ZAMBIAN OPEN UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

NAME: SHARON BEENE MUKUWA

STUDENT No: 22231758

COURSE: DS 211- THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES.

ASSIGNMENT NUMBER: ONE (1)

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023 SECOND YEAR FIRST SEMISTER MID YEAR INTAKE

PROGRAM OF STUDY: BACHELOR OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

DUE DATE: 8TH SEPTEMBER, 2023.

LECTURER: MS. CHINYAMA.

QUIESTION: OUTLINE THE CHALLENGES IN RECONCILING ECONOMIC

GROWTH WITH SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES. JUSTIFY THE APPLICABILITY OF THE SIMON KUZNET

ENVIRONMENTAL HYPOTHESIS IN THE ZAMBIAN ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT.

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Since the late 1980s, when sustainable development first came to the fore, significant progress
has been made in the direction of a more sustainable world. However, the constraints of
sustainable development persist due to population expansion and issues with climate change,
necessitating the development of new projects. Therefore, this paper will outline the challenges
in reconciling economic growth with sustainable economic development in developing countries
and justify the applicability of the Simon Kuznet environmental hypothesis in the Zambian
environmental management.

First, what does the term "sustainable development" actually mean? Simply said, sustainable
development is a guiding philosophy that emphasizes the maintenance of global eco systems and
natural resources in harmony with human progress (Ante and Greg, 1995).

Making sure that the development requirements of future generations are met is a crucial
component of sustainable development. For instance, implementing sustainable energy measures
to cut back on the usage of fossil fuels, which helps preserve the environment while cutting
carbon emissions (Ante and Greg, 1995).

The eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were introduced by the United Nations at the
turn of the millennium. This was a list of objectives that concentrated on several facets of
sustainable development(Akpan and Agbai, 2011). After 2016, a new set of objectives known as
the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS) replaced this set of guiding principles.

Being a highly general notion that can apply to many different elements makes sustainable
development one of the more pervasive issues. Within this broad scope, sustainable development
does have some particular objectives. According to the United Nations, the three main objectives
of sustainable development are environmental conservation, social inclusion, and economic
growth (Roberts and Grimes, 1997).

The first two of these factors—economic growth and social inclusion—are geared toward
lowering global poverty and inequality. The philosophy of sustainable development is intended
to aid people by improving the minimum standards of living and reducing inequality. This form
of development can address a variety of issues, such as ensuring that everyone has access to
healthcare, food security, and human rights. These factors are closely related to the third
objective of sustainable development, "environmental protection," which aims to ensure that
economic objectives support environmental regulations in order to end ecosystem
mismanagement (Kaufmann et al., 1998).

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One of the first things that spring to mind when considering examples of sustainable
development are frequently some of its environmental goals, such as planting trees to replace
those that have been removed for the purpose of producing wood and timber. Nowadays,
businesses frequently try to replant and grow new trees to make up for the ones they cut down. It
has become more popular to use wood species that are fast-growing, abundant, and more
environmentally friendly. Unfortunately, issues like the destruction of pristine rain forests
continue (Roberts and Grimes, 1997).

The production of lumber and the clearing or burning of rainforest to make pastureland for
livestock and to meet production are two major variables that have an impact on rainforests. It is
challenging to deal with these challenges, and much work still has to be done to address them. In
order to combat deforestation, governments may choose to provide subsidies to developing
countries. Meanwhile, businesses may choose to ensure that the wood they use follows
sustainable supply chains and doesn't come from illegal logging (Akpan and Agbai, 2011).

The transition from using fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is another significant topic
that most people link with sustainable development. Sustainable development can benefit the
entire world's population and contribute to future generations' security, but it is not without
difficulties. If we want to build a better future, we must overcome a lot of obstacles (Koop and
Tole, 1999).

One of the challenges in reconciling economic growth with sustainable economic development in
developing countries is war and instability. It makes sense that sustainable development cannot
take place when there is unrest, instability, or war amongst nations (List and Gallet, 1999). For
example, the conflict in Ukraine has affected sustainable development. Since Ukraine and Russia
are major producers of wheat and barley, challenges related to food sustainability have really had
a significant impact on nations outside of Ukraine.

In fact, nearly 30% of all exports worldwide originate from Russia and Ukraine, a considerable
percentage that eventually has a big impact on food production and availability. One result of
globalization is that countries now depend on one another to maintain their respective standards
of living. When there is war or the danger of warfare over a country, it is difficult to preserve
civil society and human welfare. Sustainable development objectives are difficult to achieve in
these circumstances (Roberts and Grimes, 1997).

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Another challenge in reconciling economic growth with sustainable economic development in
developing countries is that of suitability and availability. The ability of a nation to carry out
sustainable development programs in their nation is another problem. It is usual for industrialized
countries to advise developing countries that the processes they employ in their own nations
should be sustainable and future-proof, but this begs the question of whether this is first and
foremost realistic. To help them minimize their obligations to unsustainable businesses, wealthy
nations must provide subsidies and other forms of assistance to developing nations (Ante and
Greg, 1995). Consider the forestry industry. Some nations can employ the resources found in
their large forested areas to better the lives of their residents. However, doing so could have an
adverse effect on biodiversity and the natural resources being used (Koop and Tole, 1999).

It might be simple for a developed western country to advocate for a reduction in these types of
economic growth. Although greenhouse gas emissions and environmental concerns are
significant, it is unlikely that sustainable development projects will be given top priority without
support from governments, policymakers, and the corporate sector (List and Gallet, 1999).

Programs for sustainable development must be adjusted to meet the local environment. In order
to establish competitive and practical sustainable development programs that do not impede each
country's progress, they must take into account the stage of development each is currently at and
assist them accordingly. Addressing global sustainable development challenges at the expense of
the development and improvement of other emerging countries is pointless. Modern technologies
should be introduced whenever there are concerns about environmental degradation since they
can help create greater synergy between the usage of a nation's resources and the sustainability of
those resources (Larson, Dinar, and Blankespoor, 2012).

Another challenge in reconciling economic growth with sustainable economic development in

developing countries is that of governmental issues. Other concerns center on the efforts that
governments might want to support and their level of commitment to sustainable development.
Although not always, most governments support efforts to address climate change and other
related challenges. Some political movements choose to disregard environmental concerns and
sustainable development objectives in favor of focusing on the immediate needs of their nation
or populace. Taking the legacy fossil fuel industries as an illustration, since they are crucial to the
support of underprivileged local communities and regions. If particular industries are shut down
without being replaced, certain towns may experience employment losses and poverty. Many

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governments in these places are averse to change in relation to programs for sustainable
development (Lopez, 1994).

Political parties frequently gain support from stakeholders and groups who are hostile to and
hold views that are incompatible with sustainable development goals in order to gain power.
Obtaining backing from lobbyists and firms that produce fossil fuels, as an example. Once in
power, it can be challenging for a government to implement more sustainable policies because
their constituency has competing interests. In the end, for sustainable development to be
effective, the appropriate political environment must exist, and frequently, sustainable
development can only be effective if it benefits the relevant government (List and Gallet, 1999).

Another challenge in reconciling economic growth with sustainable economic development in

developing countries is that of poverty and unemployment. Ending poverty is one of the
objectives of sustainable development, but it is a difficult effort that cannot be accomplished
without tackling a variety of other factors that fuel poverty. Some of the problems are associated
with economic opportunities and inequities that people experience. This may be differences in
treatment between nations. It is commonly known that persons who live in industrialized
countries typically have better financial circumstances than those who reside in poor countries
(Hilton and Levinson, 1998).

However, disparities can exist within a same nation. For instance, there may be a wealth gap
between some rural communities, where work opportunities may be scarce or poorly paid, and
urban areas. Or only specific businesses, like agriculture, offer opportunity in the rural areas.
Consider the disparity in work opportunities between someone living in New York and someone
in the American Rust Belt. There are disparities between males and women as well. Women
frequently don't have access to well-paying jobs or any jobs at all. Goals relating to equality of
opportunity are frequently included in sustainable development initiatives for employment
(Osabuhien, Efobi, and Gitau, 2013).

It can be difficult to reduce poverty without addressing the problems that surround the causes of
poverty in a particular community, which makes it harder to meet some of the more general aims
and difficulties of sustainable development. The social sciences study how people relate to one
another. Academics' case studies and sociological research can aid in our understanding of the
problems facing a particular community and our efforts to resolve those problems. Although a lot
of progress has been made in reducing poverty, much work remains. Consider the fact that 650

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million people are reportedly still food insecure and go without. Population expansion may make
the issue of food security worse (Agras and Champman, 1998).

Access to electricity is one of the essential components of sustainable development, which is

associated with rising levels of poverty and a lack of development progress. A significant
problem that has an impact on a person's poverty is energy poverty. One of the main objectives
of sustainable development, and there have been major advancements in this field. The World
Bank estimates that by the year 2020, slightly over 90% of people worldwide will have access to
energy. But there remain significant gaps in some of the world's poorest countries, where a
sizable portion of the populace lacks access to electricity (Osabuhien, Efobi, and Gitau, 2013).

After 2020, there will be more global issues, including the global downturn, recession, and a
long recovery from the Covid-19 epidemic, making it more difficult to solve poverty and global
development. The Covid-19 pandemic had a significant effect on the world economy and
increased poverty all across the world. For illustration, consider the fact that the pandemic alone
in South East Asia reduced the number of people living in poverty by slightly about 5 million.

Another challenge in reconciling economic growth with sustainable economic development in

developing countries is as the result of the global economy. The post-coronavirus financial crisis
has had a detrimental effect on the objectives of sustainable development. The world's poorest
population are susceptible to being impacted at any time when there are financial problems on a
global scale. While some nations can be protected from economic downturns, others that rely on
commerce with western countries that are also experiencing a downturn may suffer as a result of
globalization. Consider how the United States' economic crisis has affected Mexico, one of their
main suppliers. There are various synergies between countries due to the interdependence of
global trade, and what affects one country may indirectly influence another (Osabuhien, Efobi,
and Gitau, 2013).

Another challenge in reconciling economic growth with sustainable economic development in

developing countries is population growth. Population expansion is another possible obstacle for
sustainable development. Population growth in developing countries can be considered as both a
success and a challenge for the future, as the United Nations themselves state in their reports.
The more people on the planet, the more resources are required to keep them out of poverty and
provide them with necessities like clean water and power (Coondoo and Dinda, 2002).

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On the other hand, as economists have attempted to pinpoint the fundamental causes of resource
usage and growth trends, the application of the Simon Kuznet environmental hypothesis to
Zambia's environmental management is crucial. How environmental pressure varies with
economic expansion is a key question. One theory is the so-called environmental Kuznets curve
(EKC) hypothesis, which states that environmental pressure or resource use first rises with GDP
but then drops with per capita GDP after a particular income threshold. For a number of
resources, energy sources, and emissions, the theory has been tested. The available data is
conflicting: only some pollutants and some nations exhibit the EKC (Panayotou, 2000).

The common approach compares and correlates the levels of pollution with income in a group of
countries' major cities (or other measuring stations). The EKC is valid if pollution increases with
income level but also decreases with income level squared (Panayotou, 2000).

As the EKC is observed for air pollutants like SO2, suspended particulate matter (dark matter as
well as heavy particles), NOx, and CO, as well as for water pollutants like SO2, the Simon
Kuznet environmental hypothesis is essential to Zambia's environmental management. These
pollutants affect people's health in the immediate vicinity of where they are released (i.e., they
are local pollutants), whereas their effects happen at the same time as their release (i.e., they are
transient or flow pollutants). Municipal trash, CO2, and total energy consumption are typically
excluded from the EKC because they monotonically rise with income in a variety of nations.
Municipal trash is classified as a stock pollutant because it builds up in landfills over time rather
than flows annually, placing pressure on the ecosystem. Although CO2 has some local flow
pollution, its principal effect on the climate is due to the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere
(CO2 is both a stock and a global pollutant). Other evidence is only circumstantial and pertains
to the primary global stock pollutants and environmental indicators. As one basic indicator of the
inverse relationship between income and biodiversity, wilderness territory, for instance,
monotonically decreases with income level (Agras and Champman, 1998).

The Kuznets Curve can also be used to illustrate the shifting relationship between per capita
income and income quality, which can be seen both literally and figuratively with the use of
modern economic analysis techniques. The theory's proponent believed that at certain rates of
income growth, the income distribution is inequitable. However, income distribution tends to
equal out as the economy expands. According to Simon Kuznets' line of thinking, income

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disparity would expand initially after a maximum point begins to drop as per capita income rises
or increases (Elkins, 1996).

Similar to this, the Simon Kuznet environmental hypothesis in Zambian environmental

management is a topic of discussion for academics in the natural and physical sciences as well as
the social sciences. This is because it aids in the problem of achieving and sustaining economic
growth or development without changing the natural composition of the ecosystem and
environmental quality. Economic expansion necessitates greater inputs of labor, capital, and
other resources, which increases the quantity of trash that is produced in the environment and
renders it unfit for human habitation (Dijkgraaf and Vollenbergh, 1998).

According to the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis, environmental deterioration

and income per capita are correlated in an inverted U pattern. It suggests that environmental
degradation rises or increases at an increasing rate during the early phases of economic growth
and development. However, the co-movement tends to reverse at higher levels of economic
advancement after passing a certain threshold of economic development (Harbaugh, Levinson,
and Wilson, 1998). This is crucial for managing the environment in Zambia.

In the analysis that will follow, the Simon Kuznet environmental hypothesis will be referred to as
the Environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) because it is used to analyze the relationship between
the environment, income, and pollution in Zambia.

The use of natural resources, which unintentionally have certain lingering effects on the
environment, is then necessary for a society to reach a higher degree of development and, as a
result, to achieve sustained and sustainable growth. Since rising and increasing material
productivity and output are prioritized, pollution is growing more quickly. As a result, people
become less sensitive, which makes them more interested in material advantages than in the
environment in which they live. As a result, rapid growth increases the usage and use of natural
resources, which in turn raises the amount of pollutants and lowers the quality of the
environment (Agras and Champman, 1998).

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 Environmental degradation
Turning point

Environment Environment
worsens improves

Per capita income

To assist change natural resources into forms that can be used and put to use, all economies
employ a variety of other inputs, such as labor and capital. These items are produced and
consumed, which produces wastes that are recycled and reintroduced into the environment,
degrading environmental quality. In addition, humans depend on the air, water, and other
resources that nature provides to maintain life. Therefore, the environment offers a variety of
services to support economic activity. Since these resources and services are finite in nature, they
run the risk of going extinct and having a negative impact on the environment (Roberts and
Grimes, 1997).

In conclusion, sustainable development has been a priority since the late 1980s, and throughout
that period, great strides have been made in the direction of a more sustainable world. Simply
put, sustainable development is a guiding principle that emphasizes maintaining global eco
systems and natural resources in harmony with human progress. Researchers have looked for
underlying causes of resource use and growth patterns. How environmental pressure varies with
economic expansion is a key question. One theory is the so-called environmental Kuznets curve
(EKC) hypothesis, which states that environmental pressure or resource use first rises with GDP
but then drops with per capita GDP after a particular income threshold. For a number of
resources, energy sources, and emissions, the theory has been tested.

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