb)
iv. Madhav Rao (1761-1772)
MODERN INDIA
British East India Company’s Empire in India (1757-1857)
73. The European in India
74. New Regional States
 Hyderabad
 Carnatic
 Bengal
 Awadh/ Oudh
 Mysore
 Kerala
75. European Trade
A. Portugese
B. Dutch
C. French
D. British / English
E. Dane
 East India Company vs. The Nawabs of Bengal
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 Anglo-French
 Anglo-Maratha
 Anglo-Mysore
 Anglo-Punjab
 Anglo-Sindh
 Anglo-Nepal
 Anglo-Burma
 Anglo-Afghan
 Anglo-Bhutan
 Anglo-Tibet
18
76. French man  Dupleix  1746
Dupleix vs. Nawab of Carnatic, Madras
77. Queen Elizabeth I
Robert Clive  1725
Madras  1639  Francis Day Factory
Bombay  1668 
Sutanati  1690  Job Charnock
Calcutta  Sutanati + Kalikata + Govinpur
Nawabs of Bengal
 Alivardi Khan (1740-1756)
Maratha Bargis
Mansad of Bengal
 Siraj-ud-daulah (1756-1757)
Capital  Murshidabad
Gvernor Drake, 1756, Calcutta
Black-Hole Tragedy
Clive & Admiral Watson
Chandan nagore from the French, 1757
Saukat Singh, Raj Ballav, Mir Jafer, Rai Durlav, richest men of Bengal  Manikchand,
Omichand, & Jagat Seth
Palassey  23rd June, 1757  on the bank of the river Bhagirathi, in the Mango
groves of place named Palassey
 Mir Jafar
 Mir Kasim  Nawab of Bengal
 Shuja-ud-daulah  Nawab Wazir (PM of Moughal)Oudh King
 Shah Alam II  Mughal Emperor
 Major Hector Munro  British Commander
 The Battle of Buxar, 1764
 The Grant of the Dewani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to East India Company
 Clive’s Administration of Bengal : Exploitation of Wealth
 Condition of Bengal at the Departure of Clive
 Robert Clive  1764-1767
 1st Mysore War 1767
Hider Ali , South India vs. Maratha + Nizam (Hyderabad) + English
 Great famine of 1770
78. The British East India Company
The East India Company (also known as the East India Trading Company, English East India Company,
and, after the Treaty of Union, the British East India Company) was an early English joint-stock
company that was formed initially for pursuing trade with the East Indies, but that ended up trading
mainly with the Indian subcontinent and China. The oldest among several similarly formed European
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East India Companies, the Company was granted an English Royal Charter, under the name Governor
and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies, by Elizabeth I on 31 December
1600. After a rival English company challenged its monopoly in the late 17th century, the two
companies were merged in 1708 to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to
the East Indies, commonly styled the Honourable East India Company, and abbreviated, HEIC; the
Company was colloquially referred to as John Company, and in India as Company Bahadur
(Hindustani bahādur, "brave"/"authority").The East India Company traded mainly in cotton, silk,
indigo dye, saltpetre, tea, and opium. The Company also came to rule large areas of India, exercising
military power and assuming administrative functions, to the exclusion, gradually, of its commercial
pursuits. Company rule in India, which effectively began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey, lasted
until 1858, when, following the events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, and under the Government of
19
India Act 1858, the British Crown assumed direct administration of India in the new
British Raj. The Company itself was finally dissolved on 1 January 1874, as a result of the East India
Stock Dividend Redemption Act. The Company long held a privileged position in relation to the
English, and later the British, government. As a result, it was frequently granted special rights and
privileges, including trade monopolies and exemptions. These caused resentment among its
competitors, who saw unfair advantage in the Company's position. Despite this resentment, the
Company remained a powerful force for over 200 years.
79. Governor Generals
1) Warren Hastings (1774-1785)
Land Revenue Collection Policy, The Permanent Settlement, Subsidiary Alliance
(Samanta Sandhi Pratha) Trial of Nandkumar, case of Begums of Oudh, case of Raja
Chet Singh of Banaras,Dual system abolished, codification of Hindu and Muslim
Laws, 1st and 2nd Anglo-Maratha War, 2nd Anglo Mysore War (1771-1782),
quinquennial settlement of land Revenue, Faced impeachment in England
2) Sir John Macpherson (1785-1786)
3) Earl (Marquees) Cornwallis (1786-1793)
Separation of Powers (1793), post of police superintendent, permanent settlement
of Bengal, The doors of covenanted services closed for the Indians, got the power of
the commutation of punishment, defeated Tipu in the 3rd Anglo-Mysore war and
Treaty of Srirangapattam
4) Sir John Shore (1793-1798)
Followed the policy of non-intervention, Battle of Kharda, The Charter Act of 1793
was passed
5) Sir A. Clarke (Officiating) (1793)
6) Richard Wellesley (1798-1805)
Followed the policy of Subsidiary Alliance, rulers of Mysore, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Bundi,
Macheri, Bharatpur, Awadh, Tanjore, Berar, Peshwa and Nizam of Hyderabad
accepted the treaty. 4th Mysore war (Tipu was killed), 1799, treaty of Bassein
(1802), 2nd Anglo-Maratha war and defeat of Bhonsala, Scindhia and Holkar,
regarded as the father of Indian civil Service
7) Earl (Marquess) Cornwallis (2nd term) (1805)
The first Governor General who died in India
8) Sir George Barlow (Officiating) (1805-1807)
Followed the policy of Neutrality, Mutiny of Vellore (1806)
9) Earl of Minto I (1807-1813)
Revolt in Travancore, Treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja Ranjit Singh, sent naval
expedition to the French Islands of ‘Bourbon Mauritius’, The Charter Act of 1833 was
passed, Tava’ Islandwas snatched from the Dutch
10) MarquessHastings (Earl of Moira) (1813-1823)
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Followed the policy of intervention and war, Anglo-Nepalese war-Treaty of Sangauli-
earned Simla for the Company, crushed the Pindaris and freed the country from
lawlessness, 3rd Anglo-Maratha war and merging Pune in Bombay Presidency, The
first vernacular newspaper’Samachar Patrika’ was published, the Tenancy actof
1822 was passed, simplified the judicialprocedure
11) John Adams (Officiating) (1823)
12) Lord Amberst (1823-1828)
The 1st Burmese war and the treaty of Yandaboo (1826), capture of Bharatpur,
treaty with Siam, treaty with Nagpur, acquisition of territories in Malaya peninsula,
famous ‘Battle of Donaben’ 20
13) William Butterworth Baylay (Officiating) (1828)

14) Lord William Bentick (1828-1833)
First Governor General to promote the welfare for the people, reduce the salaries
and ‘Bhatta’(Allowance), Taxing of opium, Resumption of rent free holdings, created
the post of law member, abolished Persian as court language, ‘Sadar Diwani’and
‘Nizamat Adalats’ orChief Courts are establishedat Allahabad for the convenience of
the people, assumed the Commander-In-Chief, declared the practise of ‘Sati’ illegal
(1829), ‘Thugi’ was suppressed (1930) , appointed the Indians on high posts, the
charter actof 1833 was passed, became the first Governor General of India, Abolition
of female infanticide, suppression of Human Sacrifice.
15) Sir Charles Metcalfe (Officiating) (1835-1836)
Treaty of Amritsar abolished all the restrictions on the Indian Press.
16) Earl of Auckland (1836-1842)
The first Afghan war which proved disastrous and dealt a severe blow to the English
prestige in India, the most unsuccessful Governor-General of India
17) Lord Ellenborough (1942-1844)
Brought Afghan war to an end, annexation of Sind to the British Empire (1843),
coercion of Scindhia into a humiliating treaty, recalled due defiance of the order of
the Court of Directors.
18) Sir Henry (Viscount) Hardinge (1844-1848)
The first Sikh war and battle of ‘Battle of Sabraon’, treaty of Lahore (1846),
suppression of human sacrifice (khonds), introduced the principle of giving
preference to English educated Indians in public employment
19) Earl of Dalhousie(36) (1848-1856)
One of the greatest Governor General of India, followed the principle of ‘Doctrine of
Lapse’ and annexed Jaitpur, Sambhalpur, Satara, Baghat, Udaipur, Jhansi and
Nagpur. The 2nd Anglo-Sikh war, annexation of Punjab, the 2nd Burmese war (1852)
and annexation of lower Burma, abolished titles and pensions, Simlamade capital for
summer season, Lt. Governor was appointed to look after the administration of
Bengal, shifting the military H.Q. from Calcutta to inland station (Meerut), adopted
policy of reduction, disintegration and distribution, ‘Gurkha regiments’ was
increased, The first railway line from Bombay to Thane (1853), regarded as the
‘father of electric telegraph’ in India, Post office act was passed(1854), uniform
postal rates were increased, issue of postage stamps (1854), introduction of ‘woods
despatch’ in India (1854), established a separate‘public works department’,
constructed ‘Grant Trunk Road’, from Calcutta to Peshawar, constructed ‘Ganga
Canal’, Harbours of Bombay, Calcutta and Karachi were developed
20) Lord Canning (1856-1862)
Great rising of 1857, The Indian Council Act of 1858 was passed, Queen Victoria’s
proclamation, First Viceroy in India, The Indian Council Act of 1861 was passed, The
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‘Doctrine of Lapse’was officially withdrawn (1859), the code of criminal procedure
(1859), The Indian High Court Act(1861) and the Indian Penal Code (1858) were
enacted, Universities were established, Bengal Rent Act (1859), income tax was
introduced on an experimental basis, the system of issuing license was started
The Revolt of 1857
A. Hindu Uprising
B. Muslim Uprising
C. Uprising of Dependent of Deposed Rulers
D. Miscellaneous Movements 21
E. Revolt of the Primitive Tribes

F. Uprising before 1857
Viceroys….
21) Lord Elgin I (1862-1863)
The revolt of the ‘Wahabis’ a fanatical sect of the Muslims, which was crushed,
Supreme and Sadar Courts were amalgamated into High Courts, died in India
22) Sir Robert Napier (Officiating) (1863)
23) Sir William D. Denison (1863)
24) Sir John Lawrence (1864-1868)
Great famine in Orissa, Rajputana and Bundelkhand, appointment of Famine
Commission, Telegraphic communications were opened with Europe, the Punjab
Tenancy Act was passed, war against Bhutan, followed the policy of ‘Masterly
Inactivity’, before becoming the Viceroy he was the Chief Commissioner of Punjab
25) Earl of Mayo (1869-1872)
Started the process of decentralization of finance, followed the policy of non-
intervention, and opened Mayo College at Ajmer for the education of aristocratic
families’ children, First Governor General to be murdered in office by a fanatic
pathan Sher Ali at Port Blair (Andaman).
26) Sir John Strachey (Officiating) (1872)
27) Lord Napier of Merchistoun (officiating) (1872)
28) Earl of Northbrook (1872-1876)
Rapid advance of Russian in Afghanistan, Deposition of the Gaikwar of Baroda on the
charge of poisioning the resident, visit the Prince of Wales, Famine in Bihar, Kuka-
rebellion in Punjab.
29) Baron (Earl) Lytton I (1876-1880)
Royals Title Act conferring on the Queen Victoria the title of the Empress of India,
Magnificent Delhi Darbar (1 January, 1877) investing the Queen with the title of
‘Qaiser-i-Hind’, famine in Deccan, foundation of Aligarh college (1877), the
vernacular press act(1878), the arms act (1878), lowered the age from 21 to 19 for
civil services, 2nd Afghan war (1878) which proved too expensive
30) Marquess of Ripon (1880-1884)
One of the most popular Governor-General of India, founder of local self-
Government in modern India, sources of revenue divided into Imperial, provincial
and divided (Financial decentralisation 1882), First factory act (1881), repeal of
vernacular press act (1882), the Ilbert bill controversy (1883-84), appointment of
education commission (Hunter commission), introduced the system of census in
India, popularly known as “Ripon the Good”
31) Earl of Dufferin (1884-1888)
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The 3rd Burmese war (1886) and annexation of the whole of Burma, the Burmese
ruler was sent to India in exile, celebration on the golden jubilee of Queen Victoria ,
the Punjdeh incident(1885), foundation of Indian National Congress by A.O.Hume
32) Marquess of Lansdowne (1888-1894)
Demarcation of Indo-Afghan border(Durand Line) rebellion in Manipur (1891), the
Maharaja of Kashmir was forced to abdicate(1889), the Indian council act of 1892
was passed , the system of indirect selection was introduced, 2nd Factory act
33) Earl of Elgin II (1894-1898)
The boundaries of China and Siam was demarcated, the Anglo Russian convention
was signed (1895), diamond jubilee of Queen Victoria was celebrated, appointment 22
of famine commission (Lyall commission, 1897), severe plague broke out in Bombay
(1896), the ruler of ‘Chitral’ was assassinated (1895), Khyber Pass was reoccupied,
murder of plague commissioner Rand at Pune by the Chapekar brothers (1897)
34) George Nathaniel Curzon (1899-1904)
Appointment of a famine commission (Sir Anthony MacDonnell Commission), Colin
Scott Moncrieff Commission on irrigation, appointment of police commission
(Andrew Frazer Commission), appointment of education commission (Raleigh
Commission), Indian Universities act(1904), the land resolution n (1902), the Punjab
land alienation act (1900), setting of an imperial agriculture department,
establishment of commerce and industry department, the Indian coinage and Paper
currency act (1899), recommended for the setting of the Railway board, the Indian
code of civil procedure was revised, a training college for army officers was set up at
Quetta on the model of the Camberley College of England, Calcutta Corporation act
(1899), ancient monument protection act (1904), establishment of archaeological
survey of India, Partition of Bengal (1905), military expedition to Tibet, Chumbi
Valley was occupied for 75 years, Curzon followed the policy of ‘Common-sense and
realistic’ towards the tribe of North West Frontier, Curzon-Kitchner (Commander-in-
Chief), controversy , partition of Bengal, one of the most hatred Governor-General
from the view point of natives
35) Lord Ampthill (Officiating) (1904)
36) Lord Curzon (1904-1905)
37) Earl of Minto II (1905-1910)
Witness outbursts of Indian National Movement, newspapers (incitement to
offences) act, 1908, explosive substances act, restricted the rights of holding public
meetings, deportation of Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh to Mandalay Jail (1907), Trial
of Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1908), Surat split, foundation of the Indian Muslim League
(1906), the Indian council act of 1909, (Morley-Minto Reforms), beginning of
commercial electro-late, setting up of the Indian Home Rule Society in England by
Shyamji Verma, Murder of Col. William Wyllie by Madan Lal Dhingra (1909), Mr.
Jackson, the Magistrate of Nasik was shot dead, Ahmadabad Bomb Case (1909)
38) Baron Hardinge of Penshrust (1910-1916)
Coronation Durbar in of King George V in Delhi (1911), annulment of the partition of
Bengal (1911), transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911), Bomb thrown on
Governor-General in Chandni Chowk in which he escaped unhurt (1912), Departure
of Mahatma Gandhi to South Africa, outbreak of the First World War (1914),
formation of the Home Rule League by Tilak Shah Mehta, foundation of the Benares
Hindu university, ‘Gadar Party’ was found by Lala Hardayal at San Francisco (1913),
the 'Komagata Maru‘ incident at Budge Budge Port, Calcutta, the press act 1910,
defence of Indian rule act (1915), foundation of Indian Independent League at Berlin
(1914), publication of newspapers like Pratap (Ganesh Shankar Vidhyarthi), Al-Hillal
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(Abul Kalam Azad), Bombay Chronicle (Pheroz Shah Mehta), common weal (Annie-
Besant)
39) Baron Chelmsford (1916-1921)
The Khilafat Movement, Emergence of Gandhi as the supreme leader of India,
passing of the Rowlatt act (1919), the Jalllianwalla Bagh Tragedy (13 April, 1919), the
non-cooperation movement, 3rd Afghan war and the treaty of ‘Rawalpindi’, for the
1st time Indians were made eligible for King’s Commission in the army, appointment
of S.P. Sinha as the Governor of Bihar, foundation of a Women’s University at Pune
by D.K. Karve,appointment of an Education Comiission (Saddler Commission, 1917),
famous declaration of 1917,the Government of India act 1919 (Montague – 23
Chelmsford), introduction of Dyarchy in provinces, Chauri-Chaura incident
40) Earl of Reading (1921-1925)
Had been the Lord Justice of England before coming to India, Visit of Prince Wales
and complete strike all over the country (1921), Chauri- Chaura incident (1922),
repeal of the Press Act of 1910, repeal of the Rowlatt Acts (1919), introduction of the
criminal law amendment act, abolition of the cotton excise, the Moplah rebellion
(1921), simultaneous examinations of Civil services for selecting candidates in
London and Delhi (1923), Vishwa Bharati University started (1922), the communist
party of India founded by M.N. Roy (1921), formation of Swaraj party by C.R. Das and
M.L. Nehru (1923), murder of swami Shradhanand, revolutionary meeting at Kanpur
(1924), Kakorie Train Robbery (9th August, 1925)
41) Lord Lytton (Officiating) (1925)
42) Lord Irwin (1926-1931)
Visit of Simon commission (1928), Nehru report (1928), 14 points demand of M.A.
Jinnah, Murder of Saunders, A.S.P. at Lahore (1929), bomb thrown in assembly hall
in Delhi by Bhaghat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutta (1929), Lahore conspiracy case,
martyrdrom of Jutin Das due to hunger strike, attempt to murder the Governor-
General in train near Delhi (1929), foundation of Hindustan Socialist Republican
Army or Association (H.S.R.A), Lala Lajpat Rai assaulted with lathi charge leading to
his death, execution of Bhagat Singh, Raj Guru and Sukdev (1931), Chittagong
Armoury raid headed by Surya Sen(1930), launching of Civil Disobedience
Movement, demand for ’Purna Swarajya’ (Complete Independence) at the lahore
session of INS, unfurled the first tricolour at the bank of Ravi, 26 January, 1930 was
celebrated as the Independent day all over the country, congress observed ‘Political
Survey Day’ (18th August, 1929).
43) Earl of Willingdon (1931-1936)
2nd round table conference in which Gandhi participated as a lone representative of
INS, Re-launching of Civil Disobedience Movement, communal award by Ramsay
MacDonald the P.M. of England(1932), Pune Pact (25th September, 1932), launching
of Individual Civil Disobedience Movement, 3rd round table conference, Rahmat Ali,
an under-graduate of Cambridge coined the word Pakistan (1933), Passing the
Government of India Act of 1935, Dyarchy at centre and provincial autonomy, Burma
was separated from India, two terrible earthquakes in Bihar and Orissa, celebrations
of Silver Jubilee of King George V.
44) Sir John Stanley (Officiating in leave capacity) (1934)
45) Marquess of Linlithgow (1936-1944)
The act of 1935 was enforced (1937), the congress minister resigns to protest the
involvement of Indians into the 2nd world war, S.C. Bose resigned for the president-
ship of congress and founded ‘Forward Bloc’, the two Nations congress was
formulated by M.A. Jinnah at the Lahore session of League (1940), observed ‘Day of
Deliverance’ when the congress ministers resigned (1939), Winston Churchill became
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the new P.M. of England, Atlanta Charter (1941), S.C Bose escapes India (1941),
organisation of Indian National Army, August offer (1940), arrival of Cripps mission
(1942), Quit India Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi (8th August, 1942),
Gandhi described Cripps mission as post dated cheque, Muslim league demand of
‘Divide and Quit’ at its Karachi session (1944), Famine in Bengal (1943).
46) Lord Wavell (1944-1947)
Simla conference which ultimately crushed on the communal rock (1945), 2nd world
war came to an end, Atom bomb on Nagasaki and Hiroshima were dropped, Arrival
of the cabinet Mission, Muslim league rejected the plan and observed a ‘Direct
Action Day’ (16th August), election of the constituent assembly and its first meeting 24
on 9th November, 1946, formation of interim Government under the leadership of J.
L. Nehru, historic announcement by Clement Atlee, the British PM of the end of
British rule in India (20th February, 1947)
INDEPENDENT INDIA 1947…
47) Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948)
Declaration of plan known as Mountbatten Plan or Balkan Plan (3rd June, 1947),
setting up of two Boundary Commission (The Chairman of both the Commission was
Sir Cyrill Radcliffe, M.A. Jinnah left for Karachi forever, Indian Independence Act
(1947), partition of the country, Pakistan raided Kashmir, Mahatma Gandhi was shot
dead (30th Jan, 1947), First Governor-General of free India
48) C. Rajagopalachari (1948-1950)
Kashmir Mission sent by U.N.O. arrived in India (July, 1948), Pakistan issued the
‘Cease-Fire’ order on the New Year Day (1949), police action against Nizam of
Hyderabad, the new constitution come into force (26th January, 1950), first and last
Governor-General of India
1. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)
Aug 15, 1947  May 27, 1964
Jawaharlal Nehru (Hindi/Kashmiri: जवाहरलाल नेहरू, pronounced
[dʒəʋaːɦərˈlaːl ˈneːɦruː]; 14 November 1889–27 May 1964) was
an Indian statesman who was the first (and to date the longest-
serving) prime minister of India, from 1947 until 1964. One of the
leading figures in the Indian independence movement, Nehru was
elected by the Congress Party to assume office as independent
India's first Prime Minister, and re-elected when the Congress
Party won India's first general election in 1952. As one of the
founders of the Non-aligned Movement, he was also an important figure in the international
politics of the post-war era. He is frequently referred to as Pandit Nehru ("pandit" being a
Sanskrit and Hindi honorific meaning "scholar" or "teacher") and, specifically in India, as
Panditji (with "-ji" being a honorific suffix).
The son of a wealthy Indian barrister and politician, Motilal Nehru, Nehru became a leader
of the left wing of the Congress Party when still fairly young. Rising to become Congress
President, under the mentorship of Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru was a charismatic and radical
leader, advocating complete independence from the British Empire. In the long struggle for
Indian independence, in which he was a key player, Nehru was eventually recognized as
Gandhi's political heir. Throughout his life, Nehru was also an advocate for Fabian socialism
and the public sector as the means by which long-standing challenges of economic
development could be addressed by poorer nations.
PERSONAL LIFE AND EDUCATION
Jawaharlal Nehru was born to Motilal Nehru (1861–1931) and Swaroop Rani (1863–1954)
in a Kashmiri Pandit family. Nehru was educated in India and Britain. In England, he
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attended the independent boy's school, Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge. During his
time in Britain, Nehru was also known as Joe Nehru.
On 8 February, 1916, Nehru married seventeen year old Kamala Kaul. In the first year of the
marriage, Kamala gave birth to their only child, Indira Priyadarshini.
LIFE AND CAREER
Nehru raised the flag of independent India in New Delhi on 15 August 1947, the day India
gained Independence. Nehru's appreciation of the virtues of parliamentary democracy,
secularism and liberalism, coupled with his concerns for the poor and underprivileged, are
recognised to have guided him in formulating socialist policies that influence India to this
day. They also reflect the socialist origins of his worldview. His daughter, Indira Gandhi, and
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grandson, Rajiv Gandhi, also served as Prime Ministers of India.
SUCCESSOR TO GANDHI
On 15 January 1941 Gandhiji said, "Some say Pandit Nehru and I were estranged. It will
require much more than difference of opinion to estrange us. We had differences from the
time we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years and say so now that not
Rajaji but Jawaharlal will be my successor."
INDIA'S FIRST PRIME MINISTER
Teen Murti Bhavan, Nehru's residence as Prime

Minister, now a museum in his memory.
Nehru and his colleagues had been released as the
British Cabinet Mission arrived to propose plans for
transfer of power.
Once elected, Nehru headed an interim government,
which was impaired by outbreaks of communal violence
and political disorder, and the opposition of the Muslim
League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who were
demanding a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. After failed bids to form coalitions, Nehru
reluctantly supported the partition of India, according to a plan released by the British on 3
June 1947. He took office as the Prime Minister of India on 15 August, and delivered his
inaugural address titled "A Tryst with Destiny"
"Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall
redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the
midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment
comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when
an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting
that at this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her
people and to the still larger cause of humanity."
However, this period was marked with intense communal violence. This violence swept
across the Punjab region, Delhi, Bengal and other parts of India. Nehru conducted joint tours
with Pakistani leaders to encourage peace and calm angry and disillusioned refugees. Nehru
would work with Maulana Azad and other Muslim leaders to safeguard and encourage
Muslims to remain in India. The violence of the time deeply affected Nehru, who called for a
ceasefire and UN intervention to stop the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. Fearing communal
reprisals, Nehru also hesitated in supporting the annexation of Hyderabad State.
In the years following independence, Nehru frequently turned to his daughter Indira to look
after him and manage his personal affairs. Under his leadership, the Congress won an
overwhelming majority in the elections of 1952. Indira moved into Nehru's official residence
to attend to him and became his constant companion in his travels across India and the
world. Indira would virtually become Nehru's chief of staff.
ECONOMIC POLICIES
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Nehru's study in Teen Murti Bhavan
Nehru presided over the introduction of a modified, Indian
version of state planning and control over the economy.
Creating the Planning commission of India, Nehru drew up the
first Five-Year Plan in 1951, which charted the government's
investments in industries and agriculture. Increasing business
and income taxes, Nehru envisaged a mixed economy in
which the government would manage strategic industries
such as mining, electricity and heavy industries, serving public
interest and a check to private enterprise. Nehru pursued land
redistribution and launched programmes to build irrigation canals, dams and spread the use of
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fertilizers to increase agricultural production. He also pioneered a series of community development
programs aimed at spreading diverse cottage industries and increasing efficiency into rural India.
While encouraging the construction of large dams (which Nehru called the "new temples of India"),
irrigation works and the generation of hydroelectricity, Nehru also launched India's programme to
harness nuclear energy.
For most of Nehru's term as prime minister, India would continue to face serious food shortages
despite progress and increases in agricultural production. Nehru's industrial policies, summarised in
the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, encouraged the growth of diverse manufacturing and heavy
industries, yet state planning, controls and regulations began to impair productivity, quality and
profitability. Although the Indian economy enjoyed a steady rate of growth, called Hindu rate of
growth at 2.5% per annum, chronic unemployment amidst widespread poverty continued to plague
the population.
EDUCATION AND SOCIAL REFORM
Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth, believing it
essential for India's future progress. His government oversaw the establishment of many institutions
of higher learning, including the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the Indian Institutes of
Technology and the Indian Institutes of Management. Nehru also outlined a commitment in his
five-year plans to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India's children. For this
purpose, Nehru oversaw the creation of mass village enrollment programmes and the construction
of thousands of schools. Nehru also launched initiatives such as the provision of free milk and meals
to children in order to fight malnutrition. Adult education centres, vocational and technical schools
were also organised for adults, especially in the rural areas.
Under Nehru, the Indian Parliament enacted many changes to Hindu law to criminalize caste
discrimination and increase the legal rights and social freedoms of women.
A system of reservations in government services and educational institutions was created to
eradicate the social inequalities and disadvantages faced by peoples of the scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes. Nehru also championed secularism and religious harmony, increasing the
representation of minorities in government.
NATIONAL SECURITY AND FOREIGN POLICY
Nehru led newly independent India from 1947 to 1964, during its first years of freedom from British
rule. Both the United States and the Soviet Union competed to make India an ally throughout the
Cold War.
On the international scene, Nehru was a champion of pacifism and a strong supporter of the United
Nations. He pioneered the policy of non-alignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement of
nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs of nations led by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.
Recognising the People's Republic of China soon after its founding (while most of the Western bloc
continued relations with the Republic of China), Nehru argued for its inclusion in the United Nations
and refused to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conflict with Korea. He sought to
establish warm and friendly relations with China in 1950, and hoped to act as an intermediary to
bridge the gulf and tensions between the communist states and the Western bloc.
Meanwhile, Nehru had promised in 1948 to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir under the auspices of the
U.N. but, as Pakistan failed to pull back troops in accordance with the UN resolution and as Nehru
grew increasingly wary of the U.N., he declined to hold a plebiscite in 1953. He ordered the arrest of
the Kashmiri politician Sheikh Abdullah, whom he had previously supported but now suspected of
harboring separatist ambitions; Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad replaced him.
His policy of pacifism and appeasement with respect to China also came unraveled when border
disputes led to the Sino-Indian war in 1962.
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Jawaharlal Nehru (right) talks to Pakistan Prime-Minister
Muhammad Ali Bogra (left) during his 1953 visit to Karachi.
Nehru was hailed by many for working to defuse global
tensions and the threat of nuclear weapons. He
commissioned the first study of the human effects of nuclear
explosions, and campaigned ceaselessly for the abolition of
what he called "these frightful engines of destruction." He
also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearisation,
fearing that a nuclear arms race would lead to over-
militarisation that would be unaffordable for developing countries such as his own.
In 1956 he had criticised the joint invasion of the Suez Canal by the British, French and Israelis.
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Suspicion and distrust cooled relations between India and the U.S., which suspected Nehru of tacitly
supporting the Soviet Union. Accepting the arbitration of the UK and World Bank, Nehru signed the
Indus Water Treaty in 1960 with Pakistani ruler Ayub Khan to resolve long-standing disputes about
sharing the resources of the major rivers of the Punjab region.
FINAL YEARS
Nehru with Ashoke Kumar Sen, S. Radhakrishnan and
Bidhan Chandra Roy
Nehru had led the Congress to a major victory in the 1957
elections, but his government was facing rising problems
and criticism. Disillusioned by intra-party corruption and
bickering, Nehru contemplated resigning but continued to
serve. The election of his daughter Indira as Congress
President in 1959 aroused criticism for alleged
nepotism[citation needed], although actually Nehru had
disapproved of her election, partly because he considered
it smacked of "dynastism"; he said, indeed it was "wholly
undemocratic and an undesirable thing", and refused her a
position in his cabinet. Indira herself was at loggerheads
with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-
stated personal deference to the Congress Working Committee to push through the dismissal of the
Communist Party of India government in the state of Kerala, over his own objections.[21] Nehru
began to be frequently embarrassed by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary tradition,
and was "hurt" by what he saw as an assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an
identity independent of her father.
Although the Pancha Sila (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) was the basis of the 1954 Sino-
Indian border treaty, in later years, Nehru's foreign policy suffered through increasing Chinese
assertiveness over border disputes and Nehru's decision to grant political asylum to the 14th Dalai
Lama. After years of failed negotiations, Nehru authorized the Indian Army to invade Goa in 1961,
and then he annexed it to India. It increased his popularity, but he was criticized the use of military
force.
In the 1962 elections, Nehru led the Congress to victory yet with a diminished majority. Opposition
parties ranging from the right-wing Bharatiya Jana Sangh and Swatantra Party, socialists and the
Communist Party of India performed well.
Public viewing of Nehru's body, which lies in state, 1964

Since 1959, and this accelerated in 1961, Nehru adopted the "Forward Policy" of setting up military
outposts in disputed areas of the Sino-Indian border, including in 43 outposts in territory not
previously controlled by India. China attacked some of these outposts, and thus the Sino-Indian War
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began, which India technically lost, but China gained no territory as it withdrew to pre-war lines. The
war exposed the weaknesses of India's military, and Nehru was widely criticised for his government's
insufficient attention to defence. In response, Nehru sacked the Defence Minister Krishna Menon
and sought U.S. military aid, but Nehru's health began declining steadily, and he spent months
recuperating in Kashmir through 1963. Some historians attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise
and chagrin over the Sino-Indian War, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust. Upon his return
from Kashmir in May 1964, Nehru suffered a stroke and later a heart attack. He died in the early
hours of 27 May 1964. Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the Shantivana on the
banks of the Yamuna River, witnessed by hundreds of thousands of mourners who had flocked into
the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds.
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Legacy
Nehru's statue in Aldwych, London.

As India's first Prime minister and external affairs minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in
shaping modern India's government and political culture along with sound foreign policy. He is
praised for creating a system providing universal primary education, reaching children in the farthest
corners of rural India. Nehru's education policy is also credited for the development of world-class
educational institutions such as the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Indian Institutes of
Technology, and the Indian Institutes of Management.
"Nehru was a great man... Nehru gave to Indians an image of themselves that I don't think
[26]
others might have succeeded in doing." - Sir Isaiah Berlin
In addition, Nehru's stance as an unfailing nationalist led him to also implement policies which
stressed commonality among Indians while still appreciating regional diversities. This proved
particularly important as post-Independence differences surfaced since British withdrawal from the
subcontinent prompted regional leaders to no longer relate to one another as allies against a
common adversary. While differences of culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of
the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National Book Trust and the National
Literary Academy which promoted the translation of regional literatures between languages and also
organized the transfer of materials between regions. In pursuit of a single, unified India, Nehru
warned, "Integrate or perish."
Commemoration
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Nehru hands out sweets to children in Nongpoh
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Jawaharlal Nehru on a 1989 USSR commemorative stamp

In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status in India and was widely admired across the
world for his idealism and statesmanship. His birthday, 14 November, is celebrated in India as Baal
Divas (Children's Day) in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfare, education and
development of children and young people. Children across India remember him as Chacha Nehru
(Uncle Nehru). Nehru remains a popular symbol of the Congress Party which frequently celebrates
his memory. Congress leaders and activists often emulate his style of clothing, especially the Gandhi
cap, and his mannerisms. Nehru's ideals and policies continue to shape the Congress Party's
manifesto and core political philosophy. An emotional attachment to his legacy was instrumental in
the rise of his daughter Indira to leadership of the Congress Party and the national government.
Many documentaries about Nehru's life have been produced. He has also been portrayed in
fictionalised films. The canonical performance is probably that of Roshan Seth, who played him three
times: in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film Gandhi, Shyam Benegal's 1988 television series Bharat Ek
Khoj, based on Nehru's The Discovery of India, and in a 2007 TV film entitled The Last Days of the Raj.
In Ketan Mehta's film Sardar, Nehru was portrayed by Benjamin Gilani. Nehru's personal preference
for the sherwani ensured that it continues to be considered formal wear in North India today; aside
from lending his name to a kind of cap, the Nehru jacket is named in his honour due to his
preference for that style.
Numerous public institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru's memory. The
Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India. The
Jawaharlal Nehru Port near the city of Mumbai is a modern port and dock designed to handle a huge
cargo and traffic load. Nehru's residence in Delhi is preserved as the Nehru Memorial Museum and
Library. The Nehru family homes at Anand Bhavan and Swaraj Bhavan are also preserved to
commemorate Nehru and his family's legacy.
WRITINGS
Nehru was a prolific writer in English and wrote a number of books, such as The Discovery of India,
Glimpses of World History, and his autobiography, Towards Freedom.
2. Guljari Lal Nanda (1898-1998) Acting
May 27, 1964  June 9, 1964
3. Lal Bahadur Shastri (1904-1966)
June 9, 1964  Jan 11, 1966
4. Guljari Lal Nanda Acting
Jan 11, 1966  Jan 24, 1966
5. Indira Gandhi (1917-1984)
Jan 24, 1966  Mar 24, 1977
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Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (Hindi: इंदिरा प्रियिर्शिनी गांधी Indirā
Priyadarśinī Gāndhī; née: Nehru; 19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984)
was the Prime Minister of the Republic of India for three consecutive
terms from 1966 to 1977 and for a fourth term from 1980 until her
assassination in 1984, a total of fifteen years. She is India's only female
prime minister to date. She is the world's all time longest serving female
Prime Minister.
LIFE AND CAREER
Indira Gandhi was born on November 19, 1917 into the politically
influential Nehru Family. Her father was Jawaharlal Nehru and her mother
was Kamala Nehru. It is a common myth to relate the name Gandhi with 30
Mahatma Gandhi, but her surname is from her marriage to Feroze Gandhi.
Her grandfather, Motilal Nehru, was a prominent Indian nationalist leader. Her father, Jawaharlal
Nehru, was a pivotal figure in the Indian independence movement and the first Prime Minister of
Independent India.
In 1934–35, after finishing school, Indira joined Shantiniketan, a school set up by Rabindranath
Tagore, who gave her the name Priyadarshini (priya=pleasing, darshini=to look at). Subsequently,
she went to England and sat for the University of Oxford entrance examination, but she failed, and
spent a few months at Badminton School in Bristol, before clearing the exam in 1937 and joining
Somerville College, Oxford. During this period, she was frequently meeting Feroze Gandhi, whom
she knew from Allahabad, and who was studying at the London School of Economics. She married
Feroze in 1942.
Returning to India in 1941, she became involved in the Indian Independence movement. In the
1950s, she served her father unofficially as a personal assistant during his tenure as the first Prime
Minister of India. After her father's death in 1964 she was appointed as a member of the Rajya
Sabha (upper house) and became a member of Lal Bahadur Shastri's cabinet as Minister of
Information and Broadcasting.
The then Congress Party President K. Kamaraj was instrumental in making Indira Gandhi the Prime
Minister after the sudden demise of Shastri. Gandhi soon showed an ability to win elections and
outmaneuver opponents. She introduced more left-wing economic policies and promoted
agricultural productivity. She led the nation as Prime Minister during the decisive victory in the 1971
war with Pakistan and creation of an independent Bangladesh. A period of instability led her to
impose a state of emergency in 1975. Due to the alleged authoritarian excesses during the period of
emergency, the Congress Party and Indira Gandhi herself lost the next general election for the first
time in 1977. Indira Gandhi led the Congress back to victory in 1980 elections and Gandhi resumed
the office of the Prime Minister. In June 1984, under Gandhi's order, the Indian army forcefully
entered the Golden Temple, the most sacred Sikh Gurdwara, to remove armed insurgents present
inside the temple. She was assassinated on 31 October 1984 in retaliation for this operation.
EARLY LIFE
Growing up in India
Indira Nehru Gandhi was born on 19 November 1917 to Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and Kamala Nehru
and was their only child. The Nehrus were a distinguished Kashmiri Pandit family. At the time of her
birth, her grandfather Motilal Nehru and father Jawaharlal were influential political leaders. Gandhi
was brought up in an intense political atmosphere at the Nehru family residence, Anand Bhawan,
where she spent her childhood years.
Growing up in the sole care of her mother, who was sick and alienated from the Nehru household,
Indira developed strong protective instincts and a loner personality. The flurry of political activity in
the Nehru household made mixing with her peers difficult. She had personal conflicts with her
father's sisters, including Vijayalakshmi Pandit, and these extended into her relationship with them
in the political world.
In her father's autobiography, Toward Freedom, he writes that the police frequently came to the
family home while he was in prison and took away pieces of furniture as payment toward the fines
the Government imposed on him. He says, "Indira, my four-year-old daughter, was greatly annoyed
at this continuous process of despoliation and protested to the police and expressed her strong
displeasure. I am afraid those early impressions are likely to colour her future views about the police
force generally."
Indira created the Vanara Sena movement for young girls and boys which played a small but notable
role in the Indian Independence Movement, conducting protests and flag marches, as well as helping
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members of the Indian National Congress circulate sensitive publications and banned materials. In
an often-told story, she smuggled out in her schoolbag an important document from her father's
house under police observation, that outlined plans for a major revolutionary initiative in the early
1930s.
Studying in Europe
In 1936, her mother, Kamala Nehru, finally succumbed to tuberculosis after a long struggle. Indira
was 18 at the time and had never experienced a stable family life during her childhood. While
studying at Somerville College, University of Oxford, England, during the late 1930s, she became a
member of the radical pro-independence London based India League.
In early 1940, Indira spent time in a rest home in Switzerland to recover from chronic lung disease.
She maintained her long-distance relationship with her father in the form of long letters as she was
31
used to doing through her childhood. They argued about politics.
In her years in continental Europe and the UK, she met a young Parsi man active in politics, Feroze
Gandhi. After returning to India, Feroze Gandhi grew close to the Nehru family, especially to Indira's
mother Kamala Nehru and Indira herself.
Marriage to Feroze Gandhi
When Indira and Feroze Gandhi returned to India, they were in love and had decided to get married.
Indira liked Feroze's openness, sense of humor and self-confidence. Nehru did not like the idea of
the marriage, but Indira was adamant and the marriage took place in March 1942 according to Hindu
rituals.
Feroze and Indira were both members of the Indian National Congress, and when they took part in
the Quit India Movement in 1942, they were both arrested. After independence, Feroze went on to
run for election and became a member of parliament from Raebareli Uttar Pradesh in 1952. After
the birth of their two sons, Rajiv Gandhi and Sanjay Gandhi, their relationship was strained leading
to a separation. Shortly after his re-election, Feroze suffered a heart attack, which led to a
reconciliation. Their relationship endured for the few years prior to the death of Feroze Gandhi in
September 1960.
Early leadership
President of the Indian National Congress
During 1959 and 1960, Gandhi ran for and was elected as the President of the Indian National
Congress. Her term of office was uneventful. She also acted as her father's chief of staff. Nehru was
known as a vocal opponent of nepotism, and she did not contest a seat in the 1962 elections.
Prime minister
Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the second President of India,

administering the oath of office to Indira Gandhi on 24
January 1966
First term
Domestic policy
When Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966, the Congress
was split in two factions, the socialists led by Gandhi, and the
conservatives led by Morarji Desai. Rammanohar Lohia called
her Gungi Gudiya which means 'Dumb Doll'. The internal
problems showed in the 1967 election where the Congress
lost nearly 60 seats winning 297 seats in the 545 seat Lok
Sabha. She had to accommodate Desai as Deputy Prime
Minister of India and Minister of Finance. In 1969 after many
disagreements with Desai, the Indian National Congress split.
She ruled with support from Socialist and Communist Parties
for the next two years. In the same year, in July 1969 she
nationalized banks.
War with Pakistan in 1971
The Pakistan army conducted widespread atrocities against the civilian populations of East Pakistan.
An estimated 10 million refugees fled to India, causing financial hardship and instability in the
country. The United States under Richard Nixon supported Pakistan, and mooted a UN resolution
warning India against going to war. Nixon apparently disliked Indira personally, referring to her as a
"witch" and "clever fox" in his private communication with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (now
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released by the State Department). Indira signed the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, resulting
in political support and a Soviet veto at the UN. India was victorious in the 1971 war, and Bangladesh
was born.
Foreign policy
Gandhi invited the late Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to Shimla for a week-long summit.
After the near-failure of the talks, the two heads of state eventually signed the Shimla Agreement,
which bound the two countries to resolve the Kashmir dispute by negotiations and peaceful means.
Due to her antipathy for Nixon, relations with the United States grew distant, while relations with
the Soviet Union grew closer.
She was criticized by some for not making the Line of Control a permanent border while a few critics
even believed that Pakistan-administered Kashmir should have been extracted from Pakistan, whose
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93, 000 prisoners of war were under Indian control. But the agreement did remove immediate
United Nations and third party interference, and greatly reduced the likelihood of Pakistan launching
a major attack in the near future. By not demanding total capitulation on a sensitive issue from
Bhutto, she had allowed Pakistan to stabilize and normalize. Trade relations were also normalized,
though much contact remained frozen (sealed) for years.
Devaluation of the rupee
During the late 1960s, Gandhi's administration decreed 40% devaluation in the value of the Indian
rupee from 4 to 7 to the United States dollar to boost trade.
Nuclear weapons program
A national nuclear program was started by Gandhi in 1967, in response to the nuclear threat from
the People's Republic of China and to establish India's stability and security interests as independent
from those of the nuclear superpowers. In 1974, India successfully conducted an underground
nuclear test, unofficially code named as "Smiling Buddha", near the desert village of Pokhran in
Rajasthan. Describing the test as for peaceful purposes, India became the world's youngest nuclear
power.
Green Revolution
Richard Nixon and Indira Gandhi in 1971. They had a deep
personal antipathy that coloured bilateral relations
Special agricultural innovation programs and extra
government support launched in the 1960s finally
transformed India's chronic food shortages into surplus
production of wheat, rice, cotton and milk, the success mainly
attributed to hard working farmers of majority Sikh farmers of
Punjab. Rather than relying on food aid from the United
States - headed by a President whom Gandhi disliked
considerably (the feeling was mutual: to Nixon, Indira was
"the old witch"), the country became a food exporter. That
achievement, along with the diversification of its commercial
crop production, has become known as the "Green
Revolution". At the same time, the White Revolution was an
expansion in milk production which helped to combat
malnutrition, especially amidst young children. 'Food
security', as the program was called, was another source of
support for Gandhi in the years leading up to 1975.
Established in the early 1960s, the Green Revolution was the unofficial name given to the Intense
Agricultural District Program (IADP) which sought to insure abundant, inexpensive grain for urban
dwellers upon whose support Gandhi—as indeed all Indian politicians—heavily depended. The
program was based on four premises:
1) New varieties of seed(s),
2) Acceptance of the necessity of the chemicalization of Indian agriculture, i.e. fertilizers, pesticides,
weeds killers, etc.
3) A commitment to national and international cooperative research to develop new and improved
existing seed varieties,
4) The concept of developing a scientific, agricultural institution in the form of land grant colleges.
Lasting about ten years, the program was ultimately to bring about a tripling of wheat production, a
lower but still impressive increase of rice; while there was little to no increase (depending on area,
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and adjusted for population growth) of such cereals as millet, gram and coarse grain, though these
did, in fact, retain a relatively stable yield.
1971 election victory and second term
Indira's government faced major problems after her tremendous mandate of 1971. The internal
structure of the Congress Party had withered following its numerous splits, leaving it entirely
dependent on her leadership for its election fortunes. Garibi Hatao (Eradicate Poverty) was the
theme for Gandhi's 1971 bid. The slogan and the proposed anti-poverty programs that came with it
were designed to give Gandhi an independent national support, based on rural and urban poor. This
would allow her to bypass the dominant rural castes both in and of state and local government;
likewise the urban commercial class. And, for their part, the previously voiceless poor would at last
gain both political worth and political weight.
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The programs created through Garibi Hatao, though carried out locally, were funded, developed,
supervised, and staffed by New Delhi and the Indian National Congress party. "These programs also
provided the central political leadership with new and vast patronage resources to be disbursed...
throughout the country." Scholars and historians now agree as to the extent of the failure of Garibi
Hatao in alleviating poverty - only about 4% of all funds allocated for economic development went to
the three main anti-poverty programs, and precious few of these ever reached the 'poorest of the
poor' - and the empty sloganeering of the program was mainly used instead to engender populist
support for Gandhi's re-election.
Corruption charges and verdict of electoral malpractice
Gandhi meeting with Shah of Iran Mohammad-Reza Pahlavi
and Shahbanu Farah Pahlavi during the laters' State visit to
India in 1970.
On 12 June 1975 the High Court of Allahabad declared Indira
Gandhi's election to the Lok Sabha void on grounds of
electoral malpractice. In an election petition filed by Raj
Narain (who later on defeated her in 1977 parliamentary
election from Rae Bareily), he had alleged several major as
well as minor instances of using government resources for
campaigning. The court thus ordered her to be removed from
her seat in Parliament and banned from running in elections for six years. The Prime Minister must
be a member of either the Lok Sabha (lower house in the Parliament of India) or the Rajya Sabha
(the upper house of the Parliament). Thus, this decision effectively removed her from office. Mrs
Gandhi had asked one of India's best legal minds and also one of her colleagues in government, Mr
Ashoke Kumar Sen to defend her in court. It has been written that Mrs Gandhi was told she would
only win if Mr. Sen appeared for her.
But Gandhi rejected calls to resign and announced plans to appeal to the Supreme Court. The verdict
was delivered by Mr. Justice Sinha at Allahabad High Court. It came almost four years after the case
was brought by Raj Narain, the premier's defeated opponent in the 1971 parliamentary election.
Gandhi, who gave evidence in her defence during the trial, was found guilty of dishonest election
practices, excessive election expenditure, and of using government machinery and officials for party
purposes. The judge rejected more serious charges of bribery against her.
Indira insisted the conviction did not undermine her position, despite having been unseated from
the lower house of parliament, Lok Sabha, by order of the High Court. She said: "There is a lot of talk
about our government not being clean, but from our experience the situation was very much worse
when [opposition] parties were forming governments". And she dismissed criticism of the way her
Congress Party raised election campaign money, saying all parties used the same methods. The
prime minister retained the support of her party, which issued a statement backing her. After news
of the verdict spread, hundreds of supporters demonstrated outside her house, pledging their
loyalty. Indian High Commissioner BK Nehru said Gandhi's conviction would not harm her political
career. "Mrs. Gandhi has still today overwhelming support in the country," he said. "I believe the
prime minister of India will continue in office until the electorate of India decides otherwise".
State of Emergency (1975-1977)
Gandhi moved to restore order by ordering the arrest of most of the opposition participating in the
unrest. Her Cabinet and government then recommended that President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
declare a state of emergency, because of the disorder and lawlessness following the Allahabad High
Court decision. Accordingly, Ahmed declared a State of Emergency caused by internal disorder,
based on the provisions of Article 352 of the Constitution, on 26 June 1975.
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Rule by decree
Within a few months, President's Rule was imposed on the two opposition party ruled states of
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu thereby bringing the entire country under direct Central rule or by
governments led by the ruling Congress party. Police were granted powers to impose curfews and
indefinitely detain citizens and all publications were subjected to substantial censorship by the
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Inder Kumar Gujral, a future prime minister himself,
resigned as Minister for Information and Broadcasting to protest Sanjay Gandhi's interference in his
work. Finally, impending legislative assembly elections were indefinitely postponed, with all
opposition-controlled state governments being removed by virtue of the constitutional provision
allowing for a dismissal of a state government on recommendation of the state's governor.
Indira used the emergency provisions to grant herself extraordinary powers.
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"Unlike her father [Jawaharlal Nehru], who preferred to deal with strong chief ministers in control of
their legislative parties and state party organizations, Mrs. Gandhi set out to remove every Congress
chief minister who had an independent base and to replace each of them with ministers personally
loyal to her...Even so, stability could not be maintained in the states..."
It is alleged that she further moved President Ahmed to issue ordinances that did not need to be
debated in Parliament, allowing her to rule by decree.
Simultaneously, Gandhi's government undertook a campaign to stamp out dissent including the
arrest and detention of thousands of political activists; Sanjay was instrumental in initiating the
clearing of slums around Delhi's Jama Masjid under the supervision of Jag Mohan, later Lt. Governor
of Delhi, which allegedly left thousands of people homeless and hundreds killed, and led to
communal embitterment in those parts of the nation's capital; and the family planning program
which forcibly imposed vasectomy on thousands of fathers and was often poorly administered.
Elections
After extending the state of emergency twice, in 1977 Indira Gandhi called for elections, to give the
electorate a chance to vindicate her rule. Gandhi may have grossly misjudged her popularity by
reading what the heavily censored press wrote about her. In any case, she was opposed by the
Janata Party. Janata, led by her long-time rival, Desai and with Jai Prakash Narayan as its spiritual
guide, claimed the elections were the last chance for India to choose between "democracy and
dictatorship." Indira's Congress party was beaten soundly. Indira and Sanjay Gandhi both lost their
seats, and Congress was cut down to 153 seats (compared with 350 in the previous Lok Sabha), 92 of
which were in the south.
Removal, arrest, and return
Mrs. Gandhi with M.G.

Ramachandran, Chief Minister
of Tamil Nadu. In the post-
emergency elections in 1977,
only the Southern states
returned Congress majorities.
1984 USSR commemorative stamp

The downfall of Indira Gandhi began after India won the war against Pakistan in 1971. The Allahabad
High Court found Indira Gandhi guilty with electoral corruption for the 1971 elections. In 1975, Indira
Gandhi called a State of Emergency under Article 352 in which she ordered the arrest of her
opposition, who later joined together and formed the Janata Party In 1977, Indira Gandhi and her
party, Indian National Congress, lost the election to the Janata Party, a coalition of virtually all of
Indira Gandhi’s opponents. After the elections, Gandhi found herself without work, income or
residence. The Congress Party split during the election campaign of 1977: veteran Gandhi supporters
like Jagjivan Ram and her most loyal Bahuguna and Nandini Satpathy - very close to Indira, the three
were compelled due to politicking and possibly circumstances created by Sanjay Gandhi - to part
ways. The prevailing rumour was that Sanjay had intentions of dislodging Indira. The Congress Party
was now a much smaller group in Parliament, although the official opposition.
Once the Janata Party came into power, they aimed to return all Indian citizens the freedoms taken
away when Indira Gandhi declared the State of Emergency. The leader of the Janata Party was
Jayaprakash Narayan who kept the party united. The other party leaders of the Janata Party were
Morarji Desai , Charan Singh , Raj Narain and Atal Bihari Vajpayee. Unable to govern owing to
Mobile No.: 7504820287
fractious coalition warfare, the Janata government's Home Minister, Choudhary Charan Singh,
ordered the arrest of Indira and Sanjay Gandhi on several charges, none of which would be easy to
prove in an Indian court. The arrest meant that Indira was automatically expelled from Parliament.
These allegations included that Indira Gandhi “‘had planned or thought of killing all opposition
leaders in jail during the Emergency’”. However, this strategy backfired disastrously. Her arrest and
long-running trial, however, gained her great sympathy from many people who had feared her as a
tyrant just two years earlier.The Janata coalition was only united by its hatred of Indira (or "that
woman" as some called her). With so little in common, the government was bogged down by
infighting and Gandhi was able to use the situation to her advantage. She began giving speeches
again, tacitly apologizing for "mistakes" made during the Emergency. Jayaprakash Narayan died on 8
October 1979, which broke the unity of the Janata Party and Desai took his place. Desai resigned in
35
June 1979, and Charan Singh was appointed Prime Minister by Reddy after Gandhi promised that
Congress would support his government from outside.
After a short interval, she withdrew her initial support and President Reddy dissolved Parliament in
the winter of 1979. In elections held the following January, Congress was returned to power with a
landslide majority.
In the 1980s, Money meant for aid given by Mrs. Gandhi was used by the LTTE and other Tamil
militant groups in Sri Lanka Although Mrs. Gandhi never meant to give the support to terrorism , she
gave it to groups for aid for Tamils but these groups went ahead and transferred the installments to
the LTTE without her knowledge.
Currency crisis
During the early 1980s, Indira's administration failed to arrest the 40 percent fall in the value of the
Indian Rupee from 7 to 12 to the US Dollar.
Operation Blue Star and assassination
Indira Gandhi's blood-stained Saree and her belongings at the
time of her assassination, preserved at the Indira Gandhi
Memorial Museum in New Delhi.
In June 1984, Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale's Sikh group
occupied the Golden Temple. In response, on 6 June 1984,
during one of the holiest Sikh holidays, enacting Operation
Blue Star, the Indian army opened fire, killing a disputed
number of Sikh militants along with supporters of
Bhindranwale. The State of Punjab was closed to international
media, Sikh devotees, human rights organizations, and other groups during the period. On 31
October 1984, two of Gandhi's bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant Singh, assassinated her with
their service weapons in the garden of the Prime Minister's residence at 1 Safdarjung Road, New
Delhi as she was walking past a wicket gate guarded by Satwant and Beant. She was to be
interviewed by the British actor Peter Ustinov, who was filming a documentary for Irish television.
According to information immediately following the incident, Beant Singh shot her three times using
his side-arm, and Satwant Singh fired 30 rounds using a Sten submachine gun. Beant Singh and
Satwant Singh dropped their weapons and surrendered. Afterwards they were taken away by other
guards into a closed room where Beant Singh was shot dead as he tried to capture one of the guard's
weapons. While Satwant Singh was arrested at the site of assassination, Kehar Singh was later
arrested for conspiracy in the assassination. Both were sentenced to death and hanged in Tihar jail
in Delhi.
Gandhi died on her way to the hospital, the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, where doctors
operated on her. Official accounts at the time stated as many as 19 entry and exit wounds and some
reports stated 16 bullets were extracted from her body. She was cremated on 3 November near Raj
Ghat. Her funeral was televised live on domestic and international stations including the BBC.
Personal life
Initially Sanjay had been her chosen heir; but after his death in a flying accident, his mother
persuaded a reluctant Rajiv Gandhi to quit his job as a pilot and enter politics in February 1981.
Indira was known for her closeness with his personal yoga guru Dhirendra Brahmachari, who has not
only helped her in taking certain decisions but also executed certain top level political tasks on her
behalf, especially during the emergency
After Indira Gandhi's death, Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister. In May 1991, he too was
assassinated, this time at the hands of Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. Rajiv's widow, Sonia Gandhi,
led the United Progressive Alliance to a surprise electoral victory in the 2004 Lok Sabha elections.
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Sonia Gandhi declined the opportunity to assume the office of Prime Minister but remains in control
of the Congress' political apparatus; Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, formerly finance minister,
now heads the nation. Rajiv's children, Rahul Gandhi and Priyanka Gandhi Vadra, have also entered
politics. Sanjay Gandhi's widow, Maneka Gandhi - who fell out with Indira after Sanjay's death and
was famously thrown out of the Prime Minister's house - as well as Sanjay's son, Varun Gandhi, are
active in politics as members of the main opposition BJP party.
Legacy
Being the first woman Prime Minister of India, and an influential leader, in a prevalently male-
dominated society, Indira Gandhi is a symbol of feminism in India. As per economic surveys, when
Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister, 65% of the country's population was below the poverty line,
and when her regime ended in 1984, this figure was 45%. During her rule, food production increased
36
by 250%. Literacy was also increased in India by 30%.
The goodwill of the rural population earned by Gandhi still has its effects on the success of the
Congress Party in rural India, as well as the popular support of the Nehru-Gandhi Family. She is
reverently remembered in many parts of rural India as Indira-Amma ("Amma" means "mother" in
many Indian languages). Her Garibi Hatao slogan is still used by the Congress during political
campaigns. The present president of the Indian National Congress, Sonia Gandhi, who is also the
daughter-in-law of Indira Gandhi, is said to style herself in resemblance to her.
The Indira Awaas Yojana, a programme of the central government to provide low-cost housing to
rural poor, is named after her. The international airport at New Delhi is named as the Indira Gandhi
International Airport in her honour.
Indira Gandhi enjoys widespread popularity in Russia and other former Soviet states like Ukraine and
Georgia as a symbol of feminism. Many girls in these countries have been named Indira.
6. Morarji Desai (1896-1995)
Mar 24, 1977  Jul 28, 1979
7. Chaudhary Charan Singh (1902-1987)
Jul 28, 1979  Jan 14, 1980
Chaudhary Charan Singh (Hindi: चौधरी चरण र् हं Caudharī Caraṇ Siṅh; 23 December 1902 – 29 May
1987) was the sixth Prime Minister of the Republic of India, serving from 28 July 1979 until 14
January 1980.
Born into a Kshatriya Jaat family of Tevatia clan in 1902, Charan Singh entered politics as part of the
Independence Movement. After independence he became particularly notable in the 1950s for
opposing and winning a battle against Nehru's socialistic and collectivist land use policies, for the
sake of the Indian Farmer, which endeared him to the agrarian communities throughout the nation,
particularly in his native Uttar Pradesh.
The leader of the Bharatiya Lok Dal, a major constituent of the Janata coalition, he was disappointed
in his ambition to become Prime Minister in 1977 by Jayaprakash Narayan's choice of Morarji Desai.
He settled at the time for the largely honorary post of Deputy Prime Minister of India. However, the
internal stresses of the coalition's government caused him to leave the government with the former
Lok Dal, after being promised by Mrs. Gandhi the support of the Congress Party on the floor of the
House in any efforts to form a government. He was sworn in as Prime Minister with the support of
just 64 MPs.
During his term as Prime Minister the Lok Sabha never met. The day before the Lok Sabha was due
to meet for the first time the Indian National Congress withdrew their support from his Bharatiya
Lok Dal Government. Choudhary Charan Singh resigned and fresh elections were held six months
later.
He continued to lead the Lok Dal in opposition till his death in 1987, when he was succeeded as
party president by his son Ajit Singh. His association with the causes dear to farming communities in
the North caused his memorial in New Delhi to be named Kisan Ghat. (In Hindi, Kisan is the word for
farmer.)
The university of Meerut city in Uttar Pradesh, India is named after him (Chaudhary Charan Singh
University).
Early Years - Pre Independence India
Charan Singh's ancestor was the prominent leader of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Raja Nahar Singh
of Ballabhgarh (in present day Haryana). Maharaja Nahar Singh was sent to the gallows in Chandni
Chowk, Delhi. In order to escape the oppression from the British Government following their defeat,
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the Maharaja's followers, including Charan Singh's grandfather moved eastward to district
Bulandshaher in Uttar Pradesh.
Charan Singh was born on 23 December 1902 in village Noorpur, town Hapur, Ghaziabad district of
Uttar Pradesh. He was a good student, and received a Masters of Arts degree in 1925 and Law
degree in 1926 from Meerut University.
In February 1937 he was elected Chhaprouli (Baghpat) to the Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh
(United Provinces) at the age of 34. In 1938 he introduced an Agricultural Produce Market Bill in the
Assembly which was published in the issues of The Hindustan Times of Delhi dated 31 March 1938.
The Bill was intended to safeguard the interests of the farmers against the rapacity of the traders.
The Bill was adopted by most of the States in India, Punjab being the first state to do so in 1940.
Charan Singh followed Mahatma Gandhi in non-violent struggle for independence from the British
37
Government, and was imprisoned several times. In 1930 he was sent to jail for 6 months by the
British for contravention of the salt laws. He was jailed again for one year in November 1940 for
individual Satyagraha Movement. In August 1942 he was jailed again by the British under DIR and
released in November 1943.
Independent India
In 1952, he became the Revenue Minister of state of Uttar Pradesh, the most populous state in
independent India. He was dedicated to enforcing and implementing the provisions of the Zamindari
Abolition and Land Reform Act of which he was the major architect. It has been argued by leading
political scientists that success of Indian Democracy lies in successful implementation of this reform.
Pakistan on the other hand did not have similar reforms, and the power is concentrated amongst the
few powerful landlords or Zamindar who run their lands as their private fiefdom, and uses their
influence to further their wealth.
Charan Singh opposed Nehru on his Soviet Style Economic reform. Charan Singh was of the opinion
that cooperative farms would not succeed in India. Being a son of a farmer, Charan Singh opined
that the right of ownership was important to the farmer in remaining a cultivator. Charan Singh's
political career suffered due to his open criticism of Nehru's economic policy.
Charan Singh left the Congress party in 1967, and formed his own political party. With the help and
support of Raj Narain and Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya, he became Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh in
1967, and later in 1970. In 1975, he was jailed again, but this time by then Indian Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi, daughter of his former rival Nehru. She had declared the state of 'Indian Emergency
(1975-1977)' and jailed all her political opponents. The Indian populace voted her out, and the
opposition party, of which Chaudhary Charan Singh was a senior leader, came into power. He served
as Deputy prime minister and home minister in Janata government headed by Morarji Desai.
In the year 1979 after Morarji Desai resigned, everybody who came with Raj Narain wanted him to
sworn in as the Prime Minister and so Raj Narain was unanimously elected as president of Janata
Party Secular (Raj Narain). Mrs. Gandhi also wanted Raj Narain to become Prime Minister then, for
many reasons. As Raj Narain promised Chaudhary Charan Singh to make him Prime Minister one
day, the way he made him Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh earlier in 1967. Raj Narain chose to be the
Chairman of Janata Party Secular and made Chaudhary Charan Singh as its president. With the
support of Raj Narain and Congress (I), Chaudhary Charan Singh became Prime Minister in 1979 after
Morarji Desai. His speech to the nation on India's Independence Day (15 August 1979) was very
prophetic in which he identified Pakistan's nuclear ambition as a major threat to India. He also
mentioned that Indian labour laws had to be refined if India were to become competitive in world
economy. He also opened high level diplomatic relations with Israel, which Indira Gandhi's
government which took office following the 1980 elections curtailed.'
Charan Singh died on 29 May 1987. He was survived by his wife, Gayatri Devi and 6 children. His
grandson Jayant Chaudhary is recently elected to 15th Lok Sabha from Mathura
Charan Singh has written several books. Some of them are:
 India's Economic Policy - The Gandhian Blueprint
 Economic Nightmare of India - Its Cause and Cure
 Cooperative Farming X-rayed
8. Indira Gandhi
Jan 14, 1980  Oct 31, 1984
9. Rajiv Gandhi (1944-1991)
Oct 31, 1984  Dec 1, 1989
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10. Vishwanath Pratap Singh(1931- alive)
Dec 2, 1989  Nov 10, 1990
Vishwanath Pratap Singh (Hindi: प्रवश्वनाथ िताप र् हं ) (25 June 1931 – 27
November 2008) was the 8th Prime Minister of the Republic of India and
the 41st Raja Bahadur of Manda.
Early life
He was born in the Rajput Gaharwal Royal Family of Manda to Raja
Bhagwati Prasad Singh of Daiya and was later adopted by Raja Bahadur Ram
Gopal Singh of Manda in 1936, whom he succeeded in 1941. V. P. Singh
studied at Colonel Brown School, Dehradun for five years, and entered local 38
politics in Allahabad during the Nehru era. He married Rani Sita Kumari,
born 1936 in Deogarh, Udaipur, daughter of Rawat Sangram Singh II of
Deogarh on 25 June 1955. He soon made a name for himself in the state
Congress Party for his unfailing rectitude, a reputation that he would carry with him throughout his
career.
Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh
He was appointed by Indira Gandhi as the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh in 1980, when the
Congress came back to power after the Janata Party interregnum. As Chief Minister, he cracked
down hard on the dacoity, or banditry, problem that was particularly severe in the rural districts of
the south-west. He received much favorable national publicity when he offered to resign following a
self-professed failure to stamp out the problem, and again when he personally oversaw the
surrender of some of the most feared dacoits of the area in 1983.
Cabinet Minister for Finance and Defence
Called to the Centre following Rajiv Gandhi's massive mandate in the 1984 General elections, he was
appointed to the pivotal post of Finance Minister, where he oversaw the gradual relaxation of the
license Raj as Rajiv had in mind. During his term as Finance Minister, he oversaw the reduction of
gold smuggling by reducing gold taxes and the excellent tactic of giving the police a portion of the
smuggled gold that they found. He also gave extraordinary powers to the Enforcement Directorate
of the Finance Ministry, the wing of the ministry charged with tracking down tax evaders, then
headed by Bhure Lal. Following a number of high-profile raids on suspected evaders - including
Dhirubhai Ambani and Amitabh Bachchan - Rajiv was forced to sack him as Finance Minister,
possibly because many of the raids were conducted on industrialists who had supported the
Congress financially in the past. However, Singh's popularity was at such a pitch that only a sideways
move seemed to have been possible, to the Defence Ministry.
Once ensconced in South Block, Singh began to investigate the notoriously murky world of defence
procurement. After a while, word began to spread that Singh possessed information about the
Bofors defence deal that could damage the Prime Minister's reputation. Before he could act on it, he
was dismissed from the Cabinet and, in response, resigned his memberships in the Congress Party
and the Lok Sabha.
In Opposition
Janata Dal
Together with associates Arun Nehru and Arif Mohammad Khan, Singh floated an opposition party
named the Jan Morcha. He was re-elected to Lok Sabha in a tightly contested by-election from
Allahabad, defeating Sunil Shastri. On 11 October 1988, the birthday of the original Janata coalition's
spiritual leader Jayaprakash Narayan, the Janata Dal was formed by merger of Jan Morcha, Janata
Party, Lok Dal and Congress (S), in order to bring together all the centrist parties opposed to the
Rajiv Gandhi government, and V. P. Singh was elected the President of the Janata Dal. A federation
of the Janata Dal with various regional parties including the DMK, TDP, and AGP, came into being,
called the National Front (India), with V. P. Singh as convener and N. T. Rama Rao as President.
General Elections of 1989
The National Front fought the elections in 1989 after coming to an electoral understanding with the
right-wing Bharatiya Janata Party and the Communist Left Front that served to unify the anti-
Congress vote. The National Front, with its allies, earned a simple majority in the Lok Sabha and
decided to form a government. The Communists and the BJP declined to serve in the government,
preferring to support it from outside.
Election as Prime Minister
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In a dramatic meeting in the Central Hall of Parliament on 1 December, V. P. Singh proposed the
name of Devi Lal as Prime Minister, in spite of the fact that he himself had been clearly projected by
the anti-Congress forces as the 'clean' alternative to Rajiv and their Prime Ministerial candidate. Devi
Lal, a Jat leader from Haryana stood up and refused the nomination, and said that he would prefer
to be an 'elder uncle' to the Government, and that Singh should be PM. This last part came as a clear
surprise to Chandra Shekhar, the former head of the erstwhile Janata Party, and Singh's greatest
rival within the Janata Dal. Shekhar, who had clearly expected that an agreement had been forged
with Lal as the consensus candidate, stormed out of the meeting and refused to serve in the Cabinet.
Singh held office for slightly less than a year, from 2 December 1989 to 10 November 1990.
Prime minister
Punjab, Kashmir and Pakistan
39
He faced his first crisis within few days of taking office: terrorists kidnapped the daughter of his
Home Minister, Mufti Mohammad Sayeed (Former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir). His
government agreed to the demand for releasing militants in exchange; partly to end the storm of
criticism that followed, he shortly thereafter appointed Jagmohan, a controversial former
bureaucrat, as Governor of Jammu and Kashmir, on the insistence of the BJP who were concerned
that an insufficiently hard line was being taken with the separatist elements in the state. Jagmohan
subsequently inflamed opinion in the Valley when he ordered troops to fire on the funeral
procession of the unofficial head of Kashmiri Islam, the Mirwaiz. In contrast, in Punjab, Singh
replaced the hardline Siddhartha Shankar Ray as Governor with another former bureaucrat, Nirmal
Kumar Mukarji, who moved forward on a timetable for fresh elections. Singh himself made a much-
publicised visit to the Golden Temple to ask forgiveness for Operation Bluestar and the combination
of events caused the long rebellion in Punjab to die down markedly in a few months. V. P. Singh also
withdrew the IPKF from Sri Lanka and thwarted the efforts of Pakistan under Benazir Bhuto to start a
border war.
Reservation for Backward Classes
Singh himself wished to move forward nationally on social justice-related issues, which would in
addition consolidate the caste coalition that supported the Janata Dal in North India, and accordingly
decided to implement the recommendations of the Mandal Commission which suggested that a
fixed quota of all jobs in the public sector be reserved for members of the historically disadvantaged
so-called Other Backward Classes. (Generally abbreviated OBCs, these were Hindu castes, and
certain non-Hindu caste-like communities, which, though not untouchable, had been socially and
educationally backward). This decision led to widespread protests among the youth in urban areas in
North India.
Tussle with Dhirubhai Ambani
In 1990, the government-owned financial institutions like the Life Insurance Corporation of India and
the General Insurance Corporation stonewalled attempts by the Reliance group to acquire
managerial control over Larsen & Toubro. Sensing defeat, the Ambanis resigned from the board of
the company. Dhirubhai, who had become L&T's chairman in April 1989, had to quit his post to make
way for D. N. Ghosh, former chairman of the State Bank of India.
Babri Masjid
Meanwhile the BJP was moving its own agenda forward: in particular, the Ram Janmabhoomi
agitation, which served as a rallying cry for several radical Hindu organizations, took on new life. The
party president, Lal Krishna Advani, toured the northern states on a rath - a bus converted to look
like a mythical chariot - with the intention of drumming up support. Before he could complete the
tour by reaching the disputed site in Ayodhya, he was arrested on Singh's orders on the charges of
disturbing the peace and fomenting communal tension. The kār-seva (Construction of Ram temple at
Ramjanmasthan) proposed by Advani on 30 October 1990 was prevented by stationing troops at the
site. This led to the BJP's suspension of support to the National Front government. V. P. Singh faced
the vote of confidence saying that he occupied the high moral ground, as he stood for secularism,
had saved the Babri Masjid at the cost of power and had upheld the fundamental principles which
were challenged during the crises; `What kind of India do you want?', he asked of his opponents of
various shades in Parliament before losing the vote 142-346; only the portion of the National Front
remaining loyal to him (see below) and the Left front supported him in the vote.
Chandra Shekhar
Chandra Shekhar immediately seized the moment and left the Janata Dal with several of his own
supporters to form the Samajwadi Janata Party or the Socialist People's Party. Although he had a
mere 64 MPs, Rajiv Gandhi, the leader of the Opposition, agreed to support him on the floor of the
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House; so he won a confidence motion and was sworn in as Prime Minister. He lasted only a few
months before Gandhi withdrew support and fresh elections were called. He tried his best to get
support till the last minute but failed.
Aftermath
Singh contested the new elections but his party was relegated to the opposition chiefly due to the
assassination of Rajiv Gandhi during the election campaign, and he later retired from active politics.
He spent the next few years touring the country speaking about matters related to issues of social
justice and his artistic pursuits, chiefly painting. In the H. D. Deve Gowda and I. K. Gujral
governments of the late 1990s, Singh acted as a sort of elder statesman and adviser for the
successors to the National Front coalition. In 1992, Singh was the first to propose the name of the
future President K. R. Narayanan as a (eventually successful) candidate for Vice President. Later the
40
same year in December, he led his followers to Ayodhya to oppose the Kar seva proposed by L. K.
Advani, and was arrested before he could reach the site; the Masjid was demolished by the kar
sevaks a few days later. He was diagnosed with cancer in 1998 and ceased his public appearances.
Jan Morcha relaunch
When his cancer went into remission in 2003, he once again became a visible figure, especially in the
many groupings that had inherited the space once occupied by his Janata Dal. Ironically, his caste-
based social justice policies had caused the rise of parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party that were
formed around caste identities; his own notion of populist socialism was thus squeezed out of the
electoral marketplace. To remedy this, he relaunched the Jan Morcha in 2006 with Raj Babbar as
President, and began the slow process of aggregation of smaller parties in the North with a view to
contesting the 2007 Uttar Pradesh elections.
Agitation at Dadri
Singh was placed under arrest in Ghaziabad as he and his supporters were proceeding towards a
hauling where prohibitory orders under Section 144 had been imposed to join the farmers agitating
against the acquisition of land at Dadri by the Anil Ambani-owned Reliance Industries and
demanding adequate compensation. Later, Singh and CPI General Secretary A. B. Bardhan were
again arrested on the U. P. border when they were proceeding to Dadri. However, Singh and Babbar
were later able to evade the police, reaching Dadri on 18 August 2006, and ploughing the land in
solidarity with the farmers.
Death
V. P. Singh died after a long struggle with multiple myeloma (bone marrow cancer) and renal failure
at Apollo Hospital in Delhi on 27 November 2008. He was cremated at Allahabad on the banks of the
River Ganges on 29 November 2008, his son Ajeya Singh lighting the funeral pyre. It is said that V. P.
Singh died after being alarmed about the terrorist Attacks.
National Jan Morcha
After the party drew a blank in the 2007 UP elections, Raj Babbar joined the Congress, and Singh's
elder son Ajeya Pratap Singh took over the reins of the party in anticipation of the 2009 General
elections. In March 2009 Ajeya Singh announced that Jan Morcha was to be merged with the Lok
Janshakti Party (LJP). Ajeya Singh and other members were inducted into the LJP and Ajeya was
declared a Vice President of the party and its candidate from Fatehpur Lok Sabha constituency.
However, later, Ram Vilas Paswan joined hands with the Samajwadi Party (SP) of Mulayam Singh
Yadav and the RJD of Laloo Prasad Yadav, to form a Fourth front, and Mulayam Singh declared that
the LJP would not contest any seats in UP. Ajeya Singh then contested as Jan Morcha candidate from
Fatehpur, but lost to Rakesh Sachan of the SP.
The Jan Morcha was renamed as the National Jan Morcha in June 2009 and dedicated to farmer's
causes and to forging a third alternative in national politics. A month later, the Jan Morcha merged
with the Indian National Congress.
Films on V.P.Singh
Juliet Reynolds, an art critic and a close friend of Singh, made a short documentary on him, titled The
Art of the Impossible (45 minutes long), and covers his political and artistic career.
Suma Josson made another film on Singh titled “One more day to live”.
Books on V.P.singh
 S. Bhargava: Perestroika in India: V. P. Singh's Prime minister ship, Gian publishing house,
New Delhi, 1990.
 Madan Gaur: V. P. Singh: portrait of a leader, Press and Publicity Syndicate of India, 1990.
 Seema Mustafa: The lonely prophet: V. P. Singh, a political biography, New Age international,
1995.
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 Ram Bahadur Rai: Manjil se jyada safar (in Hindi), 2005.
11. Chandra Sekhar (1927- alive)
Nov 10, 1990  Jun 21, 1991
12. P. V. Narsimha Rao (1921-alive)
Jun 21, 1991  May 16, 1996
13. Atal Bihari Bajpayee (1926-alive)
May 16, 1996 May 31, 1996
14. H. D. Deve Gauda (1933- alive) 41
May 31, 1996 April 10, 1997
15. I. K. Gujral (1919- alive)
Apr 10, 1997  Mar 18, 1998
16. Atal Bihari Bajpayee
Mar 18, 1998  Oct 13, 1999
th
17. Atal Bihari Bajpayee (13 PM of India)
Oct 13, 1999  May 22, 2004
th
18. Dr. Manmohan Singh (9 Dec. 1932)
May 22, 2004 May 26, 2014
19. Narendra Damodardas Modi (9th Dec. 1932)
May 26, 2014 till date
Research & Developed

by
Ranjit Patel
working as
Senior Revenue Assistant, Collectorate, Jharsuguda
since 08.12.2011.
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INDIAN HISTORY

Obsidianprojectile point A variety of stone tools

Ġgantija temples, Gozo. Some of the world’s oldest free standing

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A rock painting at Bhimbetka, India, a World heritage site

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Ahar town lies on the north-west face of

Sheikh-shahab tomb, Ahar, Iran

 Kayatha Culture (C. 2450-1700 B.C.)

19. Kanva Dynasty

xxvii. Sivaskanda Satakarni

MEDIEVAL INDIA (800-1200)

vii. Ala-ud-din Masud (1242-4246)

46. Sangam Dynasty (1336-1486)

63. Vijaynagar Empire (1336-1356)

 Aravidu Dynasty (1556-1672)

64. Bahamani Dynasty (1347-1527)

69. Mughal Empire

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13) William Butterworth Baylay (Officiating) (1828)

E. Revolt of the Primitive Tribes

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Teen Murti Bhavan, Nehru's residence as Prime

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Public viewing of Nehru's body, which lies in state, 1964

Nehru's statue in Aldwych, London.

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Jawaharlal Nehru on a 1989 USSR commemorative stamp

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Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the second President of India,

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Mrs. Gandhi with M.G.

1984 USSR commemorative stamp

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Research & Developed

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