ANAPHY

The Cell and Cellular Metabolism & Reproduction

Active transport - Transport process in which solutes move from areas of lesser
to
greater concentration. It requires energy in the form of ATP
Cilia - Hair-like processes on the surface of the cell that propel materials
across a
surface
Cytoplasm - The gel-like substance surrounding the nucleus and filling the cell
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - Large polymer of a nucleotide that carries the
genetic
information of a cell

Diffusion - A passive transport mechanism that involves the movement of

particles
from an area of higher to lower concentration
Endocytosis - Form of vesicular transport that brings substances into the cell
Exocytosis - Form of vesicular transport that releases substances outside the
cell
Facilitated diffusion - Transport process involving the diffusion of a substance
through
a channel protein
Filtration - Transport process in which water and dissolved particles are forced
across
a membrane from an area of higher to lower pressure
Golgi apparatus - Prepares proteins and packages them for export to other
parts of the
body
Hydrostatic pressure - Pressure exerted by water
Hypertonic - Pertains to a solution that contains a higher concentration of
solutes
compared to the fluid within the cell
Hypotonic - Pertains to a solution that contains a lower concentration of
solutes
compared to the fluid within the cell
Isotonic - Pertains to a solution in which the concentration of solutes in the
solution is
the same as the concentration of solutes in the cell
Microvilli - Folds of a cell membrane that greatly increase the surface area of a
cell to
facilitate absorption
Mitochondria - Organelle that converts organic compounds into ATP
Mitosis - Type of cell division in which the “mother” cells splits into two
identical
daughter cells
Nucleus - The cell’s “control centre” that contains a complete set of 46
chromosomes
Organelles - The structures within the cell that perform specific tasks in
cellular
metabolism
Osmosis - A passive transport mechanism involving the diffusion of water from
an area
of greater concentration of water (and a lesser concentration of solutes) to an
area of
lesser concentration of water (and a greater concentration of solutes)
Osmotic pressure - Water pressure that develops in a solution as a result of
osmosis
Phagocytosis - Process in which large particles are trapped in the plasma
membrane
and brought into the cell
Pinocytosis - Process in which fluid and dissolved particles are trapped in the
plasma
membrane and brought into the cell
Plasma membrane - The external boundary of the cell
Polymer - Large molecule consisting of many smaller molecules joined in
sequence
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) - Nucleotide that assists in protein synthesis
Ribosomes - Granules of protein and RNA scattered throughout the cytoplasm;
some
are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum

CELL AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Our cells have distinct parts, it constitutes our body with more than 100
trillion of it. Though very
minute structures, these cells determines form and functions of the human
body. No wonder why
many disorders, through the advent of technology, can now be attributed to its
cellular basis.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

1. Cell metabolism and energy use – different chemical processes during cell
metabolism
provides energy for muscle contraction and heat production.
2. Synthesis of molecules – Cells synthesize various types of molecules,
including
proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The different cells of the body do not all
produce the
same molecules. Therefore, the structural and functional characteristics of
cells are
determined by the types of molecules they produce.
3. Communication – Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals
that allow
them to communicate with one another. For example, nerve cells communicate
with one
another and with muscle cells, causing muscle cells to contract.
4. Reproduction and inheritance – Each cell contains a copy of the genetic
information of
the individual. Specialized cells (sperm cells and oocytes) transmit that genetic
information to the next generation.

CELL STRUCTURE
Most cells have three major portions, with the exception of the red blood cells.
• The plasma membrane, or cell membrane, defining boundaries with gate-like
properties
• The cytoplasm contains organelles and molecules
• The nucleus, acts as the control center and contains a cell’s genetic
information.

CELL MEMBRANE
According to Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011) cell membranes or plasma
membranes are like
gatekeepers that manages which does and does not enter the cell. Its flexible
barrier, which is
made of two layers of phospholipids referred as lipid bilayer (figure 2.2),
separates the inside
and outside of the cell and controls the flow of substances.
Membrane channels and carrier molecules
CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES
the cytoplasm is the gel-like substance that fills the space
between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It consists of the intracellular
fluid called cytosol
and organelles.
Cytosol consists of water plus dissolved ions, proteins, amino acids, fatty
acids, ATP, and gases
which provides the avenue for most chemical reactions to occur? While
organelles are
considered to be the “little organs” found inside the cytoplasm and are bound
to perform different
tasks in cellular metabolism.

Nucleus
According to Tortora & Freud enrich (2011), the nucleus is the large organelle
usually found
centrally. It important thing about this structure is that it carries the genetic
material that contains
information for cell activities and cell division. Some of its functions also
includes controlling the
cell’s activities and cellular structure and produces ribosomes through its
nucleoli.
Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a large membrane system that extends outward
from the outer
nuclear membrane throughout the cytoplasm (figure 2.4). There are two types:
Those that extends from the nuclear envelope and filled with ribosomes are the
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. These organelles synthesize glycoproteins
and
phospholipids that are then transferred into the plasma membrane, or secreted
during
exocytosis.
Golgi Apparatus and Secretory Vesicle
The Golgi apparatus is like a flattened sac (figure 2.5) that acts like a pathway
for processing
proteins and lipids made by the Endoplasmic Reticulum. It forms several
things. It forms
secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins via exocytosis into
extracellular fluid.
Lysosome and Peroxisomes
Lysosomes have a number of digestive enzymes that break down ingested
material and worn-
out organelles and release their components into the cytosol. It can digest the
entire cells
(autolysis) and carry out extracellular digestion. Vesicles formed by endocytosis
may fuse with
lysosomes.
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that
break down fatty
acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide.
Mitochondrion
These bean-shaped organelles (figure 2.6) are the major structures to produce
Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP)-the main energy source for most chemical reactions within
the cell.
Furthermore, it also participates in the regulation of intracellular ionized
calcium.
Cytoskeleton and Microtubules
The cytoskeleton is made of networks of the following protein elements (figure
2.7). It is like
tree-branches that holds organelles in place and aid them in changing shape.
These protein
elements consists of microfilaments, intermediate filament and microtubules.
Centrosome and Centrioles
Centrioles are like mini-tunnels that were stacked together by threes
(microtubule triplet) and
formed a cylindrical organelle composed of nine triplets (figure 2.7). Putting a
pair of these
centrioles plus a pericentriolar material will make up a Centrosome is found
near the nucleus
and will be later essential for cell division called Mitosis.
Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli
Cilia are hairy-like projections that propels
materials across the surface. They vary in number from hundreds to
thousands. For instance,
the respiratory tract is lined with cilia to trap foreign materials such as dusts.
In this way, it aids
in maintaining airways clear from contaminants.

Flagella on the other hand, is like a whip tail placing itself at the terminal end
of a cell. Unlike
cilia that were numerous to be found in a cell, flagella usually appear singular
like in the sperm
cells. Moreover, this structure allows cells to mobilize like again in the case of
sperm cells that
travels its way to find the egg cells.

Microvilli are folds of the cell membrane that greatly increase the surface area
of a cell. Typically
found in cells charged with absorbing nutrients—such as the intestines—
microvilli can increase
a cell’s absorptive area as much as 40 times.
CELL TRANSPORT
Intracellular fluid - inside the cell
- sample substances that can be found are enzymes, glycogen and
potassium ions
Extracellular fluid - outside the cell
Interstitial fluids – fluids between cell within tissue
Plasma – fluid within a blood vessel
Lymph – fluid within lymphatic vessel
Cerebrospinal fluid – fluid that surrounds brain and spinal cord
Solute – a substance that is being dissolved in the various fluids
Solvent – a. fluid or gas in which solute is being dissolved
Concentration – the amount of solute dissolved in given volume of solvent
Concentration Gradient – the difference in concentration of a substance
between two areas

Selective Permeability. Because of this, coupled with the transport capacity,

cells
maintains its concentration of molecules. Movement of substances may include
two processes:
Passive transport – no cellular energy required during transport. Examples
includes
Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion
Active transport – certain amount of cellular energy is needed to help
transport to be
Successful. Includes itself, secondary active transport, endocytosis
and exocytosis
Diffusion is the process wherein solutes moves from an area of high
concentration to areas of
low concentration.
Osmosis involves the diffusion of water down the concentration gradient
through a selectively
permeable membrane.
• Isotonic —The solute concentration outside the cell is the same as that
inside the cell.
Therefore, water concentration is also the same on both sides of the cell, and
the net
movement of water is zero.
• Hypotonic —The solute concentration outside the cell is less than the
concentration
inside the cell. Therefore, the water concentration outside is greater than that
inside, and
water flows into the cell.
• Hypertonic —The solute concentration outside the cell is greater than the
concentration
inside the cell. Therefore, the water concentration is greater inside the cell than
outside,
and water flows out of the cell.

Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediatedtransport process that moves

substances
across the cell membrane from an area ofhigher concentration to an area of
lower
concentration of that substance.
Active transport is the process in which energy is used to move substances
across a
membrane against a concentration gradient, that is, from lower concentration
to higher
concentration. Substances must be highly-concentrated on side to have
enough stimulation of
the energy required. In most cases, ATP is the energy needed to assist in active
transport.
Secondary active transport involves the active transport of one substance,
such as
Na+, across the cell membrane, establishing a concentration gradient.

Endocytosis involves ingesting material by forming a vesicle from the plasma

membrane. The
sac of ingested material buds off inside the cell and usually fuses with
lysosomes. There are
three types of endocytosis
Phagocytosis. The cell “eats” large particles such as bacteria, viruses, and
dead cells.
White blood cells and some other cell types phagocytize bacteria, cell debris
and foreign
particles.
Pinocytosis. The cell periodically “drinks” by forming small vesicles around
droplets of
extracellular fluid. These droplets may have small particles dissolved in them
as well.
These vesicles fuse with lysosomes and release their contents.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis. When hormones bind to receptors on the
plasma
membrane, the hormone–receptor complex is often ingested by endocytosis
after the
hormone has produced its effect. Cholesterol and growth factors are samples of
which.
Cells transport materials and make proteins as part of their normal functions.
They grow and, at
some point, divide to produce new cells. Cell division is the way your body
grows and how it
replaces worn-out cells and cells damaged by disease or injury. During
interphase, the cells goes through three stages:
G1—a growth phase in which proteins are synthesized. The cell performs the
tasks for
which it was created (such as carrying oxygen, secreting digestive enzymes,
etc.). It
accumulates the materials it will need to replicate its DNA.
S— when DNA is replicated.
G2—another growth phase in which proteins are made.
Interphase, which may take 20 to 22 hours, is followed by mitosis.
Mitosis itself consists of four phases:
• Prophase - each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the
centromere.
• Metaphase - chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
• Anaphase - chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite
poles
• Telophase - the two new nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell
division is
completed, producing two new daughter cells.
As a result of mitosis, each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. This make-
up, which is
identical to that of the starting cell, is called diploid.