DISCIPLINES OF THE

SOCIAL SCIENCES
Concepts and Principles of the
Major Social Science Theories
* STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM,
MARXISM, AND SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM *
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
- or simply functionalism is essentially
a sociological theory that revolves
around the notion that a society is
composed of a system of
interconnected parts that have their
own particular functions.
Functionalists use the term functional
and dysfunctional to describe the
effects of social elements on society.
Functional – if they contribute to social
stability.
Dysfunctional – if they disrupt social
stability
 Robert Merton (1968)
- he identified two types of functions:

1. Manifest function
2. Latent function
Key concepts in Structural
Functionalism
 1. Manifest function
- is the predicted, intended, expected,
and knowable effect of a social
structure.
Ex. When people go to church, to pray
and hear the mass.
 2. Latent function
- is the unintended outcome of social
structure.
Ex. If the manifest function of going to
church is to pray and hear mass, its latent
function is to gather people together in one
place to reinforce the sense of community.
MANIFEST and LATENT
Dysfunctions
1. Manifest dysfunction
- is the predicted, expected, and
knowable disruptions of a social
structure.
Ex. Concerts and other events disrupt
traffic flow within the vicinity.
1. Latent dysfunction
- is the unpredicted and unexpected
disruptions of social structures.
Ex. In restaurants, customers usually take
pictures of food for social media. The
average time spent by customers at the
table will increase, and the next costumers
will have an increased waiting period.
MERTON’S THEORY OF DEVIANCE
MERTON’S THEORY OF DEVIANCE
Merton argued that when individuals
are faced with a gap between their
goals (usually finances/money
related) and their current status,
strain occurs. When faced with
strain, people have five ways to
adapt:
MERTON’S THEORY OF DEVIANCE
1. CONFORMITY – occurs when an individual
has the means and desire to achieve the
cultural goals socialized into them.
Conformist:
ACCEPT the goals (money)
ACCEPT the means (education)
MERTON’S THEORY OF DEVIANCE
2. RITUALISM – occurs when an individual
continues to do things as prescribed by
society but forfeits the achievement of the
goals.
Ritualist:
ACCEPTS the means (education)
REJECTS the goals (money)
MERTON’S THEORY OF DEVIANCE
3. INNOVATION – occurs when an individual
strives to attain the accepted cultural goals
but chooses to do so in an unaccepted
method.
Innovator:
ACCEPTS the goals (money)
REJECTS the means (education)
MERTON’S THEORY OF DEVIANCE
4. RETREATISM – is the rejection of both the
means and the goals of society.
Retreatist:
REJECTS the goals (money)
REJECTS the means (education)
MERTON’S THEORY OF DEVIANCE
5. REBELLION – is a combination of the
rejection of societal goals and means and a
substitution of other goals and means
Rebel:
REJECT the goals (money)
REJECT means (education)
REPLACE with new
IMPORTANT
THEORISTS
1. August Comte
- provided an analysis of social evolution
through his “Law of Three Stages”. Comte
provided a theory of society and man’s
cognitive progression from religious and
abstract concepts to a scientific
perspective.
Law of Three Stages
1. Theological Stage
- In this stage, all things are considered an
image of a god or understood and believed
as the resulting form of the activities of
some divine beings.
Law of Three Stages
2. Metaphysical Stage
- At this stage, the belief in the individual
power of god is diminished. God is thought
of not as a personified form but as an
abstract force. People viewed the world
and events as natural reflections of human
tendencies.
Law of Three Stages
3. Scientific or Positive Stage
- Refers to a scientific explanation based on
observation, experiment, and comparison.
Positivism is a purely intellectual way of
looking at the world, as well, it emphasizes
observation and classification of data and
facts.
2. Herbert Spencer
- Also known as the first sociological
functionalist, his comparison of society to
the human body is the overarching idea of
structural functionalism. According to him,
each social structure is like a body part – it
has a purpose and a functions in the
overall well-being of the society.
3. Talcott Parsons
- American sociologist is known as one of the
primary contributors to the development
of structural functionalism.
- He identified the different systems which
make up the structure of the society, which
he called systems levels.
3. Talcott Parsons
- All these systems work and interact with
each other in some levels to provide
structure to society.
- The cultural system, social system,
personality system, and biological system.