Histology, Cytology, Embryology. Questions for exam. 3rd semester.

1. Cell cultivation. The main components of the culture medium. Types of cell
cultures.

Answer - Cell culture refers to the removal of cells from an animal or plant and their subsequent
growth in a favorable artificial environment.
The cells may be removed from the tissue directly and disaggregated by enzymatic or mechanical means
before cultivation.
- A medium that supplies the essential nutrients (amino acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals)
- Growth factors
- Hormones
- Gases (O2, CO2)
- A regulated physico-chemical environment (pH, osmotic pressure, temperature).
Most cells are anchorage-dependent and must be cultured while attached to a solid or semi-solid
substrate (adherent or monolayer culture), while others can be grown floating in the culture medium
(suspension culture).

2. Microscopy and its types. The principle of bright-field and dark-field

microscopy. Electron microscopy.

Answer – There are three basic types of microscopes: optical, charged particle (electron and ion),
and scanning probe.
Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples & objects that cannot be seen
with the unaided eye
Priniciple of Bright Field Microscope - To obtain an image of an object in the eyepiece of a microscope,
light must be passed through the object of observation or reflected.
Principle of Dark Field Microscope - When using the dark field method, even minor differences in the
refractive power of areas of the preparation are recorded.
Electron microscopy (EM) is a technique for obtaining high resolution images of biological and non-
biological specimens. The transmission electron microscope is used to view thin specimens (tissue
sections, molecules, etc) through which electrons can pass generating a projection image.

3. Cytometry, flow cytometry, cell sorters.

Answers - Cytometry is the measurement of the characteristics of cells. Variables that can be
measured by cytometric methods include cell size, cell count, cell morphology (shape and structure), cell
cycle phase, DNA content, and the existence or absence of specific proteins on the cell surface or in the
cytoplasm.
Cytometry is used to characterize and count blood cells in common blood tests such as the complete
blood count. In a similar fashion, cytometry is also used in cell biology research and in medical
diagnostics to characterize cells in a wide range of applications associated with diseases such as cancer
and AIDS.
Flow Cytometry is a technique that utilizes fluorescence or light scatter to detect and measure physical
properties & chemical properties on a single cell level.
Cell sorters are flow cytometers capable of sorting cells according to their characteristics. The sorting is
achieved by using technology similar to what is used in inkjet printers. The fluid stream is broken up into
droplets by a mechanical vibration.
The droplets are then electrically charged according to the characteristics of the cell contained within
the droplet. Depending on their charge, the droplets are finally deflected by an electric field into
different containers.

4. Preparation of the histological slide, main steps, chemicals.

Answer - The preparation of histological preparations includes several stages:

Taking material –
A good histological specimen must meet the following requirements:
- the examined tissue should retain its maximum lifetime structure,
- the cut must be thin and transparent so that light can pass through it,
- the studied microstructures must be clearly visible.
To do this, you need to provide:
1. Timely taking and proper fixation of the subject
material, minimal tissue trauma.
2. High-quality preparation and processing of slices.
3. The corresponding color of the studied preparation.
4. Objects to be examined must be fresh.
5. When excising pieces, you need to take into account the microscopic structure of that or other organ
or tissue.
7. Excision must be performed with sharp instruments.
8. No squeezing of the pieces, as well as cleaning organ surface.
9. Transfer the pieces to the fixing liquid on the knife blade.
10. All pieces are cut with a thickness of 0.5-1 cm, length and width have no values. If the laboratory has
modern histological or biopsy cassettes and special forms for pouring the thickness of the piece should
be no more 0.5cm.
Flushing –
The purpose of flushing is to remove the fixative or its deposits.
Fixation, dehydration -
The first step in the processing of pieces, cut from various organs and tissue for microscopic examination
is fixation.
Dehydration, which involves immersing your specimen in increasing concentrations of alcohol to
remove the water and formalin from the tissue.
Compaction,
Cutting of the preparation,
Staining, clarification and the conclusion of sections.
Chemicals - The most common stains used in histology are the following:
Routine stains. Haematoxylin & Eosin.
Special stains. Van Gieson. Toluidine Blue. Alcian Blue.

5. Basic and special histological stains: what structures do they visualize?

Answer – Hematoxylin - Stains nuclear components, including heterochromatin and nucleoli.

Eosin - Stains cytoplasmic components including collagen and elastic fibers, muscle fibers and RBC.
Van Gieson – It is used to demonstrate normal or pathologic elastic fibers.
Toluidine Blue - It stains nucleic acids blue and polysaccharides purple.
Giemsa – It stains the fungus Histoplasma, Chlamydia bacteria, and can be used to identify mast cells.

6. The principle of immunohistochemical research. Primary and secondary

antibodies.
 Answer -
7. The cell cycle. Periods. Mitosis and meiosis, stages, differences.

Answer - The cell cycle is the period of a cell's existence from the moment of its formation by division of the
mother cell to its own division or death.
The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of two periods:
The period of cell growth, called "interphase", during which the synthesis of DNA and protein takes place
and preparation for cell division is carried out.
The period of cell division, called "phase M" (mitosis).
During mitosis, the nucleus (karyokinesis) and the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) divide. Phases of mitosis:
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
Prophase. Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids connected by a centromere, the nucleolus
disappears. The centrioles organize the mitotic spindle. A pair of centrioles is part of the mitotic center,
from which microtubules extend radially. First, mitotic centers are located near the nuclear membrane,
and then diverge, and a bipolar mitotic spindle is formed.
This process involves pole microtubules interacting with each other as they elongate.
Prometaphase. The nuclear envelope disintegrates into small fragments. In the area of centromeres,
kinetochores appear, functioning as centers of organization of kinetochore microtubules. The departure of
kinetochores from each chromosome in both directions and their interaction with the pole microtubules of
the mitotic spindle is the reason for the movement of chromosomes.
Metaphase. Chromosomes are located at the spindle equator. A metaphase plate is formed, in which each
chromosome is held by a pair of kinetochores and associated kinetochore microtubules directed to the
opposite poles of the mitotic spindle.
Anaphase is the divergence of daughter chromosomes to the poles of the mitotic spindle at a rate of 1 μm
/ min.
Telophase. Chromatids approach the poles, kinetochore microtubules disappear, and the polar ones
continue to elongate. A nuclear envelope is formed, a nucleolus appears.
MEIOSIS
During meiosis, haploid gametes are formed.
The first division of meiosis (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I) is reduction.
The second division of meiosis - equational - proceeds in the same way as mitosis (prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase), but much faster.
Daughter cells receive a haploid set of chromosomes (22 autosomes and one sex chromosome).

8. Cell nucleus, Nucleolus, Chromatin. Structure and function.

Nucleus –
The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. The nucleus is composed of
various structures namely nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm or nucleus sap nuclear matrix, chromatin and
nucleolus. The nucleus controls and regulates the activities of the cell and carries the genes.

9. Membrane organelles of the cell: structure and function.

10.Ribosomes: structure and function.
11.Cell theory: theses, additions, criticism.

Answer - The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below : All living organisms are
composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms. Cells
arise from pre-existing cells.
A cell is an elementary, functional structural unit of all living things. A multicellular organism is a
complex system of many cells, united and integrated into systems of tissues and organs that are
connected with each other.
The cell is a single system, it includes many naturally interconnected elements, which represent an
integral formation, consisting of conjugated functional units - organelles.
The cells of all organisms are homologous (comparable).
The cell occurs only by division of the mother cell.
The life of an organism can and should be reduced to the sum of the lives of its constituent cells.
Additional Theses
The cells of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are systems of different levels of complexity and are not
completely homologous (comparable) to each other.
At the heart of cell division and reproduction of organisms is the copying of hereditary information -
DNA nucleic acid molecules ("each molecule from a molecule").
The statement of genetic continuity (“every cell from a cell”) applies not only to the cell as a whole, but
also to some of its smaller components - mitochondria, chloroplasts, genes and chromosomes.
Multicellular cells are totipotent, that is, they have the genetic potentials of all cells of a given organism,
are equivalent in genetic information, but differ from each other by different expression (work) of
various genes, which leads to their morphological and functional diversity - to differentiation.
Any painful change is associated with some pathological process in the cells that make up the body.
Criticism
The cellular structure is the main, but not the only form of existence of life. Viruses can be considered
non-cellular life forms.
True, the signs of living things (metabolism, the ability to reproduce, etc.) they show only inside the
cells, outside the cells the virus is a complex chemical substance.
According to most scientists, in their origin, viruses are associated with the cell, are part of its genetic
material, "run wild" genes.
It turned out that there are two types of cells - prokaryotic (cells of bacteria and archaebacteria), which do
not have a nucleus delimited by membranes, and eukaryotic (cells of plants, animals, fungi and protists),
which have a nucleus surrounded by a double membrane with nuclear pores.
In fact, in addition to cells in the body, there are multinucleated supracellular structures (syncytia,
symplasts) and a non-nuclear intercellular substance, which has the ability to metabolize and therefore is
alive.

12.Cell membrane: glycocalyx, proteins, receptors, transport and its types.

Answer - In animal cells, glycoproteins form a supramembrane complex, a glycocalyx, which is several
tens of nanometers thick. Extracellular digestion occurs in it, many cell receptors are located, with its
help, apparently, cell adhesion occurs.
Protein and lipid molecules are mobile, able to move mainly in the membrane plane. Membranes are
asymmetric, that is, the lipid and protein composition of the outer and inner surfaces of the membrane
is different.
Cells have proteins called receptors that bind to signaling molecules and initiate a physiological
response. Receptors are generally transmembrane proteins, which bind to signaling molecules outside
the cell and subsequently transmit the signal through a sequence of molecular switches to internal
signaling pathways.
There are three general categories of cell-surface receptors: ion channel-linked receptors, G-protein-
linked receptors, and enzyme-linked receptors.
Transporters (membrane transport/carrier proteins) are specialized membrane-spanning proteins that
assist in the movement of ions, peptides, small molecules, lipids and macromolecules across a biological
membrane.
Basic types of membrane transport, passive transport, facilitated diffusion (by channels and carriers),
and active transport.

13.Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

Answer - The main difference

Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, circular DNA (circular chromosome) is located directly in the
cytoplasm (this section of the cytoplasm is called a nucleoid).
Eukaryotes have a formed nucleus (hereditary information [DNA] is separated from the cytoplasm by
the nuclear envelope).
Additional differences
1) Since prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, then there is no mitosis / meiosis. Bacteria multiply by
dividing in two ("direct" division, as opposed to "indirect" - mitosis).
2) In prokaryotes, ribosomes are small (70S), and in eukaryotes, large (80S).
3) In prokaryotes, the cell wall consists of murein (peptidoglycan).
4) Prokaryotes lack membrane organelles (such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes,
etc.); instead, prokaryotes have mesosomes - outgrowths of the plasma membrane, similar to
mitochondrial cristae.
5) A prokaryotic cell is much smaller than a eukaryotic cell: 10 times in diameter, 1000 times in volume.

14. Features of the structure of epithelial tissue.

Answer - It is a tissue bordering between the body and the environment that performs several
functions: protective, secretory, transport etc.
ET is characterized by the following distinctive properties:
1. Borderline - ET covers the outer surfaces of organs and the inner surfaces of cavities, i. E. delimit the
internal environment of the body from the environment and the environment of the cavities.
2. Consists only of cells, the intercellular substance is practically absent.
3. The cells lie tightly to each other, forming a continuous layer.
4. Ep. always located on the basement membrane (carbohydrate-protein lipid complex with the finest
fibrils) and it is delimited from the underlying loose connective tissue.
5. Ep. does not have its own blood vessels, it feeds diffusely through the basement membrane, due to the
vessels of the underlying loose connective tissue.
6. The epithelium is characterized by heteropolarity - the apical (apex) and basal parts of the cells differ in
structure and function; and in the stratified epithelium there is a difference in the structure and function of
the layers.
7. Characteristically increased regenerative capacity due to borderline - more often than other tissues are
exposed to unfavorable factors and more often cells die, hence the need for high regenerative capacity.
8. Epithelial cells can have special purpose organelles:
- cilia (epithelium of the airways);
- microvilli (intestinal and kidney epithelium);
- tonofibrils (skin epithelium).

15. The main types of epithelium and their structural features, cellular
composition. Localization in the body and function.

Answer - There are three principal shapes of epithelial cell:

Squamous,
Cellular Composition : a single layer of flattened, polygonal cells in contact with the basal lamina of
the epithelium.
Structure : The simple squamous epithelium consists of cells that are thinly walled with a dense nucleus.
The cells are tightly packed with almost no intracellular spaces, forming a continuous sheet.
The shape and size of the cells are more or less similar to one another, although they are not identical to
each other.
Location: blood and lymphatic vessels, air sacs of lungs, lining of the heart Function: secrets lubricating
substance, allows diffusion and filtration
Function : to facilitate diffusion of gases and small molecules.
 Columnar,
Cellular Composition : made up of Glandular Goblet cells which secrete mucins to form mucin. the
rest of the cell is made up of cytoplasm with membrane bound secretory granules which secrete
the mucin.
Structure : Columnar epithelial cells are elongated and column-shaped and have a height of at least
four times their width. Their nuclei are elongated and are usually located near the base of the cells.
Location : lines most organs of the digestive tract including the stomach, and intestines.
Function : The primary function of the simple columnar epithelium includes secretion, absorption,
protection, and transportation of molecules.

Cuboidal,
Cellular Composition : Made of up of epithelial cells.
Structure : It is a single layer thick and made of cube-shaped cells. The cell nucleus is large,
spherical and is in the center of the cell.
Location : is found on the surface of ovaries, the lining of nephrons, the walls of the renal tubules,
parts of the eye and thyroid, and in salivary glands.
Function : secretion and absorption, forms the lining of kidney tubules and ducts of salivary glands,
where it provides mechanical support.

16. Features of the apical surface of cells in epithelial tissue. Types of

intercellular contacts in epithelial cells.

Answer – The apical surface of epithelial tissue refers to the outward facing side of the tissue made
up of the apical side of the epithelial cells.
Specialization of Apical Surface –
Cilia - membrane-covered organelles in columnar epithelium of the respiratory tract and uterine pipes,
(promote the movement of mucus)
Flagella - spermatozoa originate from the epithelium of the convolute tubules (before their separation
from the epithelium)
Microvilli - membrane-covered outgrowths cytoplasm to increase the area of the apical surface - an
increase in the area of absorption (epithelium of the small intestine and tubules of the nephron)
Stereocilia - long microvilli (in male reproductive system - epididymus and vas deferens - absorption
function, sensory function in the inner ear
Name Function
Tight Junction holds cells together, prevents molecules from
getting between them.
Gap Junction form channels between cells through which
molecules and ions pass.
Adherens Junction initiate cell-cell contacts, and mediate the
maturation and maintenance of the contact.
Adherens junctions consist of the
transmembrane protein E-cadherin, and
intracellular components, p120-catenin, beta-
catenin and alpha-catenin.

17. The main types of connective tissue, their differences from each other.
 Answer –

18. Cellular composition of connective tissue, structure and function of cells.

Answer - All connective tissue consists of three main components: fibers (elastic and collagen fibers),
ground substance and cells, fibroblast, macrophages, mast cells, adipocytes, plasma cells.
19. Extracellular matrix of connective tissue. Types of fibers and their
differences.
20. Extracellular matrix of connective tissue. The main substance, its
composition and function.
21. General properties and functions of blood. Blood composition, stages of
differentiation of blood cells.
 22. Red blood cells. Structure, functions, features, precursor cells. Hemoglobin
structure.
23. Platelets. Structure, functions, features, precursor cells.
24. Leukocytes. Types. Structure, functions, features, precursor cells.
25.What is the most important feature of extracellular matrix of bone tissue?
26.Structure and function of bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts.
27.Two main types of bone tissue, according to their extracellular matrix.
28.Structure of tubular bone.

Answer - The tubular bone consists of the epiphyses and the diaphysis. Outside, the diaphysis is
covered with the periosteum, or periosteum. In the periosteum, two layers are distinguished: the outer
(fibrous) layer - formed mainly by fibrous connective tissue and the inner (cellular) layer - contains stem
cells and young osteoblasts.
From the periosteum through the perforating canals, the vessels and nerves feeding the bone pass.
The periosteum connects the bone with the surrounding tissues and takes part in its nutrition,
development, growth and regeneration. The compact substance that forms the diaphysis of the
bone consists of bone plates, which form three layers:
- the outer layer of common plates. In it, the plates form 2-3 layers going around the diaphysis.
- the middle, osteonic layer - formed by concentrically layered bone plates around the vessels.
- the inner layer of common plates - 2-3 layers of the plates bordering the medullary cavity.
From the inside, the compact substance of the diaphysis is covered with an endosteum, which
has the same structure as the periosteum.

29.Three types of cartilages: differences and localization.

Answer - Depending on the structure of the intercellular substance, 3 types of cartilage tissue are
distinguished - hyaline, elastic and fibrous.
Hyaline cartilage is found in the synovial joints and assists the motion of joints. It is composed of
chondrocytes and extracellular matrix.
Fibrocartilage is the tough, very strong tissue found predominantly in the intervertebral disks and at the
insertions of ligaments and tendons; it is similar to other fibrous tissues but contains cartilage ground
substance and chondrocytes.
Elastic cartilage or yellow cartilage is a type of cartilage present in the pinnae (auricles) of the ear giving
it shape, provides shape for the lateral region of the external auditory meatus, medial part of the
auditory canal Eustachian tube, corniculate and cuneiform laryneal cartilages, and the epiglottis.

30.Chondroblasts and chondrocyte’s structure and function.

Answer - Cartilage tissue consists of cells and intercellular substance. Cartilage cells are called
chondroblasts and chondrocytes.
Chondroblasts have an oval shape, they are located singly along the periphery of the tissue.
chondroblasts create the main component that provides structure and strength to cartilage.
Chondrocytes - cells are larger, rounded, contain 1–2 nuclei, located in groups of 2–10 cells.
Chondrocytes in the AC proliferate and secrete extracellular matrix to maintain and sustain the
cartilage.
 31.The main morphological features of striated muscle tissue: function and
structure.
32.Describe the process of muscle contraction (striated muscles).

Answer - There are two main varieties of striated (striated) tissues - skeletal (myotomic) and cardiac
(coelomic).

33.What are the differences between heart and skeletal muscles?

34. Three types of skeletal muscle fibers: differences.

35. Smooth muscle tissue: structure, process of contraction.

Answer - The structure of definitive smooth myocytes (leiomyocytes) that make up internal organs
and vascular walls, has a lot in common, but at the same time characterized by heteromorphism. So, in
the walls of veins and arteries, ovoid are found, fusiform, process myocytes 10-40 microns long,
sometimes reaching 140 microns.
Smooth myocytes reach their greatest length in the wall of the uterus - up to 500 microns. Diameter
myocytes range from 2 to 20 microns. Depending on the nature of the intracellular biosynthetic
processes distinguish between contractile and secretory myocytes. The first specialized in the function
of contraction, but at the same time retain the secretory activity.
Myocytes are surrounded by a basement membrane. In some areas, it forms “Windows”, therefore
plasmolemmas of neighboring myocytes approach each other.
Here are formed nexuses, and not only mechanical, but also metabolic communication.
On top of the "covers" from the basement membrane between myocytes pass elastic and reticular fibers
that unite cells into a single tissue complex.

36. Neurons: structure, types, special organelles.

Answer - Neurons, or neurocytes, are specialized cells of the nervous system responsible for
receiving, processing stimuli, conducting impulses and influencing other neurons, muscle or secretory
cells.
By the number of processes, they are distinguished:
1 - unipolar neurons with only an axon, 2 - bipolar, with an axon and one dendrite, 3 - multipolar, having an axon
and many dendrites. Most neurons are multipolar.
By function, neurocytes are divided into:
afferent (receptor, sensitive, centripetal) - perceive and transmit impulses to the central nervous system
under the influence of the internal or external environment;
associative (insertion) - connect neurons of different types;
effector (efferent) - motor (motor) or secretory - transmit impulses from the central nervous system to the
tissues of the working organs, prompting them to act.
Structure –
The cytoplasm contains a well-defined granular EPR, ribosomes, lamellar complex, and mitochondria.
Special organelles:
Basophilic substance (chromatophilic substance or tigroid substance, or substance / substance / Nissl lumps).
Neurofibrils.
Inclusions: glycogen, enzymes, pigments.
Special Organelles - nucleus, nucleolus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria,
ribosomes, lysosomes, endosomes, and peroxisomes.

37. What types of glial cells do you know?

Answer - The total glial cell population can be subdivided into four major groups: (1) microglia, (2)
astrocytes, (3) oligodendrocytes, and (4) their progenitors NG2-glia.
Glial cells provide the activity of neurons, playing a supporting role.
Performs functions:
support,
trophic,
delimiting,
maintaining the constancy of the environment around the neurons
protective,
secretory.

38. Structure of chemical synapse.

Answer -
 39.Common information about digestive system: organs, regions.

Answer - Two components of digestive system: alimentary tract and alimentary glands.
Alimentary tract (digestive tube) contains:
1 - oral cavity, 2 - pharynx, 3 - esophagus, 4 – stomach
Small intestine (subdivided: 5 - duodenum, 6 - jejunum, 7- ileum)
Large intestine (subdivided: 8 – cecum, 9 – appendix, 10 - ascending colon, 11 -transverse colon,
12 - descending colon, 13 - sigmoid colon, 14 – rectum)
Alimentary glands contain:
Salivary glands – 15 - parotid glands, 16 - submandibular glands, 17 – sublingual glands
18 – liver, 19 – gallbladder, 20 - bile ducts, 21 – exocrine part of pancreas
Also digestive system can be subdivided into three regions:
A - Anterior region:
1 - oral cavity, 2 - pharynx, 3 – esophagus,
15 - parotid glands, 16 - submandibular glands, 17 – sublingual glands
B - Median region:
Small intestine (subdivided: 5 - duodenum, 6 - jejunum, 7- ileum)
Large intestine (subdivided: 8 – cecum, 9 – appendix, 10 - ascending colon, 11 -transverse
colon, 12 - descending colon, 13 - sigmoid colon, 14 – rectum except caudal part)
Salivary glands – 15 - parotid glands, 16 - submandibular glands, 17 – sublingual glands
18 – liver, 19 – gallbladder, 20 - bile ducts, 21 – exocrine part of pancreas
C - Posterior region:
14 - caudal part of rectum (anal canal)

40.Digestive tube general plan: layers, sublayers

Answer – The digestive tract is a muscular tube, covered with an adventitious or serous
membrane on the outside surface, and different types of epithelium inside.
At almost any level, the digestive tube is represented by the following layers:
I - mucous layer
Shell can form folds, crypts, villi & pits
 The Epithelium – Anterior : Keratnizing, Stratified Flat, Mostly Non-Keratinizing, Posterior :
Cubic, Keratnizing, Non Keratnizing. Medial Part : Single Layer Cylindrical.
Secretory Epithelium – Endocrinocytes(Mucous forming Goblet cells in the Intestine and
Stomach) & Exocrinocytes(Hormonal Substances into blood).
Lamina Propria - Its basis is loose fibrous connective tissue. It contains blood and lymphatic plexuses,
nerve endings, accumulations of lymphoid tissue.
, and
Muscular Mucosa- 1-3 layers of smooth myocytes.

II – Submucosa - Its basis is loose fibrous connective tissue. It contains blood and lymphatic plexuses,
nerve endings, in places - accumulations of lymphoid tissue.

III - Muscular layer - Two layers of muscle elements: the outer longitudinal and the inner circular.

IV - Outer layer (adventitia or serous membrane) - In the pharynx, thoracic esophagus and the end
of the rectum, the outer shell is adventitious. In the rest of the digestive tube, the outer shell is called
serous.

41.Mucous layer: sublayers, distinctive features of mucous membrane relief and

epithelium in different parts of digestive tube.

Answer – Sublayers – Epithlial, Lamina Propria, Muscular Mucosa.

Mucus, viscous fluid that moistens, lubricates, and protects many of the passages of the digestive and
respiratory tracts in the body. Mucus is composed of water, epithelial (surface) cells, dead leukocytes,
mucin, and inorganic salts.
Epithelium type:
1.In the anterior part of the digestive tube (in the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus), the epithelium is
stratified flat, in places (in some parts of the oral cavity) keratinizing, but mostly non-keratinizing (4A).
2.In the median section of the tube (i.e. from the stomach until the hemorrhoidal rectum), the
epithelium is single-layer cylindrical (4B).
3.In the posterior part of the tube (in the anal part of the rectum), the epithelium again becomes
multilayer: first cubic, then flat non-keratinizing and, finally (in the skin of the intestine), flat keratinizing.

42.Oral mucosa types and their localization.

Answer - The mucous membrane of those of the named structures, where it is present, is divided into
three types:
- lining type - on the inner side of the lips, cheeks (1) (except for the midline), in the floor of the mouth,
on the oral surface of the soft palate (3) and the lower surface of the tongue;
- chewing type - on the gums and the oral surface of the hard palate (2);
- specialized type - on the dorsal (i.e., upper (4) and lateral) surface of the tongue.

43. Tongue: layers, papillae, glands.

Answers - Tongue - muscular organ covered on free surfaces with a mucous membrane. It is based on
striated skeletal muscles running in mutually perpendicular directions: longitudinal, transverse, vertical.
The mucous membrane on the back of the tongue consists of 2 layers: 1) a multilayer flat, partially
keratinized epithelium and 2) its lamina propria.
On the upper and lateral surfaces of the tongue, the mucous membrane forms numerous outgrowths –
Papillae.
 Filiform papillae are the most numerous, located over the entire surface of the dorsum of the tongue.
Covered with stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium.
Fungiform papillae are located between the filiform papillae. Covered with stratified squamous non-
keratinizing epithelium.
Foliate papillae are located along the edges of the dorsum of the tongue. Covered with stratified
squamous non-keratinizing epithelium.
Circumvallate papillae are located on the border between the body and the root of the tongue. Covered
with a multilayer flat non-keratinized epithelium.
3 major pairs of salivary glands that differ in the type of secretion they produce:
Parotid glands produce a serous, watery secretion.
Submaxillary (mandibular) glands produce a mixed serous and mucous secretion.
Sublingual glands secrete a saliva.

44.Tooth: parts, solid substances.

Answer - There are three parts to each tooth:
- root - one or more, - immersed in the alveolar cell (I) of the jaw,
- neck - a narrow middle part, covered by the gum,
- crown - the outer part that comes out of the gum.

• b) Three tissues are distinguished in the solid substance of the tooth.

• I. Dentin (5) - forms the main part of the root wall (1), neck (2) and crown (3).
• II. Enamel - covers the dentin in the crown area, reaching 3-5 mm in thickness.
• III. Cement - covers the dentin in the root and neck area with a layer of about 1 mm thick.
• c) The enamel, in turn, is covered with a very thin cuticle.
• d) And around the cement is the periodontium, or percement (2A), - a ligament formed by dense
connective tissue, which is no longer part of the tooth, but connects it to the alveoli of the jawbone (I).

45.Salivary glands: localization, ducts, terminal sections, capsule, lobes.

Answer - a) Parotid glands (1) are located on the outer surface of the branch of the lower jaw, consist of
seven lobules and open with their excretory duct on the eve of the mouth, at the level of the upper 7th
tooth. The external carotid artery forms its two terminal branches within the parotid gland: maxillary
and superficial temporal artery.
b) Submandibular glands (2) lie in the submandibular fossa, partially emerging from under the edge of
the lower jaw, consist of 10 lobules, and their excretory duct opens on the hyoid meatus.
c) Sublingual glands (3) are located under the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth, break into
18–20 small lobules and open with the main excretory ducts also on the sublingual meatus, and with
small ducts in the sublingual fold.
a) Stroma. Outside, the glands are covered with a dense connective tissue capsule. From it there are
layers that divide the glands into lobules and contain interlobular ducts and blood vessels.
b) The structure of the glands. According to the morphological classification, the salivary glands are
complex branched. This means that they have branched and excretory ducts (hence - the definition of
"complex"), and end sections (hence - the term "branched").
All types of terminal sections contain, in addition to exocrinocytes, also myoepithelial cells. Their name
is due to the fact that, on the one hand, they are of epithelial origin, and on the other hand, they have a
contractile ability.
 46.Pharynx: layers, epithelium in different regions.

Answer - In the nasal region, the mucous membrane is covered with multi-row ciliated epithelium
characteristic of the respiratory tract.
In the oral and laryngeal regions, both the mucous membrane and other layers of the wall have a
structure typical for the digestive tube.
I. The mucous membrane includes stratified squamous non-keratinizing epithelium and its own
plate formed by loose fibrous connective tissue.
II. The submucosa is located deeper; it contains the end sections of the mucous glands.
III. The submucosa is adjacent to the muscular wall of the pharynx. This wall is analogous to the
muscular membrane (existing in the subsequent sections of the digestive tube) and consists of
two layers of striated skeletal muscles.
IV. Finally, outside is the adventitia.

47.Esophagus: features of structure, layers, sublayers, muscle layer, epithelium,

outer shell.

Answer – Connects the laryngeal part of the pharynx with the stomach cavity.
a) It has three constrictions: at the junction of the pharynx into the esophagus, approximately in the
middle - at the junction with the aorta, at the place of passage through the diaphragm.
b) On the inner surface of the esophagus, the mucous membrane and submucosa form 7-10
longitudinal folds. With the passage of food, the corresponding part of the esophagus expands and the
folds are straightened.
Epithelium in the esophagus as soft walls of the oral cavity and in the pharynx, - multilayer flat non-
keratinizing.
In two parts of the esophagus - at the level of the cricoid cartilage of the larynx and at the entrance to
the stomach - in its own plate lie the cardiac glands of the esophagus
Muscle plate of the mucous membrane:
- in the upper third of the esophagus, it is represented by separate longitudinal bundles of smooth
myocytes;
- in the lower parts of the esophagus, the bundles merge into a single plate.
In addition to the glands, the submucosa contains large networks of blood and lymphatic vessels, nerve
plexuses, and lymphoid formations.

48.Stomach: sections, parts, layers, distinctive features of cardiac and pyloric

parts, muscle layer, types of cells and their functions.

Answer – Sections :
the cardiac part (I) adjacent to the entrance to the stomach;
bottom (fundus), or arch (II);
body (III); t
the pyloric part (IV)
Parts :
The cardia is the top part of your stomach.
The fundus is a rounded section next to the cardia.
The body (corpus) is the largest section of your stomach. ...
The antrum lies below the body.
The pylorus is the bottom part of your stomach.
Layers :
Mucosa. This is the first and innermost layer or lining.
Submucosa. This second layer supports the mucosa.
Muscularis. The third layer is made of thick muscles.
Subserosa. This layer contains supporting tissues for the serosa.
Serosa. This is the last and outermost layer.
Cardiac Part:
The cardia is the first part of the stomach below the esophagus. It contains the cardiac sphincter, which
is a thin ring of muscle that helps to prevent stomach contents from going back up into the esophagus.
Pyloric Part :
The pylorus is the furthest part of the stomach that connects to the duodenum. It is divided into two
parts, the antrum, which connects to the body of the stomach, and the pyloric canal, which connects to
the duodenum.
Muscular Layer :
The muscularis mucosa is made up of smooth muscle, and is most prominent in the stomach. Within the
muscularis externa, the circular muscle layer prevents food from traveling backward, while the
longitudinal layer shortens the tract.
Types of Cells and Functions :
Mucous cells : secrete an alkaline mucus that protects the epithelium against shear stress and acid.
Parietal cells : secrete hydrochloric acid. Chief cells : secrete pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme.

49.Small intestine: layers, sublayers, distinctive features of mucous layer.

Answer - I. Mucous membrane

a) The villi (1A) are covered with a single-layer columnar edged epithelium (1B). The same epithelium
lines the crypts (1B)
b) The muscular plate (3) of the mucous membrane also has a double representation.

The muscular membrane like the muscle plate of the mucous membrane, includes 2 layers of smooth
muscle tissue (only much more pronounced): the inner circular (IIIIA) (more powerful in thickness) and
the outer longitudinal (IIIB).
The serous membrane as usual, contains a layer of loose fibrous connective tissue (IVB), covered with
mesothelium (IVA). In this case, there are many adipocytes (IVB) in the connective tissue layer.

50.Large intestine: layers, sublayers, distinctive features of mucous and muscle

layers.

Answer - Membranes: in the wall of the colon, like in other parts of the gastrointestinal tract 4
membranes:
1. Mucous membrane;
2. Submucosa – formed CT;
3. Muscular - formed by smooth muscle tissue, includes two layer: internal circular, external
longitudinal; the outer layer is discontinuous - represented by three ribbons, between them wall
protrusions (haustra);
4. Serous - CT and mesothelium.
The innermost layer, known as the mucosa, is made of simple columnar epithelial tissue. The mucosa of
the large intestine is smooth, lacking the villi found in the small intestine. The muscularis layer
surrounds the submucosa and contains many layers of visceral muscle cells that contract and move the
large intestine.

51.Liver: function, macrostructure, microstructure, hepatic lobules, hepatocyte.

Answer - 1. Exocrine function - the production of bile, which is necessary in the intestine to emulsify
fats and increase peristalsis.
2. Metabolization of hemoglobin - iron-containing part - heme is transported by macrophages to the red
bone marrow and is reused there by erythroid cells for the synthesis of hemoglobin, the globin part is
used in the liver for the synthesis of bile pigments and is included in bile.
3. Detoxification of harmful metabolic products, toxins, inactivation of hormones, destruction medicinal
substances. ‘‘ “
4. Synthesis of blood plasma proteins - fibrinogen, albumin, prothrombin, etc.
5. Purification of blood from microorganisms and foreign particles (stellate macrophages of
hemocapillaries).
6. Deposition of blood (up to 1.5 l).
7. Deposition of glycogen in hepatocytes (insulin and glucagon).
8. Deposition of fat-soluble vitamins-A, D, E, K.
9. Participation in the exchange of cholesterol.
10. In the embryonic period - the organ of hematopoiesis.
The organ is externally covered with a peritoneum and a connective tissue capsule. Connective tissue
septa divide the organ into lobes, and the lobes into segments consisting of lobules.
The morphofunctional units of the liver are the hepatic lobules. The structure of the hepatic lobule. The
hepatic lobule in space has a form in the classical representation. a multifaceted prism, in the center of
which the central vein runs along the long axis.
In the cross-sectional preparation, the lobule looks like a polyhedron (5-6 sided). In the center of the
lobule there is a central vein, from which the hepatic beams (or hepatic plates) radiate out radially like
rays, a bile capillary is located in the thickness of each hepatic beam, and sinusoidal hemocapillaries
running radially from the periphery of the lobule to the center, where they merge into central vein.

52.Gallbladder: function, wall layers.

Answer – Gall Bladder – Function :

The gallbladder performs a reserve function, thickens or concentrates bile, and provides a portioned
supply of bile as needed into the duodenum.
There are 3 shells in the wall - mucous. muscular and adventitious.
The mucous membrane forms numerous folds, consists of a single-layer highly prismatic limb epithelium
(for the absorption of water and concentration of bile) and a lamina propria of loose fibrous connective
tissue.
In the neck area bladder in the lamina propria are located alveolar-tubular mucous glands. The muscular
membrane of smooth muscle tissue, thickened in the neck area, forms a sphincter. The outer shell is
mostly adventitious (loose fibrous connective tissue) a small area may have a serous membrane.

53.Urinary system: common information.

Answer - The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood
volume and blood pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. The
organs of the urinary system include:
the kidneys, which make urine,
the urinary tract - the ureters,
urinary bladder,
and urethra.

54.Kidneys: embryonic development.

Answer - During the embryonic period, three paired excretory organs are laid sequentially:
• Anterior kidney (pronephros);
The anterior kidney is formed from the anterior 8-10 segmental pedicles (nephrotomes) of the
mesoderm. It does not function as a urinary organ and, soon after laying, undergoes atrophy.

• Primary kidney (mesonephros);

The primary kidney (mesonephros) is formed from a large number of segmental pedicles (about 25)
located in the region of the body of the embryo.
Segmental legs, are detached from the somites and splanchnotome and become the tubules of the
primary kidney.

• Permanent kidney (final, metanephros);

The final kidney (metanephros) is laid in the embryo at the 2nd month, but its development ends only
after the birth of the child. This kidney is formed from two sources - the mesonephric (Wolf's) duct and
nephrogenic tissue, which is not divided into segmental pedicles sections of the mesoderm in the caudal
part of the embryo.
The mesonephric duct gives rise to the ureter, renal pelvis, renal cups, papillary canals, and collecting
ducts.

55.The histological structure of the kidney: capsule, parenchyma.

Answer - The kidney is covered with a connective tissue capsule and, with a serous membrane. The
substance of the kidney is subdivided into cortex and medulla. The cortex forms a continuous layer
under the capsule of the organ.
During the development of the kidney, its cortical substance, increasing in mass, penetrates between
the bases of the pyramids in the form of renal columns . The medulla consists of 10-18 conical renal
pyramids, from the base of which the medulla rays grow into the cortex.
The pyramid with the portion of the cortex covering it forms the renal lobe, and the brain ray with the
surrounding cortex forms the renal lobule.
The stroma of the kidney is made up of loose fibrous connective tissue (interstitium).
The parenchyma of the kidney is represented by renal corpuscles and epithelial tubules, which, with
the participation of blood vessels, form nephrons.

56.Nephron - structural and functional unit: parts, types.

Answer - Each nephron includes:

double-walled cup-shaped capsule - the Shumlyansky-Bowman capsule
long epithelial tubule extending from it (with various sections).
The end of the nephron is the place where it flows into one of the collecting renal tubules.
The capsule of Shumlyansky-Bowman surrounds the capillary glomerulus from almost all sides.
Accordingly, the renal corpuscle (Malpighi corpuscle) includes the capillary glomerulus and the capsule
surrounding it.
A proximal convoluted tubule leaves the capsule of the glomerulus, making several loops near the renal
corpuscle.
The proximal convoluted tubule continues into the loop of the nephron (loop of Henle).
The descending part of Henle's loop (thin tubule) goes down - towards the medulla (most often,
entering it);
The ascending part (distal straight tubule), wider, rises again towards the renal corpuscle of the
nephron.
In the region of the renal corpuscle, Henle's loop passes into the distal convoluted tubule.
The distal convoluted tubule with one of its loops necessarily touches the renal corpuscle - between 2
vessels (entering and leaving the glomerulus at its apex).
The distal convoluted tubule is the last section of the nephron. It flows into the collecting kidney tube.
The collecting ducts are located almost perpendicular to the surface of the kidney: first they go as part
of the medulla rays in the cortex, then they enter the medulla and at the tops of the pyramids flow into
the papillary canals, which then open into the renal cups.
All renal corpuscles lie in the cortex.
The convoluted tubules (proximal and distal) are also located in the cortex, but the position of the loop
of Henle's nephrons can vary significantly. In this regard, nephrons are divided into 3 types:
1. Short cortical nephrons. Make up no more than 1% of all nephrons. They have a very short loop that
does not reach the medulla. Therefore, the nephron lies entirely in the cortex.
2. Intermediate cortical nephrons. Dominated in number (~ 80% of all nephrons). Part of the loop
"descends" into the outer zone of the medulla.
3. Long (juxtamedullary, peri-cerebral) nephrons. Make up no more than 20% of all nephrons. Their
renal corpuscles are located in the cortex on the border with the medulla. Henle's loop is very long and
is almost entirely in the medulla.

57.Urine formation process: stages and their description.

Answer - Process of urine formation includes:

Glomerular Filtration – First step of urine formation. The glomerulus filters water and small solutes out
of the bloodstream. The resulting filtrate contains waste, but also other substances the body needs:
essential ions, glucose, amino acids, and smaller proteins. When the filtrate exits the glomerulus, it flows
into a duct in the nephron called the renal tubule.
Selective Reabsorption - Selective reabsorption is the process whereby certain molecules, after being
filtered out of the capillaries along with nitrogenous waste products and water in the glomerulus, are
reabsorbed from the filtrate as they pass through the nephron. Selective reabsorbtion occurs in the
PCT.
Tubular Secretion - Tubular secretion is the transfer of materials from peritubular capillaries to the renal
tubular lumen; it is the opposite process of reabsorption. This secretion is caused mainly by active
transport and passive diffusion.

58.Endocrine system of the kidneys: renin-angiotensin system, prostaglandin

apparatus, kallikrein-kinin apparatus.
• Answer –
Renin-Angiotensin system :
1. Dense spot (macula densa) - that part of the wall of the distal convoluted tubule, which is adjacent to
the renal corpuscle.
2. Juxtaglomerular cells - are located in the wall of the inflow and outflow arterioles, forming the
second layer of cells under the endothelium. By origin and localization, these cells are smooth myocytes,
but they lose the function of contraction, being rearranged to the secretion of the hormone renin. They
are large oval or polygonal cells with large granules containing renin.
3. Juxtavascular cells (Gurmagtig cells) are cells located in a triangular space between two arterioles
(inflow and outflow) and a dense spot. The cells have long processes in contact with other mesangial
cells. By origin and localization, Gurmagtig cells belong to mesangial cells, forming a special population
in their composition.
Prostaglandin apparatus
By its action on the kidneys, the prostaglandin apparatus is an antagonist of the renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone apparatus. The kidneys can produce (from polyunsaturated fatty acids) hormones
prostaglandins - fatty acids containing a five-carbon cycle in their structure.
The synthesis of prostaglandins in the kidneys is carried out by two types of cells of the medulla: light
cells of the collecting ducts and interstitial cells.
Kallikrein-kinin apparatus
This device has a strong vasodilator effect and increases natriuresis and diuresis by inhibiting the
reabsorption of Na and water in the nephron tubules. Kinins are small peptides that are formed under
the influence of kallikrein enzymes from precursor proteins (kininogens) contained in blood plasma.

59.Urinary tract: parts and their structure, layers, features.

Answer - In the wall of the minor and major calices and renal pelvis, after the transitional
epithelium, the lamina of the mucous membrane is located, imperceptibly passing into the connective
tissue of the submucosa.
The muscular membrane consists of thin layers of spirally arranged smooth myocytes, however,
myocytes are circularly located around the papillae of the renal pyramids.
The outer shell, without sharp boundaries, passes into the connective tissue surrounding the large renal
vessels.
The ureters have a pronounced ability to stretch due to the presence in them of deep longitudinal folds
of the mucous membrane. Small alveolar-tubular glands are located in the submucosa of the lower part
of the ureters.
The muscular membrane, which forms two layers in the upper part of the ureters, and three layers in
the lower part, consists of smooth muscle bundles that cover the ureter in the form of spirals going from
top to bottom. They are a continuation of the muscular membrane of the renal pelvis and below they
pass into the muscular membrane of the bladder, which also has a spiral structure.
Only in the part where the ureter passes through the wall of the bladder, bundles of smooth muscle
cells go only in the longitudinal direction. By contracting, they open the opening of the ureter,
regardless of the state of the smooth muscles of the bladder.
The spiral orientation of smooth myocytes in the muscular membrane corresponds to the concept of the
portionwise nature of urine transport from the renal pelvis along the ureter.
According to this view, the ureter consists of 3, less often 2 or 4 sections - cystoids, between which
there are sphincters. The role of sphincters is performed by cavernous formations from wide wriggling
vessels located in the submucosa and in the muscular membranes.
Depending on their filling with blood, the sphincters turn out to be closed or open. This happens in a
sequential reflex manner as the section fills with urine and the pressure on the receptors in the wall of
the ureter increases. Due to this, urine flows in portions from the renal pelvis into the overlying ones,
and from it into the underlying sections of the ureter, then into the bladder.
Outside, the ureters are covered with a connective tissue membrane.

60.Endocrine system common information: hormones, classification, organs,

general structure of endocrine gland.

Anwer - The endocrine system is a set of structures: organs, parts of organs, individual cells that
secrete hormones into the blood and lymph.
Hormones are highly active regulatory factors that have a stimulating or depressing effect mainly on the
basic functions of the body: metabolism, somatic growth, reproductive functions.
I. The central part of the endocrine gland complex (regulate the activity of most peripheral endocrine glands):
1) hypothalamus (neurosecretory nuclei);
2) pituitary gland (adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis);
3) pineal gland.
II. Peripheral adenohypophysis-dependent endocrine glands and endocrinocytes:
1) thyroid gland (thyrocytes);
2) adrenal glands (cortex);
3) gonads (testicles, ovaries).
II. Peripheral adenohypophyseal endocrine glands and endocrinocytes:
1) thyroid calcitoninocytes;
2) parathyroid glands;
3) the medulla of the adrenal glands and paraganglia;
4) endocrine cells of the islands of the pancreas (Langerhans);
5) neuroendocrinocytes in non-endocrine organs, endocrinocytes of the dispersed endocrine system (APUD-series of
cells).

61.Hypothalamus: parts, cells, types of nuclei, hormones.

Answer - Hypothalamus is the highest nerve center for the regulation of endocrine functions. It
controls and integrates all visceral functions of the body and combines the endocrine regulatory
mechanisms with the nervous ones, being the brain center of the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
The hypothalamus is divided into 3 regions (supraoptic, tuberal, mammillary) in a parasagittal plane,
indicating location anterior-posterior; and 3 areas (periventricular, medial, lateral) in the coronal plane,
indicating location medial-lateral.
In the supraoptic region, there is the suprachiasmatic, supraoptic, paraventricular, and anterior nuclei.
The dorsomedial, ventromedial, arcuate, premammillary and lateral tuberal nuclei belong to the
tuberal region. Finally, the mammillary and posterior nuclei are residents of the mammillary region
The hormones produced in the hypothalamus are corticotrophin-releasing hormone, dopamine,
growth hormone-releasing hormone, somatostatin, gonadotrophin-releasing hormone and
thyrotrophin-releasing hormone.
62.Pituitary gland: parts, cells, hormones.

Answer - Pituitary gland is divided into two main sections: the front (anterior) lobe and the back
(posterior) lobe.
The anterior pituitary contains five types of endocrine cell, and they are defined by the hormones they
secrete: somatotropes (GH); Lactotropes (PRL); gonadotropes (LH and FSH); corticotropes (ACTH) and
thyrotropes (TSH). Posterior pituitary consists of a distinctive type of glial cell, called a pituicyte.
The major hormones produced by the pituitary gland are:
ACTH: Adrenocorticotrophic hormone.
FSH: Follicle-stimulating hormone.
LH: Luteinizing hormone.
GH: Growth hormone.
PRL: Prolactin.
TSH: Thyroid-stimulating hormone.

63.Pineal gland: cells, hormones.

Answer - The pineal gland is composed mainly of pinealocytes that release melatonin, astrocytes,
microglia, endothelial cells, and, in some species, a small number of neurons. The main function of the
pineal gland is to receive information about the state of the light-dark cycle from the environment and
convey this information to produce and secrete the hormone melatonin. Among pinealocytes, there are
light pinealocytes (endocrinocytus lucidus), characterized by a light homogeneous cytoplasm, and dark
pinealocytes (endocrinocytus densus) of a smaller size with acidophilic (and sometimes basophilic)
inclusions in the cytoplasm. Both of these forms are cells in different functional states, or cells
undergoing age-related changes.

64.Thyroid gland: capsule, structural unit, cells, hormones.

Answer - The thyroid gland (glandula thyroidea) is a peripheral organ of the endocrine system that
regulates the basal metabolism of the body and is involved in maintaining the level of calcium in the
blood.
The thyroid gland is covered with a connective tissue capsule, from which trabeculae extend into the
middle of the organ and divide the organ into lobules.
The structural and functional unit of the thyroid gland is the follicle - a microscopic vesicle, the wall of
which is formed by one layer of cells - thyrocytes.
Hormone - thyroxine (thyroid hormone) is associated with a polypeptide chain (globulin).
2 types of cells: follicular cells and parafollicular cells.

65.Parathyroid gland: capsule, cells, hormones.

Answer – Parathyroid gland (glandula parathyroidea). There are four parathyroid glands. They are
located on the back of the thyroid gland.
Gland - Each gland is surrounded by a thin connective tissue capsule.
The parathyroid glands have two distinct types of cells: the chief cells and the
oxyphil cells.
The parenchyma is formed by epithelial strands (trabeculae) or an accumulation of glandular cells
(parathyrocytes), separated by thin layers of loose connective tissue with capillaries.
Parathyrocytes produce the hormone parathyrin, which, by demineralizing bones, increases the level of
calcium in the blood (stimulates the activity of osteoclasts).
•

66.Adrenal gland: capsule feature, cortex layers, medulla cells, hormones.

Answer - The adrenal glands (glandula suprarenalis) are a paired endocrine organ located above the
upper pole of the kidney.
Outside, the adrenal gland is covered with a connective tissue capsule, in which two layers are
distinguished: outer (dense) and inner (looser).
Cortex Layers – Zona Glomerulosa, Zona fasciculata, Zona reticularis.
The adrenal medulla, which is composed of pheochromoblasts/chromaffin cells.

67.APUD-system: function, cell examples.

Answer - The APUD system includes endocrine cells of the digestive system, a number of
neurosecretory cells of the brain, melatonin-synthesizing cells of the pineal gland, parafollicular cells of
the thyroid gland, and cells of the adrenal medulla.
Regulatory peptides of APUD cells - systems provide local (paracrine) as well as distant regulatory
activity of organs and systems of the body. Their function does not depend on the pituitary gland, but is
closely related to the activity of nerve impulses that come along the sympathetic and parasympathetic
trunks.

68.Nervous system common information: classification, organs.

Answer - The nervous system is divided into:

central nervous system (brain and spinal cord);
peripheral nervous system (peripheral nerve nodes, cranial, spinal, autonomic, chromatin tissue,
peripheral nerve trunks and nerve endings). The nervous system is divided into:
the somatic nervous system, which innervates skeletal muscle tissue (meaningful motor processes);
the autonomic nervous system, which regulates the function of internal organs, glands and blood
vessels (unconscious regulation). It contains the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, which
regulate visceral functions.
Thus, the nervous system regulates and coordinates the functions of organs and systems in general.

69.Peripheral nerves and trunks: structure, fibers.

Answer - Peripheral nerves always located next to the vessels and form neurovascular bundles. All
peripheral nerves are mixed, that is, they contain sensory and motor fibers. Myelinated fibers
predominate, and few nonmyelinated fibers are present.
Sensory nerve fibers contain dendrites of sensory neurons, which are localized in the spinal ganglia and
they begin at the periphery with receptors (sensory nerve endings).
Motor nerve fibers contain the axons of motor neurons that extend from the spinal cord and terminate
at neuromuscular synapses on skeletal muscle fibers.

70.Spinal ganglion: structure, cells.

Answer - Located along the spinal cord. Covered with a connective tissue capsule. Partitions go inside
from it. Through them, vessels penetrate into the spinal ganglion. Nerve fibers are located in the middle
of the ganglion. Myelin fibers predominate.
In the peripheral part of the ganglion, as a rule, pseudo-unipolar sensitive nerve cells
Around the body is a layer of glial cells — mantle gliocytes. They constantly support the vital activity of
cells.
71.The meninges of brain and spinal cord

Answer - The membrane (meninges) of the brain and spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord are
covered with three membranes (meninges): pia mater, directly adjacent to the tissues of the brain,
arachnoid mater and dura mater which borders on the bone tissue of the skull and spine.
The pia mater is directly adjacent to the brain tissue and is delimited from it by the glia limitans. In the
loose fibrous connective tissue of the membrane, there are a large number of blood vessels that feed
the brain, numerous nerve fibers, terminal apparatus and single nerve cells.
The arachnoid mater is represented by a thin layer of loose fibrous connective tissue. The
subarachnoid space communicates with the ventricles of the brain and contains cerebrospinal fluid.
The dura mater is formed by dense fibrous connective tissue containing many elastic fibers.
In the cranial cavity, it is tightly fused with the periosteum. In the spinal canal, the dura mater is
delimited from the vertebral periosteum by an epidural space filled with a layer of loose fibrous
connective tissue, which provides it with some mobility.

72.Spinal cord: cross section, parts, cells.

Answer - In front of the spinal cord is a white matter that contains nerve fibers that form the
pathways of the spinal cord. In the middle is the gray matter. The halves of the spinal cord are divided
anteriorly by the median anterior slit, and posteriorly by the posterior connective tissue septum.
In the center of the gray matter is the central canal of the spinal cord. It connects to the ventricles of the
brain, is lined with ependyma and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which is constantly circulating and
formed.
Grey matter (or gray matter) makes up the outermost layer of the brain and is pinkish grey in tone. It
gets its grey tone from the high concentration of neuronal cell bodies in contains. Grey matter also
contains unmyelinated axons.
Cells, similar in size, fine structure and functional importance, lie in the gray matter in groups called
nuclei. Among the neurons of the spinal cord, the following types of cells can be distinguished:
root cells (neurocytus radiculatus), whose neurites leave the spinal cord as part of its anterior roots,
internal cells (neurocytus interims), whose processes end in synapses within the gray matter of the
spinal cord, and bundle cells ( neurocytus funicularis), the axons of which pass in the white matter in
separate bundles of fibers that carry nerve impulses from certain nuclei of the spinal cord to its other
segments or to the corresponding parts of the brain, forming pathways.

73.Cerebral cortex: layers, cells, modular organization.

Answer - There are six layers of cerebral cortex:

Molecular (plexiform) layer.
External granular layer.
External pyramidal layer.
Internal granular layer.
Internal pyramidal layer.
Multiform (fusiform) layer.
Cerebral cortex is represented by a 3-5mm thick plate of gray matter, which covers the outside of the
cerebral hemispheres. It contains kernels in the form of fields. There is no clear border between the
fields, they merge into each other.
The gray matter has a high content of nerve cells. Up to 17-20bn. They are all multipolar, of different
sizes, pyramidal and stellate nerve cells predominate in shape. The features of the distribution of nerve
cells in the brain are designated by the term architectonics.
It develops from the anterior cerebral bladder. Ventricular cells proliferate in its wall, from which
glioblasts and neuroblasts differentiate (the first 2 weeks). Gradually, the proliferation of neuroblasts
decreases. From glioblasts, radial glia is formed, the processes of cells of which penetrate the entire wall
of the neural tube. Neuroblasts migrate along these processes, gradually differentiate into neurons (16-20
weeks). First, the outermost layers of the cortex are laid, and then intermediate layers are formed between
them. The development of the cortex continues after birth and is completed by the age of 16-18. In the
process of development, a large number of nerve cells are formed, especially interneuronal synapses
develop. Which leads to the formation of reflex arcs.

74.Cerebellum: structure, layers.

Answer - The cerebellum consists of a cortex covering white matter, as well as a ventricle filled with
fluid. It is also divided into two hemispheres like the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum, located dorsal to
the pons and the medulla, is one of the primary structures of the hindbrain. It lies under the occipital
and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum is an integral structure in transmitting
sensory signals to the motor portion of the brain.
There are two main parts of the cerebellum:
Cerebellar cortex: A layer containing folded tissue containing most of the cerebellum's
neurons.
Cerebellar nuclei: The innermost part of the cerebellum containing nerve cells that
communication information from the cerebellum

75.Embryonic development of human gonads. Stage of indifferent gonads. Key

events.
Answer - Stage of indifferent gonads.
A. It proceeds in the same way in both male and female embryos.
B. Primary germ cells are the first to differentiate. It has been shown that the primary germ cells
differentiate even in the epiblast (i.e., before the complete differentiation of the germ layers), and
therefore are descendants of embryonic totipotent cells (these cells can differentiate into any cells and
tissues). Primary germ cells are formed on the 14-15th day and are found in the endoderm of the yolk
vesicle. From the 25th day, the migration of primary germ cells from the extraembryonic endoderm to
the gonadal anlages begins.
C. The gonads in humans appear on the 28-30th day in the form of a thickening of the coelomic
epithelium on the surface of the primary kidneys. The thickened areas of this epithelium are called
genital ridges. Primary sex cells are embedded in the sex ridges, forming the primary sex cords. They are
tubules formed by the epithelium, and sex cells are located inside. The sex cords grow deep into the
parenchyma of the primary kidneys.
D. Up to 7 weeks, human gonads are not differentiated by sex.

76.Testicles: embryonic development, cell types, histological structure,

functions, rete testis.

Answer - The development of the gonads in the human embryo proceeds in stages.
1. Stage of indifferent gonads.
2. Stage of differentiated gonads.

77.Spermatogenesis: stages, cell types, key events. The structure of mature

spermatozoons.

Answer - Spermatogenesis is traditionally divided into three stages - the reproduction phase, the
maturation phase, and the formation phase.
1st stage - breeding phase. This phase is characterized by mitotic divisions of spermatogonia. Moreover,
each next generation of cells is more differentiated than the previous one.
2nd stage - ripening phase. During this period, meiotic division is carried out, which is a central event in
gametogenesis. During meiosis, pairing of chromosomes occurs, crossing over - an exchange of gene loci
- and two divisions of maturation, leading to a halving of the number of chromosomes and the
formation of haploid spermatocytes from first-order diploid spermatocytes.
3rd stage - the formation phase, or spermatogenesis. During this period, spermatids, as a result of
complex cytoplasmic transformations, are converted into spermatozoa. Haploid spermatids are round,
flagellate cells that are completely different from mature mammalian spermatozoa. In order for
fertilization to occur, the sperm must meet the egg and connect with it, therefore, in the process of
spermatogenesis, the sperm undergoes differentiation, which allows it to acquire the ability to move
and interact with the egg.
 78.Hormonal regulation of the male reproductive system activity.

Answer - In the loose connective tissue between the loops of the convoluted tubules are interstitial
cells - glandulocytes, or Leydig cells, accumulating here around the blood and lymphatic capillaries.
These cells are relatively large, round or polygonal in shape, with acidophilic cytoplasm vacuolated
along the periphery, containing glycoprotein inclusions, as well as lumps of glycogen and protein
crystalloids in the form of rods or ribbons.
With age, pigment begins to be deposited in the cytoplasm of interstitial cells. A well-developed smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, numerous mitochondria with tubular and vesicular cristae indicate the ability of
interstitial cells to produce steroid substances, in this case the male sex hormone testosterone. A high
concentration of testosterone in the seminiferous tubules is provided by ASB synthesized by Sertoli cells.

79.The vas deferens: wall structure, parts and their differences.

Answer - All the vas deferens are built according to a general plan and consist of mucous, muscular
and adventitious membranes. The epithelium lining these tubules shows signs of glandular activity,
especially in the head of the epididymis. The epithelium of the vas deferens, groups of ciliated cells
alternate with glandular cells secreting according to the apocrine type.
In the epithelium of the vas deferens, groups of ciliated cells alternate with glandular cells secreting according to the apocrine type.
In the epididymis, the duct epithelium becomes two-row. It contains high prismatic cells carrying stereocilia on
their apical tops, and intercalated cells are located between the basal parts of these cells.
The epithelium of the epididymis duct takes part in the production of a fluid that dilutes the sperm during the
passage of the sperm, as well as in the formation of the glycocalyx - a thin layer that covers the sperm.
Removal of the glycocalyx during ejaculation leads to the activation of sperm (capacitation). At the same time, the
epididymis becomes a reservoir for accumulating sperm.
The duct of the epididymis then passes into the vas deferens (ductus deferens), in which the muscular membrane
develops significantly, consisting of three layers - the inner longitudinal, the middle circular and the outer
longitudinal.
In the thickness of the muscular membrane, there is a nerve plexus formed by an accumulation of ganglion cells that
innervate bundles of smooth muscle cells.
The contractions of these cells ensure the ejaculation of sperm.
Due to the significant development of the muscular membrane, the mucous membrane of the vas deferens is
collected in longitudinal folds.
The distal end of this duct is ampulliform.
Outside, the vas deferens along the entire length are covered with a connective tissue adventitia membrane.

80.Accessory glands: types, structure, functions.

Answer – Types :
1) Seminal Vescicles –

81.Urethra: parts, wall, male and female differences.

Answer - The urethra has a well-defined mucous membrane. Its epithelium in the prostate gland is
transitional, in the membranous part it is multi-row prismatic, and starting from the scaphoid fossa in
the spongy part of the urethral epithelium becomes multilayered flat and shows signs of keratinization.
In the multi-row epithelium, numerous goblet and few endocrine cells are found.
Under the epithelium is the proper lamina of the mucous membrane, rich in elastic fibers. In the loose
fibrous tissue of this layer, there is a network of venous vessels, which has a connection with the cavities
of the cavernous body of the urethra. Small mucous glands are located in the mucous membrane of the
urethra. In the submucosa, there is a network of wide venous vessels.
The muscular membrane of the urethra is well developed in its prostatic part, where it consists of the
inner longitudinal and outer circular layers of smooth myocytes. When the membranous part of the
urethra passes into its cavernous part, the muscle layers gradually become thinner and only single bundles
of muscle cells remain.
Male Urethra Female Urethra

It opens out at the tip of the penis by urinogenital It opens by urinary aperture in front of vaginal
aperture aperture.

It carries urine as well as semen to the exterior It carries urine only to the exterior

18 – 20 cm 4cm

82.The histological structure of the ovaries and their functions.

Answer – The ovaries are the sex glands (gonads) of the female body, are paired organs, almond-
shaped and medium-sized 3x1.5x1 cm, located in the pelvic cavity.
Outside the ovaries are covered germinal epithelium, which, despite its name, is not involved in the
formation of oocytes.
The germinal epithelium is represented by a single layer cubic epithelium, formed from the
mesothelium of the peritoneum. Inward from the germinal epithelium is dense connective tissue -
tunica albuginea.
Each ovary consists of a peripherally located cortical and centrally lying medulla.
The cortical substance contains ovarian follicles immersed in connective tissue (stroma).
The medulla is represented by loose connective tissue, rich in a network of blood vessels, lymph vessels
and nerves. The border between the cortex and medulla are not clearly visualized.
The main functions of the ovary are gamete production (gametogenesis) and synthesis of steroid
hormones.
In the female body, the process of gamete formation called oogenesis, developing gametes - oocytes,
mature gametes - egg cell.
The ovaries produce two groups of steroid hormones: estrogens and progesterone. These hormones play
an important role in the menstrual cycle, preparing the uterus for implantation of the ovum.
Under the influence of estrogens (estrone, estriol and estradiol), the growth and maturation of the
internal and external genital organs, as well as the formation of secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty. Estrogens affect the mammary glands, stimulating the development of ductal and stromal
structures, and the accumulation of adipose tissue.
Progesterone prepares the internal genital organs to features of the uterus, to pregnancy, while secretory
endometrial changes. Besides, progesterones prepare the mammary glands for lactation by triggering
lobular proliferation.
•
83.Follicles: types, histological structure and size.

Answer – Types of Ovarian Follicles –

1 - Primordial follicles –
The primordial follicles are the first class of follicles formed in mammalian ovaries and consist of an
oocyte surrounded by a single layer of flattened granulosa cells. These follicles remain in a dormant
state until they receive signals for activation or are relieved of a negative regulatory factor.
2 - Growing follicles, which are subdivided into primary, secondary and tertiary follicles;
Primary follicle - A follicle that has two layers of follicular cells is called a primary follicle. These cells
continue to hypertrophy and proliferate to form many layers surrounding the oocyte. Eventually these
cells become known as 'granulosa' cells. The granulosa cells will secrete progesterone after ovulation.
Secondary Follicles - look very similar to primary follicles, except that they are larger, there are more
follicular cells, and there are small accumulations of fluid in the intracellular spaces called follicular fluid
(nutritive fluid for the oocyte). These gradually coalesce to form an antrum.
Tertiary follicles - formation is associated with continued proliferation of granulosa and theca cells,
further increased thecal vascularization, and further oocyte enlargement. By the transition from
secondary to tertiary follicles, the ovary can clearly works as an endocrine organ.

3 - Mature follicles
Mature follicles differ from tertiary follicles with their large size (10 mm or more in diameter). This stage
prior to ovulation. Approximately 24-36 hours before ovulation occurs peak LH release by the
adenohypophysis, this causes the completion of the first meiotic division by the primary oocyte, which
ultimately leads to the formation of a secondary oocyte and the first polar body.

84.Corpus luteum: structure and functions.

Answer - The corpus luteum is a temporary endocrine gland that is formed from follicle residues
after ovulation. The corpus luteum is the endocrine remains of the collapsed follicle. The center
contains the remains of the blood clot that formed after ovulation. Surrounding the clot are glanulosa
lutein cells and on the outside theca lutein cells.
Cells of the granulosa layer and internal theca differentiate into granulosa luteal cells and thecal luteal
cells, respectively. These luteal cells change morphologically, they increase in size, fill with lipid droplets
and begin secrete steroid hormones:
Granulosa luteal cells are large, pale when stained, are located centrally and synthesize progesterone;
Thecal luteal cells are smaller in size, dark when coloration, lie on the periphery and synthesize
estrogens.
Function - The corpus luteum's job is to make your uterus a healthy place for a fetus to grow. It
releases a hormone called progesterone that prepares your uterus for pregnancy. Once it's no longer
needed to make progesterone, your corpus luteum goes away.
 85.Ovulation and menstrual cycle: stages, regulation.

Answer - The ovarian cycle may be divided into three stages: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the
luteal phase.
The follicular phase starts on the first day of menstruation and ends with ovulation. Prompted by the
hypothalamus, the pituitary gland releases follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). This hormone stimulates
the ovary to produce around five to 20 follicles (tiny nodules or cysts), which bead on the surface.
Ovulation is the release of a mature egg from the surface of the ovary. This usually occurs mid-cycle,
around two weeks or so before menstruation starts. Lasting about 14 days, the luteal phase is the final
phase of the ovarian cycle and it corresponds to the secretory phase of the uterine cycle. During the
luteal phase, the pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause the remaining parts of the dominant follicle to
transform into the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. Regulation : The process of ovulation
is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain and through the release of hormones LH and FSH.
Menstrual Cycle
The monthly cycle of changes in the ovaries and the lining of the uterus (endometrium), starting with
the preparation of an egg for fertilization. When the follicle of the prepared egg in the ovary breaks, it is
released for fertilization and ovulation occurs.
Stages – Proliferative –
The proliferative phase continues until the first day after ovulation. TO at the end of this phase, the
endometrium reaches a thickness of about 3 mm, the glands are narrow, relatively straight.

Secretory –
In the secretory phase, under the influence of progesterone, dramatic changes in the functional layer,
this phase begins every other day or two after ovulation. The endometrium becomes edematous and
gradually increases to 5-6 mm in thickness. The glands enlarge, accept spiral shape, the lumen is filled
with products of their secretion.

Menstrual –
With failed fertilization, the corpus luteum of menstruation is active produces hormones for 14 days.
Following this sharp a drop in hormone levels alters the blood supply to the functional layer
endometrium, the menstrual phase begins.
Periodic reductions spiral arteries lead to ischemization of the functional layer, the gland stop secretion,
the endometrium contracts in height, and the stroma becomes less edematous. After two days, ischemic
superficial epithelium rejected and the adjacent blood vessels rupture. Desquamation the epithelium
continues until only the basal layer remains.
Regulation - The menstrual cycle is regulated by the complex interaction of hormones: luteinizing
hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone.

86.Fallopian tubes: parts, wall structure, cell types.

Answer - Fallopian tubes are paired tubular muscle organs, the proximal lumen of which
communicates with the cavity the uterus, and the distal end of each tube opens into the abdominal
cavity near the ovary. The length of each fallopian tube is 10-12 cm, it is subdivided into four segments:
1. The Uterine part penetrates into the wall of the uterus. This a section, about 1 cm long, contains few
folds of the mucous membrane shell, and the myometrium is involved in the formation of the muscle
layer.
2. Isthmus - a narrow segment of the tube adjacent to the wall of the uterus, contains a small number of
folds of the mucous membrane.
3. Ampule - The wide part next to the isthmus, folds of the mucous membrane and is a common site
fertilization. The length of this segment is 2/3 of the total length of the uterine pipes.
4. Funnel is the distal segment of the fallopian tube, the lumen which opens into the abdominal cavity
and ends near the ovary finger-like growths - fringes (fimbria).
Wall Structure –
1. The mucous membrane is the inner lining of the fallopian tube. The epithelium contains three cell
types: ciliated, secretory and hook-shaped (peg cells). Ciliated cells dominate in the middle of the cycle,
and their number sharply decreases and minimally during menstruation. Secretory cells : The layer of
mucus that they synthesize moves towards the uterus with the help of cilia, helping the transport of the
egg and preventing the penetration of bacteria into the abdominal cavity. "Hook-shaped" cells are the
rarest epithelial cells of the fallopian tube.
2. The muscular layer consists of two layers of smooth muscles: Inner circular, thick and Outer
Longtitudinal thin. The boundary between these layers is often not clearly visible.
3. Serous membrane – It covers the outside of the fallopian tubes.

87.Uterus: parts, structure of the wall, endometrium and its features.

Answer - Anatomically, there are three areas in the uterus. The body is presented a large middle part
of a cone-shaped organ. The bottom is a part of the body uterus above the junction of the fallopian
tubes. A narrow extension of the uterus, opening into the vagina is called the cervix.
Wall consists of 3 layers – 1) Endometrium, - Thickness varies from 1-6mm. It is divides into 2 layers, the
functional layer (Temporary) & Basal Layer (Permanent).
2) Myometrium,
The thickest muscular layer of the uterus consists of three layers of smooth muscles. The middle circular
layer contains large blood and lymph vessels and is called the vascular layer. Inner and outer layers of
muscles oriented parallel to the long axis of the uterus. During pregnancy, the myometrium grows
intensively due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia. The peak secretion of oxytocin induces powerful
contraction of the myometrium for expulsion of the fetus during labor, and three layers of smooth
muscles work like functional syncytium.
3) Perimetry.
(serous membrane) and adventitia. Bottom and big part of the body is covered with perimetry, the
lower parts of the body and the cervix - adventitia.

88.External genital organs of a woman: structure.

Answer - Covered stratified squamous epithelium. The vulva includes:

The clitoris consists of two erectile bodies ending with the head of the clitoris, homologues to penis.
The clitoris is surrounded by the foreskin and contains a large amount sensitive nerve endings.
The vestibule of the vagina. It contains 2 types of glands.
Large glands vestibules (Bartholin's glands) - large (1 cm in size), paired tubular-alveolar mucous glands
located on each side vestibules, are analogs of the bulbourethral glands of men.
Small vestibule glands (Skene's glands) numerous, small mucous membranes glands, most of which lie
near the clitoris and external opening urethra. These glands are analogous to Littre's glands in men.
Small labia. These paired folds of skin are built from spongy (erectile) connective tissue, homologous to
penis. They are covered with stratified squamous epithelium with small keratinization.
Labia Majora are two longitudinal cutaneous folds, homologues to scrotum. The external genitals
contain numerous sensitive nerve endings: Meissner's little bodies, Pacini's little bodies, and free nerve
endings.

89.Mammary glands: structure, differences between lactating and non-lactating.

Answer - The mammary glands are modified apocrine sweat skin glands, specialized to secrete milk,
the structure of which changes significantly with age, depends on the phase of the menstrual cycle and
reproductive status of a woman. Breast glands of an adult woman in inactive state are complex tubular-
alveolar glands, consisting of 15-25 lobes, separated from each other by layers of dense connective
tissue.
The lobes diverge radially from the nipple and divide into numerous lobules. Lobules, the main units of
the gland, are formed in puberty under the influence of progesterone. They are separated from each
other loose connective tissue and contain several secretory alveoli. All intralobular ducts from one
lobule open into one terminal interlobular duct that flows into the larger milky duct. Milky duct each
lobe opens with a separate opening at the top of the nipple. Under areola, the pigmented area around
the nipple, each milk duct has a terminal expansion - the lactiferous sinus.

90.Human embryonic development: stages and their description.

91.Placenta, amnion, yolk sac: structure, function.
92.Respiratory system, organ composition and basic functions (respiratory and
non-respiratory).
93. Air and respiratory sections.
94. General plan of the histological structure of the airway wall.
95. Tissue composition of the membranes of the airway wall and embryonic
sources of their histogenesis.
96. Nose, its sections, structural features of the wall, functions
97. Larynx, its divisions, wall structure, functions.
98. Trachea, its departments, wall structure, functions
99. Regular changes in the structure of the shells of various departments
airways.
100. Lungs, embryonic sources of development and their derivatives.
101. Stroma and parenchyma of the lungs.
102. Visceral and parietal pleura, pleural cavity
103. Bronchial tree of the lungs. Features of the structure of the bronchial
wall different calibers.
104. Respiratory section of the lung. Acinus.
105. Alveoli, their structure, function, types of alveolar epithelial cells,
surfactant.
106. The elastic frame of the lung.
107. Aero-blood barrier, structural components, functional appointment.