Course Contents and Books

Defects of images: Spherical aberration, Astigmatism, Coma, Distortion,

Curvature, Chromatic aberration. Theories of light; Interference of light:
Young's double slit experiment, Displacements of fringes and its uses, Fresnel
bi-prism, Interference in thin films, Newton's rings, Interferometers;
Diffraction: Diffraction by single slit, Diffraction from a circular aperture,
Resolving power of optical instruments, Diffraction at double slit and N-slits,
Diffraction grating; Polarization: Production and analysis of polarized light,
Brewster's Law, Malus Law, Polarization by double refraction, Nicol prism,
Optical activity, Polarimeters.
Text/reference books
1. Fundamentals of Physics (10th Edition), D. Halliday, R. Resnick, and J. Walker
2. Fundamentals of Optics (4th Edition); F. A. Jenkins, and H. E. White
3. Physics for Engineers - Part-1; Giasuddin Ahmad
 Course Objective
Objective 1: To develop logical and critical thinking with scientific
knowledge of waves & oscillation, optics, and thermal
physics required for the students of electrical and
electronic engineering.

Objective 2: To understand the different laws of physics associated

with waves & oscillation, optics, and thermal physics,
and apply them to solve the real life problems.
 Course Outcomes (CO)
CO CO Statement Corresponding Domains Delivery Assessment Tool(s)
No. At the end of the course, a student PO(s)* and Method(s)
should be able to Taxonomy and Activity(-
level(s)** ies)
CO1 Describe the basic laws of physics related PO 1 C1 e.g., Lectures, e.g., Written exams; viva
to waves & oscillation, optics, and Homework voce; presentation;
thermal physics to express different assignment
phenomena in the physical world.
CO2 Explain the fundamental concepts and PO 1 C2 e.g., Lectures, e.g., Written exams; viva
theories of waves & oscillation, optics, Homework voce; presentation;
and thermal physics applicable for assignment
different physical conditions.
CO3 Apply the relevant laws of physics to solve PO 1 C3, C4 e.g., Lectures, e.g., Written exams; viva
various mathematical problems and Homework voce; presentation;
interpret the result and its consequences. assignment
*POs
PO 1: Engineering knowledge; PO 2: Problem analysis; PO 3: Design/development of solutions; PO 4: Investigation; PO
5: Modern tool use; PO 6: Engineer and society; PO 7: Environment and sustainability; PO 8: Ethics; PO 9: Individual
work and teamwork; PO 10: Communication; PO 11: Project management and finance; PO 12: life-long learning
**Domains
C-Cognitive : C1: Knowledge; C2: Comprehension; C3: Application; C4: Analysis; C5: Synthesis; C6: Evaluation
Domains and Taxonomy level(s)

Benjamin Bloom
Domains and Taxonomy level(s)

Benjamin Bloom
 Course plan
Week Lecture Topics Corresponding CO(s)
1 Defects of images: spherical aberration, CO1, CO2
2 astigmatism, coma, Distortion, Curvature, CO1, CO2, CO3
3 Chromatic aberration, Solving mathematical problems related to aberration CO1, CO2, CO3
4 Class Test (Optics) CO1, CO2, CO3
Theories of light, Interference of light, Young's double slit experiment, displacements of
5 CO1, CO2, CO3
fringes and its uses
6 Fresnel bi-prism, interference in thin films CO1, CO2, CO3
7 Newton's rings, Interferometers CO1, CO2, CO3
8 Solving mathematical problems related to interference of light CO1, CO2, CO3
9 Diffraction of light, Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction, diffraction due to single slit CO1, CO2, CO3
10 Diffraction from a circular aperture, diffraction at double slits CO1, CO2, CO3
11 n-slits- diffraction grating CO1, CO2, CO3
Resolving power of optical instruments, solving mathematical problems related to
12 CO1, CO2, CO3
diffraction of light
13 Polarization of light, production and analysis of polarized light, Brewster's Law, Malus law CO1, CO2, CO3
14 Polarization by double refraction, Nicol prism, optical activity, polarimeters, polaroid CO1, CO2, CO3
 Mark Distribution
Credit hours = 3
Content Percentage of mark
Attendance 10% 30
Class test 20% 60
Final examination 70% 210

Attendance Mark
Above 90% 10
Class test = Best 3 class test mark from 4 class test
85-89 % 9
80-84% 8
Final exam: Section A = 3 questions out of 4
75-79 % 7 Section B = 3 questions out of 4
70-74% 6 35 marks for each questions
65-69 % 5 Exam time 3 hours
60-64% 4
Below 60% 0
 Optics-Introduction
Optics is the branch of classical physics that studies the
behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with
matter and the construction of optical instruments that use or
detect it.

Branches of optics
1.Geometrical optics: Behavior of rays of light, laws of reflections
and refractions, Mirror, lens, combination of lenses, defect of
images, optical instruments
2.Physical Optics: Nature of light, Interference, diffraction,
polarization
Optical instruments
optics in our daily life

Ref. Book: Fundamental of photonics

 Spherical lenses
Lens: A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction.

Type of lens
❑ Convex or converging lenses
❑ Concave or diverging lenses

Different type of convex lenses

❖ Double convex
❖ Plano-convex
❖ Concavo-convex

Different type of concave lenses

➢ Double concave
➢ Plano-concave
➢ Convexo-concave
 Geometrical optics
Geometrical optics

❖ Describes light propagation in terms of rays

Assumptions of geometrical optics include that light rays:

❑ propagate in straight-line paths if they travel in a homogeneous medium

❑ Obey the laws of reflection and refraction

❑ may be absorbed or reflected.

 Paraxial ray and paraxial approximation
Paraxial rays:
❖ Lies close to the principle axis
❖ Makes a small angle with principle axis or optic axis

Paraxial approximation:
❑ It is Small angle approximation used in Gaussian optics and ray tracing of light through an optical system

Gaussian optics
It is a technique for describing the behaviour of light rays in optical systems using the paraxial approximation (small
angle approximation)

Tylor series
Small angle approximations 𝜃3 𝜃5
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜃 − + −⋯
3! 5!
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 and Cos𝜃 ≈ 1
𝜃2 𝜃4
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 − + −⋯
2! 4!
 Lens equation
Lens equation
1 1 1 1
+ = (𝜇 − 1) −
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2

1
𝑢 = ∞, = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑣 = 𝑓
𝑢

1 1 1
= 𝜇−1 −
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

This is lens maker formula

➢ If 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are interchanged, no change in 𝑓

➢ f will be increased with decreasing the values of

𝑅1 and 𝑅2 and high refractive index
 Deviation produced by a thin lens

❑Lenses can be thought of as a series of tiny refracting prisms

❑This prisms have different refracting angles
❑These prism are placed with bases either, (i) towards the axis for convex lens and (ii) away
from the axis for concave lens
 Deviation produced by a thin lens
𝐴 𝐴
𝛿
ℎ 𝛿 ℎ
𝐵 𝐹 𝑂 𝐵 𝐼
𝑓 𝑢 +𝑣
Figure 2: deviation for point object
Figure 1: deviation for extended object
The deviation produced by the OA incident ray
From triangle ABF (figure 1)
ℎ ℎ 1 1 ℎ
ℎ 𝛿 = ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 + ∠𝐴𝐼𝐵 = − + = ℎ − + =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 = 𝑢 𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
𝑓
In the paraxial region, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 = 𝛿
ℎ
∴𝛿=
𝑓 Deviation produced by a lens is independent of
the position of the object
 Equivalent focal length of two lenses
A single lens is said to be equivalent to be a number of lenses when this single lens produces an image of a given object at
the same place and of same size as that formed by the number of lenses together. The focal length of such a lens is known as
equivalent focal length

𝛿1
𝐴
𝛿
𝐵 𝛿2
ℎ1
ℎ2
𝐿1 𝐿 𝐿2 𝐹 𝐹1
 Equivalent focal length of two lenses placed in contact
Two lenses focal length 𝑓1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2

The deviation produced by the first lens 𝐴

ℎ1 𝛿1
𝛿1 =
𝑓1
𝐵
Deviation produced by the 2nd lens ℎ1
ℎ2 ℎ2 𝛿2
∴ 𝛿2 =
𝑓2
ℎ ℎ 𝑂 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐼2 𝐼1
Total deviation 𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 = 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 … … … … (1)
1 2
If the combination is replaced by their equivalent lens
of focal length 𝑓
ℎ1
𝛿 = …………………… 2
𝑓
From equation (1) and (2)
ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ2
= +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
Since they are thin and placed in contact ℎ1 = ℎ2
1 1 1 Power of the equivalent lens
= +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑝 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2
𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑓=
𝑓1 + 𝑓2
 Equivalent focal length of two lenses separated by a distance
Two lenses focal length 𝑓1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2
𝛿1
𝐴 𝐶
The deviation produced by the first lens
ℎ1 𝛿
𝛿1 = 𝐵 𝛿2
𝑓1 ℎ1 ℎ1
nd
Deviation produced by the 2 lens ℎ2
ℎ2 𝐿1 𝐿 𝐿2 𝐹 𝐹1
∴ 𝛿2 =
𝑓2
ℎ1 ℎ2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 = + . . … (1)
𝑓1 𝑓2
If the combination is replaced by their equivalent
lens of focal length 𝑓
ℎ1 𝑓1 − 𝑑
𝛿 = …………………… 2 𝑑
𝑓
From equation (1) and (2) 𝑓1
ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ2 𝑃𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ2 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 𝑓1 𝑓2
= + … … … … … … … … (3) ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ1 (𝑓1 − 𝑑) 𝑓= … … … … (5)
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 = + 𝑓1 +𝑓2 −𝑑
From similar triangle AL1F1 and BL2F1 𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝐴𝐿1 𝐵𝐿2 1 1 1 𝑑 𝑝 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 − 𝑑𝑝1 𝑝2
= = + −
𝐿1 𝐹1 𝐿2 𝐹1 𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ1 𝑓1 − 𝑑
= ⟹ ℎ2 = … … … (4)
𝑓1 𝑓1 − 𝑑 𝑓1
 Defect of image
Objective of this section

1. Defect/aberration produced by a lens

2. Analysis of different defects and how to eliminate them

3. Monochromatic aberration- spherical (lateral and longitudinal), coma, astigmatism,

curvature and distortion

4. Chromatic aberration (lateral and longitudinal)

5. Achromatism- conditions of achromatism for two lenses

6. Aberration in a combination of lenses

7. Achromatic doublet
 Defect of image
The deviation from the actual size, shape and position of an image are called defect of image or aberration.

Images formed by a lens are defective because of the following reasons

❑ Lens maker’s formula is derived on the assumptions that incident rays are paraxial, and aperture of the lens is small.

❑ Object may be extended and need not have point size always.

❑ Due to dispersion, the focal length of the lens changes with color.

❑ Refractive index of the lens changes with wavelength of the incident light.
 Defect of image
Two types of aberration Two types of aberration
1. Monochromatic aberration ❑ Spherical aberration
2. Chromatic aberration
❑ Coma
Monochromatic aberration
❑ Astigmatism
❑ Caused by the geometry of lenses
❑ Appeared even when using monochromatic light
❑ Curvature of field
❑ Distortion
Chromatic aberration
❑ Caused by the dispersion, the variation of lens’s refractive
index with wavelength
❑ They don’t appear when the monochromatic light is used
 Spherical aberration
Greater incident angle the greater the deviation .

𝐼𝑚 = image produced by the marginal ray

𝐼𝑝 = image produced by the paraxial ray

𝐴𝐵 = circle of least confusion, which measure the lateral spherical aberration

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑝 = the distance, which measure the longitudinal spherical aberration

𝐼𝑝
B
𝐼𝑚
 Reduction of spherical aberration
There are several methods for minimizing the spherical aberration.

❑ Use of a stope

❑ Use of cross lens

❑ Use of plano-convex lens

❑ Use of two convergent lenses separated by a fixed distance

 Reduction of spherical aberration-using a stope

❑ the stop reduces the effective lens aperture

❑ The stop allow to pass either paraxial rays or marginal rays

❑ The amount of light passing through the is reduced

❑ Image appear less bright

𝐼𝑝
B
𝐼𝑚
 Reduction of spherical aberration-using crossed lens
The longitudinal spherical aberration produced by a thin lens
for a parallel incident beam is given by
where x is the longitudinal spherical aberration, ρ is the radius
of the lens aperture and ƒ2 is the second principal focal length
where R1 and R2 are the radii of the curvature. For a given
values of µ , ƒ2 and ρ, the condition for minimum
spherical aberration is dx/dk = 0,
Differentiating equation (i) and equating the result to zero
So the condition of minimum spherical
aberration is
From equation (ii), for a lens whose material has
a refractive index µ = 1.5, k = –1/6.
A lens whose R1/R2 = –1/6 is called a crossed lens.
Controlling the spherical aberration by changing
radius of curvature
The procedure is called the bending of the lens
 Reduction of spherical aberration-using crossed lens

𝜃
𝜃

❑ As a lens may be regarded as a number of truncated prisms placed one above the other, the deviation of marginal rays
will be minimum when they enter the first surface and leave the second surface at more or less equal angles.
❑ To minimize the spherical aberration, the ratio of the radius of the curve surfaces of a lens will be 1:6 and this lens is
called cross lens.
 Reduction of spherical aberration-using plano-convex lens
❑ Crossed lenses are expensive and difficult to construct

❑ The spherical aberration of crossed lens is only 8% less than that of

plano-convex lens

❑ Plano-convex lens - (convenience and easy to construct) are used

instead of crossed lens.

❑ Light incident on plane surface increases spherical aberration

(figure a)

❑ Light incident on the curve surface decreases the spherical

aberration (figure b)

Because the total deviation is divided between the two surfaces.

 Reduction of spherical aberration-using two convergent lenses
separated by a fixed distance
Consider two Plano convex lens of focal lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 . The deviation
produced by the first and second lenses are 𝛿1 and 𝛿2 . 𝜹𝟏
The deviation produced by the first lens 𝜹𝟐
ℎ1
𝛿1 =
𝑓1
𝒉𝟏 𝒉𝟐
Deviation produced by the 2nd lens
ℎ2
∴ 𝛿2 =
𝑓2

Condition of minimum spherical aberration

𝛿1 = 𝛿2
ℎ1 ℎ2
=
𝑓1 𝑓2
ℎ1 𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓1
= ………….. 1 =
ℎ2 𝑓2 𝑓2 𝑓1 − 𝑑
From the similar triangle AO1F1 and BO2F1 𝑑 = 𝑓1 − 𝑓2
𝐴𝑂1 𝐵𝑂2 For a lens system, The spherical aberration will
=
𝑂1 𝐹1 𝑂2 𝐹1 be minimized when their distance of separation
ℎ1 ℎ2
= will be equal to the difference of their focal
𝑓1 𝑓1 − 𝑑
length.
ℎ1 𝑓1
⟹ =
ℎ2 𝑓1 − 𝑑
If two convex lenses made of same glass and of focal lengths 32 cm and 20
cm are to be used to exhibit minimum spherical aberration; find the distance
between the two. If 𝜇 = 1.5, find the radii of curvature of the lens surfaces.
One surface of each lens is plane.
For minimum spherical aberration, 𝑑 = 𝑓1 − 𝑓2
From the lens maker formula,
1 1 1
= 𝜇−1 −
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
For the first Plano-convex lens,

1 1
= 𝜇−1
𝑓1 𝑅1
𝑅2 = ∞ for a Plano-convex lens
For the second Plano-convex lens,

1 1
= 𝜇−1 ′
𝑓2 𝑅1
Find the ratio of two radii of curvature of a crossed lens to exhibit minimum
spherical aberration. Given µ = 1.6.

𝑅1 𝜇 2𝜇−1 −4
For minimum spherical aberration, =
𝑅2 𝜇 2𝜇+1