Biology notes Std :12

1) Probes: A probe is a single-stranded sequence of DNA or RNA used to

search for its complementary sequence in a sample genome.
2) Marker: In genetics, a molecular marker (identified as genetic marker) is a
fragment of DNA that is associated with a certain location within
the genome. Molecular markers are used in molecular biology and
biotechnology to identify a particular sequence of DNA in a pool of
unknown DNA.
3) A variable number tandem repeat (or VNTR) is a location in
a genome where a short nucleotide sequence is organized as a tandem repeat.
These can be found on many chromosomes, and often show variations in
length (number of repeats) among individuals. Each variant acts as
an inherited allele, allowing them to be used for personal or parental
identification. Their analysis is useful
in genetics and biology research, forensics, and DNA fingerprinting.
4) Primer: A primer is a short, single-stranded DNA sequence used in the
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique. In the PCR method, a pair of
primers is used to hybridize with the sample DNA and define the region of
the DNA that will be amplified. Primers are also referred to as
oligonucleotides.
5) Minisatellite: A minisatellite is a tract of repetitive DNA in which certain
DNA motifs (ranging in length from 10 to 60 base pairs) are typically
repeated 5–50 times. Minisatellites are notable for their high mutation rate
and high diversity in the population, and they occur at more than 1000
locations in the human genome.
6) DNA polymorphism: DNA polymorphisms are the different DNA
sequences among individuals, groups, or populations. Polymorphism at the
DNA level includes a wide range of variations from single base pair change,
many base pairs, and repeated sequences.
7) A satellite DNA is a portion of the DNA consisting of tandem repeats of
non-coding nucleotide sequences that occur in the genome. Tandem repeats
are copies of nucleotide sequences that lie adjacent to each other. ... A
satellite DNA are (chiefly) non-coding; it does not code for a particular
protein.
8) Microsatellite : Microsatellites are tandem repeats of short (1–6 bp)
Microsatellite repeats are tandem arrays of repetitive DNA sequences. They
are similar to minisatellites in being a stretch of DNA consisting of tandem
repeats. However, microsatellites are shorter than minisatellites. The typical
length of a microsatellite is about one to six base pairs.
9) Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), variation in a genetic sequence
that affects only one of the basic building blocks—adenine (A), guanine (G),
thymine (T), or cytosine (C)—in a segment of a DNA molecule and that
occurs in more than 1 percent of a population.

An example of an SNP is the substitution of a C for a G in the nucleotide

sequence AACGAT, thereby producing the sequence AACCAT. The DNA of
humans may contain many SNPs, since these variations occur at a rate of one in
every 100–300 nucleotides in the human genome. In fact, roughly 90 percent of
the genetic variation that exists between humans is the result of SNPs. Although
the majority of variations do not alter cellular function and thus have no effect,
some SNPs have been discovered to contribute to the development of diseases
such as cancer and to influence physiological responses to drugs.
10) EST’S : EST (expressed sequence tag): A unique stretch of DNA
within a coding region of a gene that is useful for identifying full-length
genes and serves as a landmark for mapping. STSs are detectable by
the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). are relatively short DNA sequences
(usually 200–300 nucleotides) generally generated from the 3′ ends of
cDNA clones from which PCR primers can be derived and used to detect the
presence of the specific coding sequence in genomic DNA.
11) hnRNA is the collective term for the unprocessed mRNA (pre-
mRNA) molecules in the nucleus. It is largely comprised of the pre-mRNA
molecules that require extensive processing to become mature mRNA
molecules.
12) Split gene: An interrupted gene (also called a split gene) is a gene that
contains expressed regions of DNA called exons, split with unexpressed
regions called introns (also called intervening regions).
13) Bioinformatics is the implication of logic and principles of
information technology in the field of molecular biology. It is is the study to
get the information stored in certain types of biological data using the
application of computer technology. It enables scientists to submit, analyze,
and search the information using a globally accessible database.
14) Operon: A set of genes transcribed under the control of an operator
gene. More specifically, an operon is a segment of DNA containing adjacent
genes including structural genes, an operator gene, and a regulatory gene.
An operon is thus a functional unit of transcription and genetic regulation.
15) In molecular biology, an inducer is a molecule that regulates gene
expression. ... The gene is expressed because an inducer binds to the
repressor. The binding of the inducer to the repressor prevents the repressor
 from binding to the operator. RNA polymerase can then begin to transcribe
operon genes.
16) Operator: A segment of DNA where the repressor binds to, thereby
preventing the transcription of certain genes.
17) In molecular genetics, a repressor is a DNA- or RNA-binding protein
that inhibits the expression of one or more genes by binding to the operator
or associated silencers. A DNA-binding repressor blocks the attachment of
RNA polymerase to the promoter, thus preventing transcription of the genes
into messenger RNA.
18) Transfer RNA. Small RNA molecules that carry amino acids to the
ribosome for polymerization into a polypeptide. During translation the
amino acid is inserted into the growing polypeptide chain when the
anticodon of the tRNA pairs with a codon on the mRNA being translated.
19) Aminoacylation: Transfer RNA molecules play a key role in the
process by delivering amino acids to the ribosome in an order specified by
the mRNA sequence; this ensures that the amino acids are joined together in
the correct order.
20) anticodon – a sequence of three nucleotides on a tRNA molecule that
bond to a complementary sequence on an mRNA molecule. The anticodon
sequence determines the amino acid that the tRNA carries.