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STACK:
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 TOWARDS COMMON UNIFIED DESIGN RULES
FOR STEEL ARCHES

H.H. Snijder1, J.C.D. Hoenderkamp1, F.S.K. Bijlaard2, D.B. la Poutré1

1
Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands
2
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
h.h.snijder@bwk.tue.nl

ABSTRACT
A complete set of stability design rules for steel arches is not yet available in Eurocode 3. In
this paper the state-of-the-art concerning the stability of steel arches is dealt with, focussing
on the research programme at Eindhoven University of Technology. A set of design rules for
in-plane loaded steel arches is presented. For the out-of-plane stability of steel arches loaded
in compression and in bending a set of design rules is given as well. For these load cases,
load-bearing capacities of steel arches according to the proposed design rules were checked
against finite element calculations. Research on the out-of-plane stability of steel arches under
combined compression and bending is now underway. Due to the complexity of the load case
it was felt necessary to carry out full-scale tests to calibrate the finite element model. Some
preliminary results and a suggestion for a design rule are presented.

1 INTRODUCTION
Steel arches are frequently occurring structures in the design of buildings and bridges (see
Fig.1). Recently, much research has been carried out in Australia [1 to 4] and in The
Netherlands [6 to 12] on the stability of steel arches to arrive at design rules. A complete set
of stability design rules for steel arches is not yet available in building codes. Also in
Eurocode 3 [5], a set of stability design rules is not yet included. At Eindhoven University of
Technology a research programme is underway [6 to 12] aiming at obtaining a full set of
stability design rules for steel arches. This programme has three phases.
In phase 1, the in-plane stability of steel arches loaded in compression, in bending and in a
combination of bending and compression was considered. Load-bearing capacities of steel
arches according to the proposed design rules were checked against non-linear finite element
calculation results. This approach turned out to be appropriate to arrive at a set of design rules
for in-plane loaded steel arches. These design rules are presented again in this paper and some
of the background research is illustrated.
In phase 2, the out-of-plane stability of steel arches loaded in pure compression and in pure
bending was studied. The same approach as in phase 2 was used resulting also in a set of
design rules which are also presented here. Some background research is given as well.
In phase 3, the out-of-plane stability of steel arches under combined compression and bending
was investigated. Since the structural behaviour in phase 3 was expected to be more complex,
it was decided to do full-scale experiments, to calibrate the finite element model against.
Information on the experiments and some results of the calibration are presented in this paper.
Also a suggestion for a design rule is given. This phase has not been completed yet.
Finally, an overview will be given of further research to be done to achieve at a complete set
of design rules for the stability of steel arches.

Fig. 1: Railway station Blaak, Rotterdam, The Netherlands (left) and Yarra river
pedestrian bridge, Melbourne, Australia (right)

2 IN-PLANE STABILITY – COMPRESSION AND BENDING

2.1 Design rule

For arches loaded in compression, bending or combined compression and bending, which fail
by in-plane instability, the following design rule was proposed earlier [6]:
F n  M + Fe * 
+ ≤1 (1)
F p n − 1  M p 

where F compressive force

Fp compressive resistance of the cross-section
n ratio between Euler buckling load (FE) and compressive force (F)
M equivalent bending moment
e* imperfection parameter
Mp moment resistance of the cross-section
In fact equation (1) is a beam-column formula of the Perry-Robertson type but any beam-
column formula would do. Specific for arches is the way the compressive force F and
equivalent bending moment M are defined. In equation (1) the compressive force at quarter
point position along the length of the arch should be used for arches; for the equivalent
moment, the arch is to be considered consisting of two members from support to top.

2.2 Verification
To verify the design rule for in-plane stability of steel arches (equation (1)), geometric and
material non-linear Finite Element (FE) results are compared with the ultimate loads
according to the design rule. Starting point of the FE calculations was the arch as shown in
Fig. 2. For this basic arch several parameters were varied, one at a time. Fig. 3 shows the
collapse load parameter (ratio between the collapse load and unity loading of the load case
considered) λu according to the FE calculations (DIANA), according to the proposed design
rule (NEN6771) and according to the German design code (DIN 18 800 [13]) as a function of
the slenderness ratio λ y , for three different load cases.
The slenderness ratio is defined as:
l buc
λy = (2)
i
 S
ωo
H
L=10 000 mm
α=90o
α ωo=1/1000*S/2=5.55 mm
section IPE100
steel fy=235 N/mm2
L

Fig. 2: Imperfect basic arch

where i radius of gyration
l buc buckling length
In the comparison, the buckling length was based on the Euler buckling load (FE) obtained
through FE analysis:
π 2 EI
l buc = (3)
FE
where E Young’s modulus
I second moment of inertia
However, it was shown that the following buckling length (see Fig. 2) may also be used in
practice:
l buc = S / 2 for H/L<0,3 (4)
where S developed length along the arch (see Fig. 2)
H height of the arch
L span of the arch
In case the requirement mentioned in equation (4) is not met, effective buckling length factors
have been proposed.

100 35
140
λu λ1.5q
λF λq
λu λu 90 λq
30
120
80
25
100 70
α α α
60 20
80
L L L
50
60 15
40

40 30 10
DIANA
DIANA 20 DIANA
DIN 18 800
20 5
DIN 18 800 10 'NEN6771' 'NEN6771'
'NEN6771'
0 0 0
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
λy λy λy

Fig. 3: Collapse load parameter as a function of the slenderness ratio for three basic load cases

The proposed design rule for point loading results in a conservative value of the collapse load,
about 75% of the geometric and material non-linear numerical collapse load. The DIN 18800
results in more conservative values (66%), is restricted to a limited range and cannot be used
for all configurations. Results for a uniform radially distributed load appear accurate. The
proposed design rule results in nearly identical values of collapse load as those according to
FE analyses for asymmetrical radially distributed loading. DIN 18 800 cannot be used for any
configuration subjected to asymmetrical loading. Similar conclusions hold for simulations
with varying span (L) and varying angle of opening ( α ) for the different load cases.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the proposed design rule is on the safe side.
3 OUT-OF-PLANE STABILITY – COMPRESSION OR BENDING

3.1 Design rule

For arches loaded in pure compression and pure bending, which fail by out-of-plane
instability, the following design rules were proposed [7]:
– Arches under uniform compression:
F
≤1 (5a)
χ out F p

– Arches under uniform bending:

M
≤1 (5b)
χ out M p
where χ out the reduction factor according to European buckling curve “a”

To determine the reduction factor, a non-dimensional slenderness ( λ ) of the arch must be

determined. The non-dimensional slenderness is given in equation (6a) for uniform
compression and in equation (6b) for uniform bending.
Fp
λ = (6a)
FE

Mp
λ = (6b)
ME

where FE the elastic out-of-plane (Euler) buckling load for uniform compression
ME the elastic out-of-plane (Euler) buckling load for uniform bending
These elastic buckling loads are given in equation (7), based on the work by Rajasekaran and
Padmanabhan [14]. A reduction factor ( β r ) was introduced because their elastic buckling
loads overestimate those obtained by FE analysis for arches with a large height to span ratio.
Mo  b / a(a 2 − 1) 2 
FE = β r   (7a)
 a +b
2 2
R 

 a ab a ab 
M E = β r M o  − − + ( + ) 2 + 1 − a 2  (7b)
 b 2 b 2 

 π 2 EI w  π 2 EI z
where M o = FE , z  GI t +  FE , z =
 S2  S2
S π Mo
a= b=
π R FE , z S
Hh
βr = 1 for ≤ 0,25
SL
Hh Hh
β r = 1,05 − 0,2 for > 0,25
SL SL
G shear modulus of elasticity
 It torsional moment of inertia
Iw warping constant
R arch radius
Iz weak axis second moment of inertia
h height of cross-section

3.2 Verification
To verify the design rule for out-of-plane stability of steel arches (equation (5)), geometric
and material non-linear FE results including the effects of imperfections and residual stress
are compared with the ultimate loads according to the design rule. In Fig. 4 column buckling
curve “a” and FE results are given for arches with several dimensions resulting in different
non-dimensional slendernesses. Also, the length, radius and cross-section of the arches were
varied. As can be seen in Fig. 4, the calculated ultimate loads correspond very well with
buckling curve “a”. For circular arches with an IPE cross-section under uniform compression
or uniform bending, column buckling curve “a” can be used for out-of-plane buckling.
1 1
Buckling curve
χ
Buckling curve
out
Ultimate load χ
out Ultimate load
10-1

-1
10
-2 10

10-3

-2
10-4 10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
λ λ

a) Uniform compression b) Uniform bending

Fig. 4: Check of the design rules for out-of-plane stability

4 OUT-OF-PLANE STABILITY – COMBINED COMPRESSION AND BENDING

The research on out-of-plane stability of steel arches under combined compression and
bending is still underway [8 to 10]. Research is focusing on (in-plane) hinge supported free-
standing circular steel arches with H-shaped cross-sections. At the supports the arch is
restrained against out-of-plane sway. The load case is restricted to a single vertical point load
at the crown causing combined compression and bending in the arch (see Fig. 1). For practical
experimental reasons, the direction of the point load is kept pointing at mid-span along the
chord between the hinged supports, thus resulting in a tilting or non-conservative loading.
Since the spatial stability behaviour of this arch is rather complex, it was decided to

Table 1: Test programme for out-of-plane stability of arches

L
Number of tests
S
Subtended HEA100 HEB300* HEB600*
angle α S=6m S = 2,5 m S = 2,5 m
90º 3 1 1 H
110º 2 - -
135º 2 1 1 h
α
160º 2 - - R

180º 3 - 1
*) scaled to the depth of HEA100
do full-scale experiments, to calibrate a finite element model. The experimental programme is
shown in Table 1. The subtended angle was varied form 90o to 180o. Full scale HEA100
specimens were tested for constant developed length S = 6 m. To be able to use the same test
rig and to keep failure loads at a moderate level, scaled sections representing HEB300 and
HEB600 cross-sections were tested at S = 2,5 m. These were obtained by planing HEA100
sections. The material used was steel S235JRG2 with a measured yield stress of 293 N/mm2
(mill test). The arches were bent using a pyramid type three-roller bending process.

1 180º arch
2 90º arch 200 mm
3 actuator
4 test rig
4
5 load-introduction
6 tension rod (a) plan

5
5
1

175 mm
6
2

1.1 m
4
4 3
6m
(b) side elevation (c) elevation

Fig. 5: Test set-up

The test set-up is shown in Fig. 5. At the crown of the arch where the load is introduced, a
frictionless hydrostatic bearing was developed to enable tilting of the load independently from
rotation of the cross-section, thus avoiding unintended support at load introduction. In Fig. 7
some test results are shown in the form of load-displacement graphs for one of the 180o
HEA100 full scale specimens. The experimental failure load was Fu = 104,8 kN. All
experiments carried out were extensively reported in [11].
In Fig. 6 the FE model that is used to simulate the experiments, is shown. It consists mainly of
shell elements but also beam elements are included to make up for the effects of the fillets at
the flange to web intersection. The analysis carried out is a geometric and material non-linear
analysis taking imperfections and residual stresses into account. Special attention is paid to
the effects of the bending process. Bending the arches by the three-roller bending process
influences the specimen in three different ways. The cross-sectional dimensions change due to
bending: the top half dimensions of the section decrease while the bottom half ones increase
and the depth of the section decreases. The stress-strain material curve changes substantially
due to bending: usually ductility decreases with increasing curvature and a yield plateau is
absent and therefore the 0,2% offset proof stress is determined instead of the yield strength.
tf

BEAM
SHELL
elements
h

elements
LINK
element

b u

(a) elements in cross section (b) elements in arch (c) isometric view of FE-model

Fig. 6: FE model
Residual rolling stresses change due to bending: the distribution of residual stress after
bending is shown qualitatively in the inset of Fig. 7. The FE calculations are based on
measured cross-sectional dimensions, stress-strain curves, residual stresses and geometrical
imperfections. Some results are shown in Fig. 7. The calculation including residual stresses
shows a numerical failure load of Fu = 104,1 kN which is very close (0,6%) to the
experimental failure load. Also, the load-displacement curves compare reasonably well.
Neglecting the residual stresses gives almost the same numerical failure load (Fu = 103,6 kN)
but the load-displacement curves do not compare that well. More results are given in [12]. It
can be concluded that the developed FE model is able to simulate the experiments quite well.

100 100 100

experiment
F 80 80 80
[kN] FEA without residual stress
60 FEA with residual stress 60 60

+ u ϕ
40 -
40 40
-
+
v
20 20 20

0
0 20 40 60 -120 -80 -40 0 -10 -5 0
v u ϕ
[mm] [mm] [degree]

Fig. 7: Load-displacement graphs for 180o full scale HEA100 specimen

The calibrated FE model can now be used in a parameter investigation to produce data points
in the form of ultimate loads. Geometrical imperfections for calculation purposes are to be
used in stead of measured imperfections and conservative loading is to be considered. On the
basis of results obtained this way, a design rule may be derived, based upon the modified
‘General Method’ of Eurocode 3 [5], using the plastic capacity of the arch and the Euler load.

5 SUMMARY
An overview has been given of the research on steel arch stability at Eindhoven University of
Technology. For in-plane stability, a design rule was proposed based on a beam-column
design rule but with specific buckling length, normal force and bending moment. For out-of-
plane stability, design rules were proposed for the basic load cases of pure compression and
pure bending. These are based on design rules for column buckling and lateral torsional
buckling of beams, but they use specific modified elastic buckling loads found in literature.
The design rules obtained for the cases mentioned above were verified by comparison with
non-linear Finite Element (FE) analyses taking imperfections and residual stresses into
account. For the general load case of combined bending and compression, research on the out-
of-plane stability of steel arches is still underway. Full-scale experiments have been carried
out to be used for calibrating a FE model. A FE model has been described which is able to
simulate the experiments. The next step will be to use this FE model in a parameter
investigation to produce sufficient data to serve as a basis for a design rule.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank “Bouwen met Staal” for financial support of the research carried
out in the phases 1 and 2. Also, thanks are due to TNO Bouw, especially H.M.G.M.
Steenbergen, for the support work done during these phases.
REFERENCES
[1] Papangelis, J.P., Trahair, N.S., Flexural-torsional buckling tests on arches, Journal of
Structural Engineering, 113 (7), 1987, pp. 1433-1443
[2] Pi, Y-L., Trahair, N. S., Out-of-plane inelastic buckling and strength of steel arches, J. of
Structural Engineering, vol. 124 (2), 1998, pp. 174-183
[3] Pi, Y-L., Trahair, N. S., Inelastic lateral buckling strength and design of steel arches, Eng.
Struct., 22, 2000, pp. 993-1005
[4] Pi, Y-L., Bradford, M.A., Elasto-plastic buckling and postbuckling of arches subjected to
a central load, Comput. Struct., 81(18-19), 2003, pp. 1811-1825
[5] prEN 1993-1-1:2003, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings, CEN, Brussels, Nov. 2003
[6] Verstappen, I., Snijder, H.H., Bijlaard, F.S.K., Steenbergen, H.M.G.M., Design rules for
steel arches – in-plane stability, Second World Conference on Steel in Construction, San
Sebastián, Spain, 1998, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 46, Nos. 1-3, 1998,
pp. 125-126, paper number 30 on cd-rom
[7] Delrue, S.F., Snijder, H.H., Bijlaard, F.S.K., Steenbergen, H.M.G.M., Design rules for
steel arches: out-of-plane stability, Nordic Steel Construction Conference, Bergen,
Norway, 1998, Proceedings Volume I, Norwegian Steel Association, pp. 177-188
[8] Poutré, D.B. la, Snijder, H.H., Hoenderkamp, J.C.D., Spatial stability experiment on a
semicircular steel arch, Advances in Structures Steel Concrete Composite and Aluminium,
Advances in Structures, ASSCCA’03, eds. G.J. Hancock, M.A. Bradford, T.J. Wilkinson,
B. Uy, K.J.R. Rasmussen, Proceedings of the International Conference on Advances in
Structures (ASSCCA ’03), Sydney, Australia, 23-25 June 2003, A.A. Balkema Publishers,
Lisse/Abingdon/Exton(PA)/Tokyo, pp. 207-212
[9] Poutré, D.B. la, Snijder, H.H., Hoenderkamp, J.C.D., An FE-Model for Analyzing Spatial
Stability of Steel Arches, Proceedings, 2003 Annual Technical Session & Meeting, April
2-5, 2003, Baltimore, Maryland, Reports on Current Research Activities, Structural
Stability Research Council (SSRC), pp. 279-298
[10]Poutré, D.B. la, Snijder, H.H., Hoenderkamp, J.C.D., Bakker, M.C.M., Effects of the
Bending Process on the Out-of-plane Stability of Steel Arches, Proceedings, 2004 Annual
Stability Conference, March 24-27, 2004, Long Beach, California, Reports on Current
Research Activities, Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC) University of Missouri-
Rolla, ISBN 1-879749-71-8, pp. 159-178
[11]Poutré, D.B. la, Stability experiments on circular steel arches, report TUE.BCO.O-
2004.3, Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands, 2004
[12]Poutré, D.B. la, Inelastic spatial stability of circular wide flange steel arches, PhD-thesis,
Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands, 2004
[13]DIN 18800, Teil 2, Stahlbauten, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 1990
[14]Rajasekaran, S., Padmanabhan, S., Equations of curved beams, Journal of Engineering
Mechanics, 115(5), 1989, pp. 1095-1110.

KEYWORDS
Stability, Arch, Finite element method, Experiments, Calibration, Design rule
 NSCC2009

Residual stresses in cold bent HE 100A steel arches

R.C. Spoorenberg1,2, H.H. Snijder2, J.C.D. Hoenderkamp2, M.C.M. Bakker2

1
Material Innovation Institute, M2i, Delft, Netherlands
2
Eindhoven University of Technology, Department of Architecture, Building & Planning, Eindhoven,
Netherlands

Arches are structural elements applied in roofings and bridges. They may be formed
by cold bending of hot-rolled wide flange sections. The original residual stress pattern
due to differential cooling in the wide flange section is altered as a result of cold bend-
ing. Residual stresses resulting from differential cooling in straight I-sections have
been well documented; however, this is not the case for residual stress patterns result-
ing from cold bending. Residual stresses can have a significant influence on the
strength and stability of arches. This paper presents experimentally measured residual
stresses and a finite-element-based method for obtaining residual stresses, in cold-bent
arches consisting of HE 100A wide flange sections. Residual stresses in cold bent
specimens were measured with the sectioning method. A finite element model has
been implemented using ANSYS 11.0. The residual stresses obtained from numerical
analyses and actual measurements on cold bent steel arches do not only differ from
typical hot-rolled residual stress patterns but also deviate from earlier proposed cold
formed stress distributions. The results obtained from the finite element method show
moderate to good agreement with experimental results.

1 INTRODUCTION

In structural steel members, residual stresses exist due to two major causes: uneven cooling due to
hot-rolling and cold forming. Straight hot rolled sections contain residual stresses due to uneven
cooling. When these sections are cold bent into an arch shape, the original residual pattern will
change due to cold forming. This paper focuses on residual stresses resulting from cold-bending of
hot-rolled beams. A theoretical model for the development of residual stresses for cold bent beams
was first suggested by Timoshenko (1940) based on a bi-linear material law, assuming that the cur-
vature was obtained by the application of a uniform bending moment (Figure 1). The calculated re-
sidual stresses were the result of a summation of loading and unloading stresses. The same residual
stress pattern was adopted by King & Brown (2001). Residual stresses were measured by Weng &
White (1990) on press braked plates. They found a residual stress pattern quite similar to the sug-
gested residual stress patterns by Timoshenko. Roller bending is a well-known process to manufac-
ture circular or more complex shaped arches from straight beams. Numerous investigators have
studied the roller bending process for beams with a square cross section and flat plates, by consider-
ing the relationship between the movement of the rollers and the emerging permanent curvature:
Hansen & Jannerup (1979), Yang & Shima (1988), Gandhi & Raval (2008), or by analyzing shape
tolerances in finished plates, Zeng et al. (2008). Residual stresses in cold-drawn tubes were exam-
ined numerically by Welo et al. (1994). Numerical simulations of production bending of aluminum
extrusions were performed by Paulsen & Welo (1996). Research on residual stresses in cold bent I-
sections has been undertaken at Eindhoven University of Technology where La Poutre (2004)
measured residual stresses in cold bent arches by employing the hole-drilling method; however

414
large scatter in data was found. Spoorenberg et al. (2008) suggested a simplified numerical model to
simulate the roller bending process, based on the assumption of Timoshenko’s theoretical model.
Comparison between numerical and experimental results revealed that further enhancement of the
numerical model is required. To the authors’ knowledge no further research has been undertaken to
investigate residual stresses in cold bent I-shaped sections, numerical or experimental. It is expected
that a simplified residual stress distribution as shown in Figure 1 cannot be adopted since the true
roller bending process exhibits a complex interaction between rollers and the beam.

Figure 1. Simplified theory on residual stresses in cold bending by Timoshenko (1940). α denotes the ratio
between the plastic and elastic section modulus, fy is the yield stress, h is the height of cross section, R the
radius of the circular arch.

In section 2 an outline of the roller bending process is given. The experiments as conducted on cold-
bent sections are presented in section 3. Also the methodology of the experiments and underlying
assumptions are given. In section 4 the numerical model is presented. The results of the experiments
and numerical simulations are presented in section 5 and discussed in section 6. The paper ends
with conclusions in section 7.

2 FABRICATION PROCESS OF COLD-BENT SECTIONS

A three-point roller bending machine was used to manufacture steel arches. The steel arches were
bent into a circular shape with a prescribed radius on a Roundo machine, named after the Swedish
company. A schematic representation of the machine is given below (Figure 2). The machine con-
sists of three large rollers with a diameter of 0.6 m and a small flange support roller (Figure 2a).
Cold-bending is achieved when the member passes through the set of rollers. The right roller moves
towards the center roller according a fixed path (Figure 2b) and subsequently all rollers rotate (Fig-
ure 2c). The flange support rollers on either side of the tension flange exert a force on the flange
thereby preventing web crippling. Depending on the desired radius, the shape is passed through the
machine in repeated passes. A skilled workman can attain an accuracy of 2-3 mm for the desired ra-
dius with this machine. The ends of the beam do not have the desired radius due to placement re-
quirements and therefore have to be considered as waste material (Figure 2c). A more extensive de-
scription of the roller bending process has been given by Bjorhovde (2006).

Figure 2. Top view of the roller bending process

415
3 EXPERIMENTS

3.1 Experimental investigation

The experimental programme comprised residual stress measurements on 3 curved HE 100A sec-
tions. All tested material was grade S235 mild steel. Each section was bent into a different curva-
ture, which represents a circular arch with a different bending radius. An outline of the experimental
plan is presented below in Table 1. Additional tests on straight reference I-sections were carried out
to determine the mechanical properties of the base material.
Table 1 Experimental plan
Specimen no. Bending radius [mm]
1 1910
2 2546
3 3820

3.2 Measurements
The sectioning method was used to measure residual stresses in cold-bent steel arches. The test
specimen was saw-cut from larger steel arches. Electrical strain gauges were applied to the surface
of the cold bent I-sections. Electrical strain gauges were selected in preference to a mechanical
gauge or Whittemore gauge due to their accuracy and applicability to curved steel. For this investi-
gation small (2 x 6 mm) electric strain gauges manufactured by Tokyo Sokki Kankyujo Co. Ltd.
were used. The arrangement of the electrical strain gauges is shown in Figure 3. To reduce end ef-
fects, the test area was a distance of 2.5 times the flange width of the beam from the ends. The
dashed lines indicate the saw cuts. A total number of 40 electric strain gauges per specimen were
applied, resulting in a total of 120 for the entire experimental programme. Only the longitudinal
stresses were measured.

Figure 3. Strain gauge positions for the sectioning method

The specimen was clamped in a vise and the transverse saw cut and subsequent longitudinal saw
cuts were made with an electrical band saw and hand saw respectively. The influence of heat re-
lease of the electrical saw-cuts was suppressed by supplying fluid coolant. Short-circuiting of the
electrical strain gauges was prevented by covering the gauges with a protective layer. Strain release
was recorded during the entire saw-cutting procedure. The final strains were recorded approxi-
mately 30 minutes after the end of the saw-cutting. The residual stresses were determined by con-
verting the residual strains using Hooke’s law, thereby assuming elastic release of the strains. Taken
that the residual stress distribution can be modeled as linearly varying through the material thick-
ness a distinction was made between membrane and bending strains. The membrane strains are the
average of the measurements of two gauges on either side of the flange or web.

4 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

The finite element code ANSYS 11.0 was used to simulate the cold bending process (Figure 4).
Only one half of the I-section was modeled, using symmetry to reduce computation time. Geometri-
416
cal and material non-linearities and contact were considered. Preliminary trials on modeling the
wide-flange section by means of shell or beam elements gave unacceptable results. Therefore the
roller bending process was modeled using a SOLID95 element which is a 3-D, 20-node element
with reduced integration. This brick element has large rotation, large strain and plasticity capabili-
ties. Two brick elements were used through the thickness of the flange and a total of 6 brick ele-
ments were used along the half flange width. The half-web thickness was modeled by one brick
element and 14 brick elements were applied along the height (Figure 5). The interaction between
the steel section and the rollers was simulated by contact elements.

Figure 4. Numerical model

The material behavior was modeled using a true stress-logarithmic strain relationship based on ten-
sile test data of the straight base material. The material plasticity was characterized by the Von
Mises yield criterion, the Prandtl-Reuss flow rule and the isotropic hardening law. The adopted ma-
terial law obtained by uniaxial tensile tests is presented in Figure 6. Experimental tensile-test data
showed a significant difference between the mechanical properties of coupons taken from just un-
derneath the web-flange junctions and other locations. This is taken into account in the numerical
model (Figure 5c). The stress-strain characteristics were obtained from the waste material of the
arch forming process. No initial residual stress distribution due to differential cooling was applied
to the straight beam in the model since it is assumed that these stresses have no influence on the fi-
nal residual stress distribution.

Figure 5. Cross-sectional mesh

417
The non-linear equilibrium equations were solved iteratively by the Newton-Raphson solution algo-
rithm. The equations were considered solved and iterations were stopped when the residual or out-
of-balance forces, displacements and rotations were below 0.05 % of the applied forces, displace-
ments and rotations. A total of 64 load steps was employed in order to model the roller bending
process. Permanent curvature in the beam was achieved by moving the right roller towards the cen-
ter roller and feeding the beam through the rollers. Only a single pass was simulated, assuming that
the residual stresses are the same for single and multiple pass bending. The feeding process was
modeled by rotating the center roller and applying an artificially high friction coefficient between
the center roller and the outside of the compression flange (i.e. the flange which is subjected to
compressive strains). The contact interaction between the other flanges and rollers was assumed
frictionless. The radius after spri ngback or elastic release was obtained by reviewing the total
strains (= elastic strains + plastic strains) in the cross section. A linear total strain distribution along
the height was observed for the strains parallel to the beam axis. This made it possible to obtain the
curvature by reviewing the strains.

600 600
Stress [N/mm ]

Stress [N/mm ]
Specimen 1 Specimen 2-3
2

2
400 400

200 200
A B A B
0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Strain [-] Strain [-]
Figure 6. Stress-strain behavior of base material locations indicated in Figure 5

5 RESULTS

An overview of the total output of the numerical model is given and subsequently the residual
stresses are presented. Figure 7 shows the curvature distribution along the beam length. It can be
seen that, when moving from right to left, after an initial transient phase a constant curvature distri-
bution is found, indicating uniform curvature and hence a circular arch. The small peak at the end
(between 0 and 1000 mm) is due to roller pressure on the beam. The difference between the curva-
ture at this peak after the transient phase and the uniform curvature is the elastic release or so-called
springback. Since it is impossible to obtain the exact prescribed radius of the specimen, the arch
was modeled with both a smaller and a larger radius than that of the radius of the specimen. It was
found that the results of the analyses are not very sensitive to the radius, thus a closer approximation
of the true radius is not necessary. The residual stresses in the numerical model are evaluated at a
distance of 1.3 m from the left end of the arch in order to obtain a good representation.

0.0004 0.0004
Constant curvature Transient state Springback Maximum curvature
Curvature [1/mm]
Curvature [1/mm]

0.0003 0.0003

0.0002 0.0002
Constant curvature
0.0001 Location of determined 0.0001
residual stresses
0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 0 1000 2000 3000
beam length [mm] beam length [mm]
Figure 7. Curvature distribution along beam length.

418
The Figures 8-10 show the results of the measured residual stresses, numerically obtained values
and the theoretical distribution along the flange width and web height. The experimental results are
the average of the measurements at the out- and inside of the flanges and left and right side of the
web. Due to the position of the fillets and web no average residual stress values could be obtained at
the web-flange junction. The tensile stresses and compressive stresses are denoted positive and
negative respectively.

Figure 8. Average residual stresses specimen 1 (R=1910 mm)

Figure 9. Average residual stresses specimen 2 (R=2546 mm)

419
Figure 10. Average residual stresses specimen 3 (R=3820 mm)

6 DISCUSSION

The residual stress distributions shown in Figures 8-10 reveal the following characteristics. The
measured residual stresses are symmetric around the z-axis justifying the numerical simplification
to model only one half of the I-section. In the compression flange (denoted by C) which is com-
pressed during the roller bending process, large tensile residual stresses are found at the web-flange
junction in the numerical analysis, while the flange tips show compressive residual stress. The op-
posite occurs at the tension flange (denoted by T), which is elongated during the roller bending
process, although the stresses are lower. The web-flange junction is under compressive stress and
the flange tips experience tensile stress. The web is predominantly subjected to compressive resid-
ual stress, which increase towards the compressive flange. The numerical results show good agree-
ment with experimental data for the flanges, although less coherence is found in the web. The dif-
ferences between experimental/numerical results and the theoretical solution indicate that a multi-
axial stress state is present during the roller bending process which is not accounted for in the theo-
retical solution. Unlike the theoretical residual stress pattern as suggested by Timoshenko, the ob-
tained numerical and experimental patterns are not antisymmetric with respect to the y-axis. A large
theoretical stress reversal in the web is not observed in both the simulations and experiments. Both
the numerical and experimental results show that no clear relation exists between the amount of
curvature and residual stress level. The experiments and numerical simulations yield larger residual
stresses compared to measured residual stresses due to uneven cooling in identical straight sections
Daddi & Mazzolani (1971), Mazzolani (1975).

7 CONCLUSIONS

Experimental and numerical residual stress distributions have been obtained for a total of three cold
bent grade S235 HE 100A sections. A computer model was created with the finite element code
ANSYS 11.0 to predict residual stress distributions. Geometrical and material non-linear analyses
with contact elements have been performed to simulate the roller bending process. The sectioning
method was employed to measure the residual stresses. Moderate to good agreement between nu-
merical results and laboratory measurements was found. Both the experimental and the numerical
results shows patterns which differ from theoretical models suggested earlier and from residual
stress patterns due to uneven cooling in straight hot rolled I-sections. Large tensile stresses were ob-
420
served at the web flange junction of the compression flange. The region of the web close to the
compressed flange showed larger compressive residual stresses. Further research is under way to
investigate the residual stress pattern for steel grade S355 and other sections by adopting both a
numerical and experimental approach.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was carried out under the project number MC1.06262 in the framework of the Re-
search Program of the Materials innovation institute M2i (www.m2i.nl), the former Netherlands In-
stitute for Metals Research. The residual stress measurements were conducted by the MSc-students
Eeuwe Bloemberg and Michael van Telgen. Their help is gratefully acknowledged. The specimens
were supplied and bent by Deltastaal BV and Kersten Europe BV respectively.

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This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached
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Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 992–1000

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Constructional Steel Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jcsr

Proposed residual stress model for roller bent steel wide flange sections
R.C. Spoorenberg a,b,∗ , H.H. Snijder b , J.C.D. Hoenderkamp b
a
Materials Innovation Institute M2i, P.O. Box 5008, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands
b
Eindhoven University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, Den Dolech 2, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands

article info abstract

Article history: The manufacturing process of structural wide flange steel sections introduces residual stresses in the
Received 28 July 2010 material. These stresses due to hot-rolling or welding influence the inelastic buckling response of
Accepted 13 January 2011 structural steel members and need to be taken into account in the design. Based on experimental data
standardized residual stress models have been proposed for inclusion in inelastic buckling analyses.
Keywords: By incorporating these residual stress models their effect on the resistance of beams and columns can
Residual stress model
be obtained. Residual stress models for roller bent steel sections are currently not available. Roller
Curved steel
Roller bending
bent wide flange sections are manufactured by curving straight members at ambient temperature. This
Wide flange section manufacturing technique, which is also known as roller bending, stresses the material beyond its yield
stress, thereby overriding the initial residual stresses prior to bending and generating an entirely new
pattern. This paper proposes a residual stress model for roller bent wide flange sections, based on
earlier conducted numerical investigations which were validated by experimental research performed
at Eindhoven University of Technology. The proposed residual stress model can serve as an initial state of
a roller bent steel section in fully non-linear finite element analyses to accurately predict its influence on
the inelastic buckling response.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 1.1. Residual stresses in straight steel members

The manufacturing process of structural steel members induces
residual stresses into the material. The residual stresses influence
the structural behavior of steel structures since their presence
causes early yielding of the material in specific locations of the
member. Especially for steel structures prone to inelastic buckling,
residual stresses are of major importance due to their detrimental
influence on the maximum resistance. The availability of a large
experimental database of residual stress measurements has led
to the development of residual stress models for different section
types, manufacturing procedures (e.g. hot-rolling, welding) and
material properties (mild steel, high strength steel). A residual
stress model comprises a simplified pattern and magnitude of
the residual stresses over the cross section of the profile. The
influence of residual stresses on the maximum resistance has been
investigated by employing residual stress models as an initial state
in a finite element model. Extensive computational work has led
to design rules which make allowance for the effect of residual
stresses on inelastic buckling.
∗ Corresponding author at: Eindhoven University of Technology, Faculty of
Architecture, Building and Planning, Den Dolech 2, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB
Eindhoven, The Netherlands. Tel.: +31 40 247 2948; fax: +31 40 245 0328.
E-mail address: r.c.spoorenberg@bwk.tue.nl (R.C. Spoorenberg).
0143-974X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcsr.2011.01.009
1.1.1. Hot-rolled sections
The residual stresses in hot-rolled steel sections are caused
by differential cooling after roll forming. For a large number of
wide flange sections with different height-to-width ratios and steel
grades these stresses have been measured and published by Beedle
and Tall [1], Mas and Massonet [2], Lay and Ward [3], Daddi and
Mazzolani [4] and Young [5]. The results were summarized and
several residual stress models were proposed by Lay and Ward [3],
Young [5], Mazzolani [6] and ECCS [7], These models are featured
by compressive stresses at the flange tips and tension stresses
at the web-to-flange junctions. The webs of hot-rolled sections
are subject to either tensile or compressive stresses (Fig. 1(a)).
Throughout the paper tensile and compressive residual stresses
will be annotated by (+) and (−) respectively.
Although the proposed models suggest rather straightforward
residual stress patterns which are not significantly influenced by
the size of the section, the variability of the hot-rolled residual
stress patterns was emphasized by Young [5] and Tall and
Alpsten [8]. Section dimensions and cooling conditions have an
influence on hot-rolled residual stresses.
1.1.2. Welded sections
Welded sections are manufactured by welding different plates
together. Due to the large amount of heat-input for the welding
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R.C. Spoorenberg et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 992–1000
(a) Hot-rolled.
Fig. 1. Indicative residual stress patterns for hot-rolled, welded and roller straightened sections.
process, large residual stresses emerge as a result of unequal
cooling of the sections. The residual stresses in welded sections
have been measured in mild steel members by Tebedge et al. [9]
and in high strength steel by Beg and Hladnik [10]. The
experimental results are characterized by large tensile stresses,
with a magnitude of nearly the yield stress of the material in
the vicinity of the weld and smaller compressive stresses in the
remaining areas to equilibrate the tensile stresses. Models for
residual stresses in welded sections were presented by Young and
Robinson [11], see Fig. 1(b), and Chernenko and Kennedy [12].
1.1.3. Roller straightened sections
After rolling and cooling in the mill, hot-rolled members may
possess an out-of-straightness in excess of the specified tolerances.
These members can be roller straightened or rotorized to meet
the fabrication tolerances for hot-rolled wide flange steel sections.
During this process the member is fed through a series of rolls,
thereby reducing its initial deformations. It has been found by
Alpsten [13] that the initial stresses due to differential cooling are
altered due to roller straightening. A new residual stress pattern
emerges with smaller values for the stresses when compared
to hot-rolled residual stresses, especially in the flanges. The
residual stress pattern depends to a large extent on the degree of
straightening forced on the section.
It was shown by Alpsten [13] that roller straightened wide
flange sections have a higher resistance than their non-rotorized
counterparts as a result of their lower residual stresses and
improved straightness. The influence of the roller-straightening
process is, however, not implemented in current design rules. A
distinctive residual stress pattern proposed by ECCS [7] (Fig. 1(c))
can be used for numerical computations for rotorized wide flange
sections, irrespective of their height-to-width ratio.
1.1.4. Influence on resistance
The proposed indicative stress models shown in Fig. 1 have been
employed as initial states of stress in structural steel members for
computer analyses to assess their influence on the resistance and
load–deflection characteristics. All these residual stress models are
based on the membrane component (averaged residual stress over
web thickness and flange thickness) without bending (residual
stress gradient over web thickness and flange thickness). Non-
linear finite element analyses have shown that the maximum
resistance is significantly influenced by the magnitude and pattern
of the residual stresses, as summarized in ECCS [7]. In general it
was observed that especially large compressive residual stresses in
the flange tips are detrimental to the inelastic buckling resistance
of beams and columns. For these members premature yielding
takes place at the flange tips, resulting in a stiffness reduction
993
(b) Welded. (c) Roller straightened.
and hence a lower inelastic buckling resistance. In addition, the
resistance reduction due to residual stresses depends on the type
of buckling, reflecting the complex interaction between residual
stresses and inelastic buckling. Current design codes take into
account the detrimental influence of residual stresses for beams
and columns which buckle in the inelastic range. Design codes
distinguish between welded and rolled sections for both minor and
major axis flexural buckling and lateral torsional buckling.
1.2. Roller bent steel
In recent years curved steel and arches have experienced an
expanding area of application. Curved steel has been frequently
used for roofs and bridges, combining architectural demands
with structural merits. Curved steel is often fabricated by
bending straight hot-rolled sections at ambient temperatures,
Bjorhovde [14]. The member is placed between three rolls, which
are positioned in a triangular arrangement, and a combination of
movement of the rolls and feeding the member between these rolls
induces a permanent curvature. This manufacturing technique is
better known as the roller bending process. Wide flange sections
can either be curved about the weak or strong axis into different
shapes, e.g. ellipse, parabola or circle. This paper is limited to
circular arches curved about the strong axis. When bent about the
strong axis the top flange and bottom flange experience plastic
elongation and shortening in longitudinal direction respectively.
Since the roller bending process involves plastic bending, the initial
residual stresses prior to roller bending are altered due to the
curving process [15,16].
1.3. Residual stresses and inelastic arch buckling
Due to their slenderness and in-plane force distribution
which is characterized by large compressive actions, arches are
susceptible to either in-plane (Fig. 2(a)) or out-of-plane buckling
(Fig. 2(b)). The inelastic buckling behavior of steel arches has
mainly been investigated by means of finite element analyses,
incorporating geometrical imperfections, material non-linearities
and residual stresses. The residual stress models were based
on either typical welding residual stresses (Fig. 3(a) and (b)
for which fy = the yield stress) or hot-rolled residual stresses
(Fig. 3(c)). Studies on in-plane buckling have been presented by
Pi and Trahair [17] and Pi et al. [18]. Finite element analyses on
inelastic out-of-plane buckling were carried out by Komatsu and
Sakimoto [19], Sakimoto and Komatsu [20], Pi and Trahair [21],
Pi and Bradford [22] and Pi and Bradford [23]. The finite element
computations led to the development of design rules to obtain the
resistance for steel arches.
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994 R.C. Spoorenberg et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 992–1000
(a) In-plane instability.
Fig. 2. Instability phenomena of arches.
(a) Komatsu and (b) Sakimoto and
Sakimoto [19]. Komatsu [20].
Fig. 3. Adopted residual stress patterns for studying inelastic buckling behavior of steel arches.
The influence of the roller bending process on the pattern and
magnitude of the residual stresses was not implemented in the
finite element models. A classical cold bent residual stress pattern
as initially proposed by Timoshenko [24] for solid rectangular
sections and suggested by King and Brown [25] (Fig. 3(d)) to be
applicable to roller bent wide flange sections, was mentioned by Pi
and Bradford [23] and Pi et al. [18]. In Fig. 3(d) Mpl is the full plastic
moment and Mel is the elastic moment of the cross section. The
study of the structural behavior of steel arches subject to in-plane
loading necessitates a detailed knowledge of residual stresses in
roller bent steel sections bent about the major axis in view of
their influence on the inelastic buckling response of steel arches.
In the research program on the behavior of steel arch structures
at Eindhoven University of Technology, residual stresses were first
measured in a number of roller bent and straight wide flange
sections of different steel grade, section type and bending radius.
The results have been published earlier by Spoorenberg et al. [15].
The experimental phase was followed by the development of a
finite element model to estimate the residual stresses in roller bent
sections, [16]. This finite element model was used to simulate the
complete roller bending process. Experimental values were used
to corroborate numerical results. Good agreement in averaged
residual stresses over the flange thickness and web thickness was
observed, demonstrating the validity of the finite element model.
Subsequently, it was found that residual stresses in roller bent
wide flange sections display a pattern that is significantly different
from a typical hot-rolled pattern (Fig. 3(c)) or cold bent pattern
based on the proposal by Timoshenko (Fig. 3(d)). Considering the
observations from the first research phases, the final step is an
examination of all numerical data to arrive at a residual stress
model for circular roller bent wide flange steel sections bent
around the major axis. The proposed residual stress model will be
compared against the experimental and numerical data as a final
check on the accuracy.
2. Residual stress analyses based on finite element computa-
tions
It has been shown by Spoorenberg et al. [16] that close agree-
ment can be attained between finite element analyses and exper-
imental results for the averaged residual stresses over the web
(b) Out-of-plane instability.
(c) Pi and Bradford [23]. (d) Suggested roller
bending.
thickness and the flange thickness. The finite element model was
not developed to simulate the residual stress gradients over the
web thickness and the flange thickness. However, it yields aver-
aged residual stresses over the web and flange thickness for the en-
tire cross section. An experimental approach for obtaining residual
stresses cannot yield data for the entire cross section due to place-
ment requirements of the strain gauges. It was therefore decided
to employ finite element analyses to generate residual stresses
which can be used in the development of a proposal for a roller
bent residual stress model, thereby ignoring residual stress gradi-
ents over the web thickness and the flange thickness. In view of
earlier developed residual stress models [4,10] for straight steel
members, which also ignored the measured residual stress gradi-
ent over the web thickness and the flange thickness, this simplifica-
tion was considered appropriate. Residual stresses were obtained
for a total of 18 wide flange steel sections by simulation in the
finite element environment. Two steel grades, four different sec-
tions and five bending radii were used which yielded 8 different
bending ratios (Table 1). The bending ratio equals the radius of the
circular arch divided by the nominal height of the cross section. An
increase of the bending ratio means a decrease of the degree of cold
working, when the height of the section is kept constant. As part of
the experimental procedure to measure residual stresses, tensile
tests were performed on coupons taken from the flanges of straight
reference sections to obtain the yield stress and ultimate tensile
stress, according to NEN-EN 10002-1 [26] and EN 10025 [27]. These
straight sections were originally attached to the roller bent spec-
imens and give information on the state of the material prior to
roller bending. Dividing the numerically obtained residual stresses
by the measured yield stresses of the straight material gives nor-
malized residual stress values.
2.1. Numerically obtained roller bent residual stresses
The roller bent residual stresses obtained by finite element
analysis of all 18 wide flange sections are presented in Fig. 4 at
normalized locations. The residual stresses in the top flange range
from 0fy to 0.2fy at the tips and at the web-to-flange junction
they range from −0.2fy to 0.2fy . The bottom flange is featured by
compressive stresses at the flange tips that range from −0.1fy to
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Table 1
Mechanical properties and bending ratio of steel members.
Section type Steel grade Bending radius R (mm) Mechanical properties straight reference sections (N/mm2 ) Bending ratio R/h (–)
Yield stress fy Tensile stress ft

1910 322 433 19.89

S235 2546 279 418 26.52
3820 39.79
HE 100A
1910 364 566 19.89
S355 2546 26.52
3820 39.79
1910 248 411 19.1
S235 2546 285 412 25.46
3820 38.2
HE 100B
1910 386 492 19.1
S355 2546 390 495 25.46
3820 38.2
S235 8000 269 389 22.22
HE 360B
S355 8000 357 534 22.22
4500 297 414 12.5
S235
8000 22.22
IPE 360
4500 361 528 12.5
S355
8000 22.22

analyses are consistently located in the bottom flange at the web-

to-flange junction and flange tips respectively. It was therefore de-
cided that the residual stress patterns across the bottom flange,
which was subjected to compressive actions during roller bend-
ing, would be used to investigate the influence of bending ratio and
original yield stress.

2.2. Influence of bending radius

The amount of cold work or plastic straining applied during

roller bending may affect the magnitude of the residual stresses.
For steel exhibiting a clear hardening stage, a decrease of the
bending ratio is expected to induce higher residual stresses. For
each steel section as presented in Table 1, the numerically obtained
maximum tensile and maximum compressive normalized residual
stresses in the bottom flange are displayed as a function of the
bending ratio in Fig. 5(left). It can bee seen that the bending ratio
has no clear influence on the extreme residual stresses within
the examined range of 12.5 ≤ R/h ≤ 39.79. Consequently a
residual stress model can be developed which is independent of
the bending radius, and applicable to a bending ratio range of
approximately 10 ≤ R/h ≤ 40.

2.3. Influence of original yield stress

Fig. 4. Normalized residual stresses in 18 roller bent wide flange sections.

−0.3fy and tensile stresses at the web-to-flange junction ranging
from 0.4fy to 0.7fy . The web shows a large scatter when compared
to the stress characteristics in the flanges. Although consistent
trends from the web stresses cannot readily be observed, it can
be concluded that the upper part of the web is in tension with
an average maximum stress of approximately 0.3fy . The lower
part of the web is mainly subject to compression with an average
maximum stress of approximately −0.4fy . Steep stress gradients
are observed at the web-to-flange junctions, as reflected by the
large difference between the stress values in the top and bottom
of the web and in the middle of the top flange and bottom flange
respectively.
In Table 1 it can be seen that the numerical calculations com-
prise a wide range of bending radii and steel grades. For the de-
velopment of a single residual stress model the influence of the
bending ratio and the yield stress of the original material on the
numerical residual stresses were studied first. It was observed that
the maximum tensile and compressive residual stresses from all 18
The yield stress of the original material may also affect the
magnitude of the residual stresses. Structural steel with a higher
yield stress prior to roller bending may have higher residual
stresses after bending when compared to steel with low yield
stress levels. Residual stress measurements published by Gardner
and Cruise [28] on press braked angles and cold-rolled box sections
have shown a clear relationship between material yield stress and
magnitude of residual stresses.
Fig. 5(right) shows the maximum tensile and compressive
residual stresses in the bottom flange versus the measured yield
stress of the material before roller bending. The residual stress
values are not normalized, in order to display the influence of the
yield stress on the magnitude of the residual stress.
3. Roller bent residual stress model for wide flange sections
Based on the numerically obtained roller bent residual stresses,
a model of these stresses for wide flange steel sections is suggested.
This proposal is intended to be generally applicable, independent
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996 R.C. Spoorenberg et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 992–1000

Fig. 5. Normalized maximum tensile and compressive residual stresses in the bottom flange versus bending ratio (left) and maximum tensile and compressive residual
stresses in the bottom flange versus yield stress of original material (right).

(a) Dimensions. (b) Residual stresses. (c) Equilibrium of stress blocks in

web.

Fig. 6. Proposed residual stress model for roller bent wide flange steel sections.

of the bending ratio for the range of 10 ≤ R/h ≤ 40 (Section 2.2) respectively and their magnitudes are governed by the internal
and linearly related to the magnitude of the original yield stress equilibrium requirement.
for S235 and S355 steel sections (Section 2.3). The magnitudes and
Equilibrium conditions for residual stresses consist of the axial
pattern for the residual stress model are determined to best fit the
force, major moment and minor moment equilibrium requirement
finite element results.
as stated earlier by Lay and Ward [3] and Szalai and Papp [29].
Equilibrium about the minor bending axis is automatically satisfied
3.1. Residual stress pattern and magnitudes
due to the symmetric pattern of the suggested residual stress
The residual stress model is based on the numerically obtained model about this axis. The bi-linear residual stress pattern in
residual stresses as shown in Fig. 4 and the trend lines as shown in the bottom flange yields a net tensile force, which is balanced
Fig. 5 and is shown in Fig. 6. by residual stresses in the web, according to the equilibrium
A symmetric bi-linear stress pattern along the half bottom requirements. The two unknown web stresses, σwrt and σwrc ,
flange is suggested with a maximum tensile stress value of 0.7fy can be obtained from the two remaining equilibrium equations:
at the web-to-flange junction and 0.35fy compression at the flange the normal forces and the major bending moment requirement
tip. These stress values are based on the gradient of the trend Fig. 6(c). The equilibrium equations are simplified by neglecting the
lines as shown in Fig. 5. A somewhat larger compressive stress
fillets in the wide flange section.
value for the flange tips that shown in the trend line of Fig. 5
has been proposed, since numerical data could not be obtained at Axial force (N ) and major moment (M ) equilibrium equations
the flange tips but at a distance away from the ends (integration can be set up by summing forces for all stress blocks and summing
point location). Using the gradient of the trend line would therefore the product of these normal forces and their distances to the center
result in an underestimation of the compressive stresses at the of the top flange, as depicted in Fig. 6(c):
flange tips.
For the top flange a linear stress gradient is suggested based   
7 1 1
on a qualitative fit with numerical data, featured by 0.2fy tensile
−
N = btf + tw h0
+ σwrt
stresses and 0.2fy compressive stresses at the flange tips and flange 80 8 4
  
center, respectively (Fig. 6(c)). 1 1
For the web two triangular stress blocks are suggested. The
+ + σwrc fy = 0
8 4
tensile and compressive stress peak of the triangles are located at a    (1)
7 1 1 1 5
distance of 1/4h0 and 3/4h0 from the web-to-flange junction of the
−
M = btf h0 + tw h0 + h0 σwrt
top flange, respectively. The stress values are equal to zero at the 80 8 6 4 12
  
top and bottom of the web. The maximum tensile and compressive 1 7 1 5
residual stress values in the web are annotated by σwrt and σwrc + h0 + h0 σwrt fy = 0.
4 12 8 6
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Eq. (1) can be simplified into flange width b or section height h. Due to placement requirements
   of the strain gauges, average values could not be obtained close
− 7 3 3 to the junction of the flanges and web. Similarly to the numerical
N = σwrt + σwrc
btf + tw h0 fy = 0
80 8 8 stress values, the experimental results were normalized with re-
   (2) spect to the measured yield stress of the straight material (Table 1).
− 7 1 1
M = btf h0 + h0 tw σwrt + σwrc h0 fy = 0, The proposed residual stress model agrees well with the measured
80 8 4 residual stress value for the HE 100A, HE 100B and HE 360B sec-
and written in matrix notations: tions, although less coherence is found in the web of the IPE 360
 3 series.
3 
 
7
btf
 
8  σwrt
     
N  8 
80
 4.2. Comparison to numerical analyses
= fy h0 tw 
 1 1  σwrc
 − fy
M 7
h0 h0
 
 btf h0 
 The proposed residual stress model is based on the finite
8 4

80 element patterns and magnitudes from all wide flange sections
as summarized in Fig. 4 and the trend lines shown in Fig. 5.
 
0
= . (3) However, in order to meet the internal equilibrium requirements,
0
the suggested model will be different for all wide flange steel
Solving (3) for σwrt and σwrc yields sections. The proposed residual stress model is therefore compared
to the finite element residual stresses in all 4 different section
7btf 14btf types; see Fig. 8. A good correlation of results can be observed for
σwrt = fy , σwrc = − fy . (4)
30h0 tw 30h0 tw the HE 100A, HE 100B and HE 360B series but larger discrepancies
are found in the top flange of the IPE 360 series.
With these values the residual stress model for roller bent wide
flange steel sections is complete.
4.3. Comparison between existing hot-rolled and proposed roller bent
residual stress models
3.2. Residual stress model features
It was mentioned in Section 1.1.4 that compressive residual
From Eq. (4) it is clear that the requirement of internal stresses in the flange tips are detrimental to the resistance of
equilibrium renders the proposed model to be different per section members susceptible to either flexural or lateral torsional buckling.
geometry. The residual stress values in the web are governed by Compressive residual stresses in the flange tips reduce the flexural
the ratio between the area of the flange and area of the web. stiffness during inelastic arch buckling and subsequently will cause
The proposed model is qualitatively identical for all wide flange early collapse of the arch. A hot-rolled residual stress model is
sections but the magnitude of the residual stresses in the web is featured by compressive stresses in all four flange tips, whereas
dependent on the geometry of the cross section. the proposed model displays only compressive stresses in the tips
Fig. 4 shows that the numerical residual stress pattern is of the bottom flange. From a qualitative comparison between the
featured by a sharp stress gradient at the web-to-flange junctions hot-rolled model and the proposed roller bent model it can be
of the roller bent wide flange sections. This sharp stress gradient concluded that the proposed residual stress model for roller bent
has been approximated in the proposed residual stress model by a wide flange steel sections will be more favorable to the resistance
so-called ‘stress jump’ at the web-to-flange junctions (i.e. the stress of steel arches, when either failing by in-plane or out-of-plane
value at the top of the web or bottom of the web is different from inelastic buckling.
the stress value in the middle of the top flange or middle of the
bottom flange, respectively). A stress jump is a stress change over 4.4. Range of applicability residual stress model
an infinitesimal distance and can also be found in residual stress
models for welded sections, [20] (Fig. 3(b)). Modeling the large Good coherence between the residual stress model and
stress gradients instead of the stress-jumps in the web-to-flange experimental results for various roller bent wide flange sections
junctions in a residual stress model would significantly complicate can be observed in Fig. 7. This allows the application of the residual
the stress pattern in the web and improve its accuracy only stress model to other wide flange sections that did not make
marginally as the pertaining section areas are extremely small. part of the experimental program. In addition, since the residual
The stress jump provides therefore a simplification to the residual stress model can be expressed as a function of the yield stress
of the straight material, it can be applied to other steel grades
stress model and enhances the simplicity of the equilibrium
(e.g. steel grade S275). Under the assumption that for bending
equations and ease of applicability when employed in numerical
ratios R/h > 40 the required amount of cold work on the section
models.
will be marginally smaller, the reduction in residual stresses will
be of minor influence. Application of the residual stress model
4. Discussion
to roller bent arches with larger bending ratios than currently
investigated seems appropriate but is probably conservative.
4.1. Comparison to experiments
5. Conclusions
Residual stress measurements were performed on both straight
and roller bent sections using the sectioning method. Measure- After manufacturing wide flange steel sections by the hot-
ments taken from both sides of the flanges and the web were used rolling process, additional cold working such as roller bending
to obtain the average residual stress values. Residual stresses in has a significant influence on the residual stress patterns.
HE 100A, HE 360B and IPE 360 sections were published earlier Earlier publications by Spoorenberg et al. [15,16] demonstrate a
by Spoorenberg et al. [15]. A full overview of the averaged ex- significant difference between residual stresses in hot-rolled and
perimental results compared with the suggested residual stress roller bent wide flange sections. In this paper residual stresses
model is shown in Fig. 7. The averaged experimental results for obtained from finite element analyses by Spoorenberg et al. [16]
roller bent sections and the suggested residual stress model are have been summarized and normalized with respect to the yield
plotted against the location over the section normalized by the stress of the material before roller bending to develop and present
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998 R.C. Spoorenberg et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 992–1000

Fig. 7. Normalized measured averaged residual stresses and proposed residual stress model.

a residual stress model. It was found that the bending ratio does
not influence the magnitudes of the residual stresses, allowing for
a residual stress model representing all examined bending radii
for 10 ≤ R/h ≤ 40. The residual stresses were found to be
linearly dependent on the yield stress of the original material and a
single normalized residual stress model could therefore represent
all roller bent sections, for steel grades S235 and S355.
Based on a best fit of the finite element data, the proposed
linear stress gradient along the width of the top flange (the
flange that is plastically elongated in longitudinal direction during
roller bending) is featured by stress magnitudes of 0.2fy in
tension and 0.2fy in compression at the flange tips and flange
center respectively. The residual stress in the bottom flange (the
flange that is plastically shortened in longitudinal direction during
roller bending) can be represented by a bi-linear pattern with
a maximum compressive stress of 0.35fy at the flange tip, zero
stress at the quarter points of the flange width and a maximum
tension of 0.70fy at the web-to-flange junction. The residual stress
pattern over the height of the web can be represented by two
triangular stress blocks: tensile stress in the upper region of the
web near the top flange and compressive stress in the lower region.
The maximum value for the two zones can be determined from
internal equilibrium which results in 0.2–0.4fy for tension and
0.4–0.8fy for compression residual stresses. The residual stress
model was compared to experimental and numerical residual
stress measurements and good agreement was observed. The
suggested residual stress model can be implemented in finite
element models with beam or shell elements to assess its influence
 Author's personal copy
R.C. Spoorenberg et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 992–1000
Fig. 8. Normalized computed residual stresses and proposed residual stress model.
on the inelastic buckling response of steel arches. In view of the
detrimental influence of compressive residual stress at the flange
tips it is expected that the proposed residual stress model will
yield higher resistances compared to finite element analyses using
models for hot-rolled residual stresses when investigating inelastic
arch buckling.
Acknowledgements
This research was carried out under the project number
MC1.06262 in the framework of the Research Program of the
Materials innovation institute M2i (www.m2i.nl).
999
References
[1] Beedle LS, Tall L. Basic column strength. Transactions of the ASCE 1962;127:
138–79.
[2] Mas E, Massonet Ch. Part prise par la belgique dans les recherches exper-
imentales de la convention europeenne des associations de la construction
metallique sur le flambement centriques des barres en acier doux. Acier-Stahl-
Steel 1966;9:393–400.
[3] Lay MG, Ward R. Residual stresses in steel sections. Journal of the Australian
Institute of Steel Construction 1969;3(3):2–21.
[4] Daddi I, Mazzolani FM. Determinazione sperimentale delle imperfezioni
strutturali nei profilati di acciaio: Universita degli studi di Napoli istituto di
tecnica delle costruzioni; 1971.
[5] Young BW. Residual stresses in hot rolled members. IABSE reports of the
working commissions 1975;23:25–38.
[6] Mazzolani FM. Buckling curves of hot-rolled steel shapes with structural
imperfections. IABSE reports of the working commissions 1975;23:152–61.
 Author's personal copy
1000 R.C. Spoorenberg et al. / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 67 (2011) 992–1000
[7] ECCS. Manual on stability of steel structures - ECCS Committee 8 Stability:
1976.
[8] Tall L, Alpsten G. On the scatter in yield strength and residual stresses in steel
members. IABSE reports of the working commissions 1969;4:151–63.
[9] Tebedge N, Alpsten G, Tall L. Residual-stress measurement by the sectioning
method. Experimental Mechanics 1973;13:88–96.
[10] Beg D, Hladnik L. Eigenspannungen bei geschweissten I-profilen aus
hochfesten Stahlen. Stahlbau 1994;63(5):134–9.
[11] Young BW, Robinson KW. Buckling of axially loaded welded steel columns. The
Structural Engineer 1975;53(5):203–7.
[12] Chernenko DE, Kennedy DJL. An analysis of the performance of welded wide
flange columns. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 1991;18(14):537–54.
[13] Alpsten G. Residual stresses, yield stress, and the column strength of hot-
rolled and roller-straightened steel shapes. IABSE reports of the working
commissions 1975;23:39–59.
[14] Bjorhovde R. Cold bending of wide-flange shapes for construction. Engineering
Journal 2006;43(4):271–86.
[15] Spoorenberg RC, Snijder HH, Hoenderkamp JCD. Experimental investigation
of residual stresses in roller bent wide flange steel sections. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 2010;66(6):737–47.
[16] Spoorenberg RC, Snijder HH, Hoenderkamp JCD. Finite element simulations of
residual stresses in roller bent wide flange sections. Journal of Constructional
Steel Research 2011;67(1):39–50.
[17] Pi Y-L, Trahair NS. In-plane inelastic buckling and strengths of steel arches.
Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE 1996;122(7):734–47.
[18] Pi Y-L, Bradford MA, Tin-Loi F. In-plane strength of steel arches. Advanced Steel
Construction 2008;4(4):306–22.
[19] Komatsu S, Sakimoto T. Ultimate load carrying capacity of steel arches. Journal
of the Structural Division 1977;103(12):2323–36.
[20] Sakimoto T, Komatsu S. Ultimate strength formula for central-arch-girder
bridges. Proc Japan Soc Civ Engrs 1983;333:183–6.
[21] Pi Y-L, Trahair NS. Out-of-plane inelastic buckling and strength of steel arches.
Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE 1998;124(2):174–83.
[22] Pi Y-L, Bradford MA. Elasto-plastic buckling and postbuckling of arches
subjected to a central load. Computers & Structures 2003;81(8):1811–25.
[23] Pi Y-L, Bradford MA. Out-of-plane strength design of fixed steel I-section
arches. Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE 2005;131(4):560–8.
[24] Timoshenko SP. Strength of materials. Part II advanced theory and problems.
D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.; 1940.
[25] King C, Brown D. Design of Curved Steel: The Steel Construction Institute;
2001.
[26] NEN-EN 10002-1. Metalen - Trekproef - Deel 1: Beproevingsmethoden bij
omgevingstemperatuur: Nederlands Normalisatie Instituut; 2001.
[27] EN 10025. Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels. Technical delivery
conditions.: CEN European Committee Standardization; 1993.
[28] Gardner L, Cruise RB. Modeling of residual stresses in structural stainless steel
sections. Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE 2009;135(1):42–53.
[29] Szalai J, Papp F. A new residual stress distribution for hot-rolled I-shaped
sections. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 2005;61(6):845–61.
 18-5-2015

ESDEP Lecture 10
COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg10/toc.htm

10.1 Composite Construction – General; excluding sections: 3.3, 3.5 and 5

10.2 The Behaviour of Beams; excluding section 4

10.3 Single Span Beams

10.5.1 Design for Serviceability I; excluding section 3

10.6.1 Shear Connection I

10.6.2 Shear Connection II

10.7 Composite Slabs

10.8.1 Columns I

10.8.2 Columns II; excluding section 8

10.1 Composite Construction – General

Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures:

EN 1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings

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5
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CONCLUDING SUMMARY

Composite construction, particularly that using profiled steel sheeting, allows

rapid construction.

The weight of steelwork required in composite construction is significantly less

than if the materials were used independently.

There is no need for expensive formwork because the steel beam is able to sustain
the self weight of steel and concrete. Timber formwork can be replaced by precast
concrete elements or profiled steel sheeting.

The aforementioned advantages present a very strong argument for the use of
composite beams in buildings. They are more significant, however, for medium to
long spans than for short spans.

The main disadvantage of composite construction is the need to provide

connectors at the steel-concrete interface.

Another minor drawback is that it is somewhat more complicated than other

methods to design and construct.

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10.2 The Behaviour of Beams

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Dead load on composite beam Dead load on steel beam

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CONCLUDING SUMMARY

Composite beams, subject to sagging moments, fail by yielding of the steel

section, crushing of the concrete slab or shear of the connectors.

Unpropped composite beams need the steel section to be strong and stiff enough
to carry the weight of wet concrete.

Partially connected composite beams may be used to ensure economy of shear

connection.

10.3 Single Span Beams

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Beam spacing

Eurocode 4
beff = L/4

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Resistance of concrete flange : Rc = beff hc 0.85 fck /c

Resistance of steel flange : Rf = b tf fy /a

Resistance of shear connection : Rq = N Q

Resistance of steel beam : Rs = A fy /  a

Resistance of clear web depth : Rv = d tw fy / a

Resistance of overall web depth : Rw = Rs - 2 Rf

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Rconcrete > Rsteel beam

a

x = (Afy /a) / (beff kfck /c) = (Rs/Rc ).hc

Mpl.Rd = Rc.z = Rc (h/2 + hp + hc - Rs.hc/2Rc)

Rsteel beam > Rconcrete > Rweb

Mpl.Rd = Rs.h/2 + Rc (hc/2 + hp) - (Rs - Rc)2.tf / 4Rf

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Rs > Rc < Rweb

Mpl.Rd = Rc.(h + 2 hp + hc)/2 + Mpl.a.Rd - (Rc2/Rv)(d/4)

d = clear height of web between fillets

Rv = dtwfy

=

Mpl,V-red.Rd = {1 - (1 - do/d).A/(2A - Av)}.Mpl.Rd

Av = shear area of steel section = 1.04htw

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CONCLUDING SUMMARY

Plastic analysis of the cross-section is used to determine the positive bending

moment resistance of composite beams.

Eurocode 4 gives simple formulae for the effective width of concrete slab acting
compositely with the steel; this "concrete flange" must be detailed to avoid
longitudinal shear and splitting.

Design of composite beams involves ensuring that the forces and moments due to
factored loads are less than the corresponding design resistance.

Various expressions for the design of the positive moment of resistance can be
derived; these depend on the position of the neutral axis.

Eurocode 4 gives simplified rules governing the design of the shear resistance of
simply supported composite beams, with full shear connection.

Where high shear and moment are coincident part of the steel web is reserved to
carry shear, resulting in a decrease in moment resistance.

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10.5.1 Design for Serviceability - I

n = Es/Ec

NAc
ac
NAcomposite
aa
NAsteel beam

I = Ia + (Ac/n) . (hc2/12) + (Ac/n) . ac2 + As . (ac + as)2

a

fsteel = Mz/I fconcrete = Mz/nI

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Owing to a variety of factors, the deflections of composite elements deviate from

the values which would be predicted by a simple elastic model.
These factors include:
• the continuous variation in member stiffness arising from cracking and from
variations in the areas of reinforcing steel.
• the effects of tension stiffening in the cracked regions of reinforced concrete.
• the variation with time of Young's Modulus for concrete.
• shrinkage and creep of the concrete.
• yielding of the steel member, as may happen at supports in continuous beams.
• slip at the steel-concrete interface.
• shear lag.
• temperature.

The time-dependence of certain of these factors means that the actual sequence of
loading will have a bearing on the final deflections, and may invalidate simple
calculation procedures based on the superposition of effects. Additionally, material
properties (Young's Modulus, creep factor, etc.) which are used in analysis will
depend on factors such as the actual concrete mix used, and on temperature and
humidity levels during the early life of the structure.

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CONCLUDING SUMMARY

The serviceability limit state must be checked when designing simply supported
and continuous composite beams.
The main points to consider are:

The main design criteria are, deflection, control of crack width and limitation of
stresses.

For elastic calculations in positive moment regions, an uncracked section, with or

without reinforcement, can be assumed.

In negative moment regions, cracked sections must be assumed.

The influence of shrinkage, creep and temperature must be included.

10.6.1 Shear Connection - I

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Increased connector force near

plastic hinge at beam center

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The design shear resistance of a stud is given by the smaller of:

• stud shear resistance:

PRd = 0.8 fu (d2/4) / v

where the shear resistance of the connector is related to the tensile strength of the steel fu,
using a factor of 0.8

• concrete resistance:

PRd = 0.29  d2 (fckEcm)1/2 / v

where d is the diameter of the shank of the stud,

fu is the specified ultimate tensile strength of the stud material ( 500N/mm2),
fck is the characteristic cylinder strength of concrete,
Ecm is the mean value of the secant modulus of concrete,
= 0.2 [(h/d) + 1] if 3  h/d  4 where h is the overall height of the stud and for
h/d > 4  = 1.0.
The partial safety factor v is normally taken as 1.25.

including strain hardening

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h hp

bo

Reduction in shear resistance of studs

Ribs transverse to beam

kt = 0.7(bo/hp)(h/hp-1) / Nr1/2
kt  1.0 for Nr = 1 and kt  0.8 for Nr = 2

Ribs parallel to beam

kt = 0.6(bo/hp)(h/hp-1)  1.0

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CONCLUDING SUMMARY

The shear connectors between the slab and steel section in a composite beam are
required to resist shear, bending and tensile forces.

The stiffness, resistance and amount of confining concrete around each connector
affects the performance of the connection.

Welded shear studs are the most common form of connector.

Connector resistances may be determined using empirical formulae or "push-out"

tests.

The design resistance of a connector is normally assumed to be 0.8 times the

ultimate resistance.

Studs may normally be uniformly spaced along the beam.

Slabs formed with profiled steel sheeting may be used with composite beams as
long as the concrete in the troughs is ignored when calculating section properties.

10.6.2 Shear Connection - II

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"critical cross-section" is the cross-section of maximum bending moment.

"critical length" is the length between two adjacent critical cross-sections: AB and BC

The longitudinal shear force Vlf is equal to the lesser plastic axial resistance of either the
steel member or the concrete slab in the critical cross-section concerned

Vlf = lesser value of (Aa fy/a or 0.85Ac fck/c)

The required number of connectors to obtain full shear connection for the critical length is
Nf = Vlf / PRd
If the number N of shear connectors within the critical length is less than Nf: N < Nf
then the critical length is in partial shear connection and its degree of connection is
defined by the ratio N/Nf.

Fu(r) = NPRd = V

Obtain location of plastic neutral axis from equilibrium, i.e. Fcompression = Ftension

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The position of neutral axis ya and the ultimate moment Mu(r) are:

For ya  t1 (neutral axis in top steel flange)

ya = [As(fy/a) – Fu(r)] / [2b1(fy/a)]

Mu(r) = Fu(r)(hc + da- yc/2) + 2b1ya(fy/a)(da - ya/2)

For t1  ya  da (neutral axis in steel web)

ya = {(Aa + 2t1tw - 2b1t1)(fy/a) - Fu(r)} / [2tw(fy/a)]

Mu(r) = Fu(r)(hc+ da- yc/2) + 2b1t1(fy/a)(da- t1/2) + tw(ya- t1)(fy/a)(2da- ya- t1)

Mu(r) = Muapl + (N/Nf)(Mu - Muapl)

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For steel sections with equal flanges:

(N/Nf)B = 0.4 where L  5 m

(N/Nf)B = 0.25 + 0.03L  1 where L > 5 m

For steel sections having a bottom flange with an area not exceeding 3 times the area
of the upper flange:
(N/Nf)B = 0.4 + 0.03L  1

In the case of slabs cast on profiled steel sheeting it is reasonable to consider an

increase in the ductility of the connectors and, therefore:

0.4  (N/Nf)B = 0.04L  1

for steel sections with equal or unequal flanges.

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Influence of partial connections on beam deflections

For propped beams:

 = f + 0.5 (1 - N/Nf) (a - f)

For unpropped beams:

 = f + 0.3 (1 - N/Nf) (a - f)

CONCLUDING SUMMARY

Partial shear connection is an important option for the economic use of composite
beams in buildings.

When non-ductile shear connectors are used, the simplest design method uses
elastic beam theory to calculate the longitudinal shear force per unit length.

When ductile shear connectors are used, the design method is based on plastic
resistance of cross-sections using the stress block method.

Attention is drawn to the requirement for a minimum degree of connection

depending on the beam span.

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10.7 Composite Slabs

provides a working platform for construction

acts as formwork for the concrete slab
constitutes bottom reinforcement for the slab

Steel grade 280 : fyb = 280 N/mm2

Steel grade 350 : fyb = 350 N/mm2

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Bond by friction:
(a) and (b).

Embossments: (c).

End anchorages:
(d), (e) and (f)

For the situation where the profiled sheeting acts as formwork, the following
loads should be considered:
self-weight of the profiled sheeting
weight of the wet concrete
construction loads
temporary storage load

The construction loads represent the weight of the operatives, any loads due to
placing the concrete, and also take into account any impact or vibration likely to
occur during execution.
Eurocode 4: use 1.5kN/m2 distributed on an area 3m x 3m and 0.75kN/m2 on the
remaining formwork surface.

For the situation where the steel and the concrete act compositely, the loads acting
on the slab should comply with Eurocode 1:
self-weight of the slab (profiled sheeting and concrete)
weight of floor finishes
imposed loads

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a) Analysis for the ultimate limit states

In most cases analysis of composite
slabs, continuous over several spans, is
performed according to the elastic
method, for a slab of unit width (1m),
comparable to a beam of constant inertia.
The assumed inertia is that of the
uncracked section.

It is possible to take concrete cracking into

account in several ways:
• Arbitrarily reduce the moment at the
supports and increase the span moments
• Neglect reinforcement over the supports
and consider the slab as a series of simply
supported beams
• Consider that the slab is a beam with
variable inertia, depending on the
reinforcement. The assumed inertia is that of
the cracked section.

Critical sections which to be verified:

Section I : ultimate moment of resistance failure for positive bending.
Section II : ultimate moment of resistance failure for negative bending.
Section III-IV : ultimate resistance to vertical shear failure.
Section V : ultimate resistance to longitudinal shear failure.

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ds

The ultimate moment of resistance of a section, Mpc, may be determined by assuming

a plastic distribution of stresses. The position of the plastic neutral axis is
x = [Aap.fyap/ap] / [b.0.85fck/c]
The neutral axis is in the concrete zone if
Aapfyap/ap  0.85bfck/c
Then
Mp,Rd = Aap.fyap[ds - x/2]/ap

ep

Neglecting the concrete in the troughs

Mp,Rd = Ncz + Mpa,r

z = ht - hc/2 - ep + (ep - e)Nc/[Aap.fyap/ap]

Nc = hc0.85fck/c

Mpa,r = 1.25Mpa [1 - Nc/(Aap.fyap/ap)]  Mpa

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Nc = bcx 0.85fck/c = As.fys/s= Nt

x = [As.fys/s][bc0.85fck/c]

z = ds - x/2

Mp,Rd = As.fysz / s

Shear and Punching shear

Vv,Rd = bods c
dp

c = Rd k1 k2
dp k1 = 1.6 - ds  1.0 (ds in m)
k2 = 1.2 + 40 o
o = As/bo ds < 0.02
As is the area of reinforcement in tension.
In positive bending regions, As is to be
replaced by Aap.
Rd basic shear strength:  0.30N/mm2

The punching shear resistance of a composite slab at a concentrated load is

Vp,Rd = Cp hc c

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V,Rd = bds[(mAsp/bs) + k] / vs

ds or dp = distance from outermost concrete fiber to N.A. of steel
s the shear span
vs partial safety factor for longitudinal shear only

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b) Analysis for the serviceability limit states

An analysis of the composite slab, for calculating deflection, may be made with
the following assumptions:

The slab is comparable to a continuous beam of constant inertia, equal in value to

the average inertia of the cracked and uncracked section.

Long-term loading effects on the concrete are taken into account using a variation
in the modular ratio Ea/Ec. For simplification, Eurocode 4 recommends an
average value of Ea/Ec for both long and short term effects.

The deflection of a composite slab is calculated using elastic theory.

a) Cracked section
Ivc = [bx3/3n] + Aap(ds - x)2 + Iap
where x is the position of the elastic neutral axis:
x = [nAap/b]{[1 + (2bds/nAap)] - 1}
Iap is the unreduced second moment of area of the sheet

b) Uncracked section
The second moment of area Ibu of the uncracked section can be obtained from:

Ibu =

bc is the total average rib width over a slab width of 1 m.

xu is the position of the elastic neutral axis:

xu =

38
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CONCLUDING SUMMARY

The design of a composite slab must consider the performance of the profiled
steel sheeting, when it acts as shuttering for the wet concrete during execution,
as well as the composite performance of the steel and hardened concrete under
the imposed floor loading.

In the execution stage, the profiled steel sheeting acts as a thin-walled member.
Its design must take into account the possibility of local buckling.

The design of the composite slab must consider the resistance to positive and
negative moments and also to vertical and longitudinal shear.

The resistance to longitudinal shear at the steel/concrete interface is largely

derived from embossments in the steel sheet or from connectors placed at the
ends of the spans. Empirical methods are used to ensure adequate shear
resistance.

10.8.1 Columns I

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The plastic resistance of the cross-section of a composite column is given by the

sum of its component resistances:

Npl.Rd = Aa fyd + Ac fcd + As fsd

 is 1.0 for concrete filled cross-sections and 0.85 in all other cases

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The relative slenderness, , for the determination of the load-bearing resistance

of a column under axial load is given by:

Npl.R is the cross-section resistance a = c = s = 1.0

Ncr is the elastic buckling load of the column

Ncr = (EI)e2/e2

(EI)e is the effective bending stiffness.

e is the buckling length of the column.

The effective bending stiffness is determined by adding up the individual

components:

(EI)e = EaIa + 0.8 EcdIc + EsIs

0.8 EcdIc is the effective bending stiffness of the concrete part and Ecd = Ecm / c
Ecm is the secant modulus of the concrete and c can be reduced to 1.35

When assessing the importance of creep and shrinkage using Table below

 = Aafyd / NplRd

This represents the contribution of the structural steel to the normal force resistance.

Braced and Unbraced and

non-sway systems sway systems
Concrete encased sections 0.8 0.5
Concrete filled sections 0.8 / (1-) 0.5 / (1-)

For slenderness less than values given in Table, creep and shrinkage can be ignored

The influence of creep and shrinkage can be taken into account by modification of
the modulus of elasticity of the concrete

Ec = Ecd

NSd is the design normal force.

NG.Sd is the permanently acting part of it

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For each of the principal bending axes of the column it must be shown that:

NSd   Npl.Rd

Npl.Rd is the cross-section resistance for axial load

 is the reduction factor from the appropriate buckling curve

curve a for concrete filled hollow steel sections

curve b for partially and completely concrete encased I-sections with bending
about the strong axis of the steel cross-section

curve c for partially and completely concrete encased I-sections with bending
about the weak axis of the steel cross-section

42
 18-5-2015

CONCLUDING SUMMARY

Composite columns can be either partly or totally encased open sections, or

alternatively, they may be concrete filled tubes.

Eurocode 4 [1] gives limiting ratios for exposed steel parts of composite
columns, to ensure that local buckling does not occur. For fully encased
sections local buckling is not a problem.

Eurocode 4 gives simplified rules (European Buckling Curves, etc.), for

calculating the resistance of a composite column to axial load.

10.8.2. Columns II

Mmax
Mmin

Bending moment diagram

r = Mmin / Mmax
-1.0  r  1.0

Design bending moment

MSd = Mmax  / (1 – NSd/Ncr)

= 0.66 + 0.44 r 0.44

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Design procedure
for compression and
uniaxial bending M-N Interaction curve
Strength only

 represents maximum buckling load on column, i.e. no bending

k = moment due to imperfection decreases linearly to zero for n = 0.25(1 - r)
For design d = NSd / Npl.Rd ,  represents the remaining moment resistance

MSd  0.9  Mpl.Rd

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 18-5-2015

At D: Mmax.Rd = Wpa fyd + 0.5 Wpc  fcd + Wps fsd

For the example of the concrete

filled rectangular hollow section:

hn =

b
Nc.Rd = fcd.2hn.b - fcd.hn.2t + 2fyd.2hn.2t

Mn.Rd = Wpanfyd + 0.5 Wpcnfcd + (Wpsnfsd)

Wpan, Wpcn and Wpsn plastic moments of

resistance of the areas in the region of 2hn

At B the moment resistance

Now Nc,Rd/2 Mpl.Rd = Mmax.Rd - Mn.Rd

45
 18-5-2015

Mz.Sd/(z Mplz.Rd)  0.9

My.Sd/(y Mply.Rd)  0.9

My.Sd/(yMply.Rd) + Mz.Sd/(zMplz.Rd)  1.0

CONCLUDING SUMMARY

The influence of second order effects must be taken into account for slender
columns under significant axial load.

Combined bending and axial load can be checked using interaction diagrams
which also form the basis of the approach adopted in Annex D of Eurocode 4 .

Shear forces are taken into account by reducing the effective area resisting
bending; the cross-section interaction curve can then be determined using the
reduced section.

46
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’‘•›Ý݌’‡è›ˆ‡Ýˆ‹Œ’‡Ý’”‹™†‘›Œˆ‡Ý’Œ‹Š’”‘™ˆ‡Œˆ‰‡“Œ‡›Ý
†SãêàÞêà,Üßܝ
6Ü98ôŒ‡‹›™4‹›‡“‹™’”‹™Œ‡Ý‹‰’‘•›Ý݌’‡ñˆ‡“ÝŸëŒ‹™ˆ••‡ŽŒòõ—‰‰‹Œ‡
ßàóߝö‹™ˆˆŸ5Q'¡’›‡‰‰-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Šå‡“Œ‡›Œ‡“åò•›Œ‘‡‹4‹ˆ‹Œ’‡,Üޝ
6Ü84™ˆ”›õôØšŒë'‹™ŽŒ›‹Ý‹›‡“‹™‘‹™’Ž’”’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰‘‘˜›
ŽÝŒ“‡ö‡'S›’ŽŒ‡“Ý’”4Û44ÙÚÚ9ŸŒ‡‹›‡ˆ‹Œ’‡ˆ‰’‰‰’ì—Œ—‘’‡Ý‹ˆ˜Œ‰Œ‹Šˆ‡Ž
Ž—‹Œ‰Œ‹Š’”Ý‹‰Ý‹›—‹—›ÝøŒÝ˜’‡ŸS’›‹—“ˆ‰'ö4èS›ÝÝ,4•‹‘˜›Ú97ÚÙÚÚ9
ŒÝ˜‡'êÙêÞ9ê9ÜêÚ9
6Ü8ؗݍ™†ŸøŒ‡Ž‡› Ø‘ˆ›ð݋’‹™ŽŒ›‹Ý‹›‡“‹™‘‹™’Žè™Œ‡êôˆ‰‰Ž
4‹›—‹—›ÝÙÚÚÜ,ßíî'Ú7Ùڝ
6Ü8ôŒ‡‹›™ŸSŒˆ‡Øœ¡›—Ý™Œ‡“Ý‹›‡“‹™’”‹™Œ‡Ý‹‰ë˜Ý¡’›‡‰‰õ—‰‰‹Œ‡
ÜÞ9,ßà핋Üî
6ÙÚ8ž‹‰Œ‡øå‰ˆÝ‹ŒŒ‡Ý‹ˆ˜Œ‰Œ‹Š’”ñˆ‹•‰ˆ‹Ýݗ˜–‹Ž‹’•ˆ›‹Œˆ‰Ž“‰’ˆŽÝ’—›‡ˆ‰
’”‹™4‹›—‹—›ˆ‰ÛŒšŒÝŒ’‡†4¡åÜàà'ܝ
6ÙÜ8œ‹›ˆð—‰5ŸQ—ôô4‹›—‹—›ˆ‰˜™ˆšŒ’—›’”˜ˆ‘ 되Ýݗ˜–‹Ž‹’되
›Œ••‰Œ‡“ˆ‡Žˆ’‘˜Œ‡ˆ‹Œ’‡’”되›Œ••‰Œ‡“ˆ‡Ž˜‡ŽŒ‡“äŒ‡ˆ‰›•’›‹¡ŒšŒ‰
‡“Œ‡›Œ‡“Ý‹—ŽŠêޝؒ‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,—‡Ü
6ÙÙ8Q—ôôô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“ˆ‡Ž’‘˜Œ‡Žë˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“ˆ‡Ž˜‡ŽŒ‡“’”Ý‹‰
Žðݝ¡ŒšŒ‰‡“Œ‡›Œ‡“Ý‹—ŽŠÜêٝؒ‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,
†•›Œ‰Üܝ
6Ùß84ˆ‡‹›ˆ•—‹›ˆ¡ô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“’”™Œ“™Ý‹›‡“‹™’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰˜ˆ‘Ý6S™Û
‹™ÝŒÝ8Ø’‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,Ü9
6ÙÞ84ˆ‡‹›ˆ•—‹›ˆ¡ŸSˆ›ðÝãõŸQ—ôôô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“Ý‹›‡“‹™’”’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰
˜ˆ‘ݝ’—›‡ˆ‰’”4‹›—‹—›ˆ‰å‡“Œ‡›Œ‡“Ü,ÜÜà'Üڝ
6Ùà8õ™ˆð‹ˆõœŸøˆõ’—˜Ø†ŸQ— ôôè™””‹’”ñˆ‡“›Ý‹›ˆŒ‡‹’‡ 되
›Œ••‰Œ‡“Ý‹›‡“‹™¡ŒšŒ‰‡“Œ‡›Œ‡“Ý‹—ŽŠÙêܝؒ‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”
ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,㈛™Üٝ
6Ù98øˆ‡“ˆ‡ åŸøˆõ’—˜†ŸQ— ôô4‹›—‹—›ˆ‰˜™ˆšŒ’—›’”•›”’›ˆ‹Ž 되
‰‘‡‹Ý’”’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰ñò—›ˆ‰‘‘˜›Ýݗ˜–‹Ž‹’되›Œ••‰Œ‡“
ˆ‡Žˆ’‘˜Œ‡ˆ‹Œ’‡’”되›Œ••‰Œ‡“ˆ‡Ž˜‡ŽŒ‡“¡ŒšŒ‰‡“Œ‡›Œ‡“ݐ›ŒÝÞêߝ
¡’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰Ý›ŒÝÛ•ˆ›‹‘‡‹’”¡ŒšŒ‰å‡“Œ‡›Œ‡“Ø’‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š
’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,Üޝ
6Ù8¡ˆŒ‡ÛåŸøˆõ’—˜Ø†ŸQ—ôôè™””‹’”ñˆ‡“›Ý‹›ˆŒ‡‹’‡ë˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“
݋›‡“‹™’”’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰žêˆ‡Žöêݐ‹Œ’‡Ý¡ŒšŒ‰‡“Œ‡›Œ‡“Ý‹—ŽŠàêٝ
ؒ‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,㈊Üà
6Ù8ô—4ŸQ—ôôŸøˆõ’—˜Ø†4‹›‡“‹™’”ñò—›ˆ‰‘‘˜›Ý—ÝŒ‡“Ý‹›—‹—›ˆ‰
“›ˆŽڒ”†9àß݋‰í되›Œ••‰Œ‡“‹Ý‹Ýîè™Œ›ŽS›’“›ÝÝؐ•’›‹¡ŒšŒ‰
‡“Œ‡›Œ‡“Ý‹—ŽŠêߝؒ‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,䐘›—ˆ›Š
ܝ
6Ù8ôŒ‡“õ†ô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“ˆ‡Ž‹™Œ‡‹›ˆ‹Œ’‡’”˜‡ŽŒ‡“ˆ‡Žë˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“’”
—‡›Œ‡”’›Ž‘—‰‹Œê되’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰Ý‹Œ’‡Ýí㝆4‹™ÝŒÝîôˆ‹›‰’’Ÿ
¡ˆ‡ˆŽˆ'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ôˆ‹›‰’’,Üܝ
6ßÚ8ôŒ‡“õ†Ÿ4™—Ý‹›Øãô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“’”ŽðÝݗ˜–‹Ž‹’‹ë’êñˆ‡“
‰’ˆŽŒ‡“ö‡'S›’ŽŒ‡“Ý’”‹™ÝŒò‹™Œ‡‹›‡ˆ‹Œ’‡ˆ‰Ý•Œˆ‰Œ‹Š’‡”›‡’‡
’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰Ý‹›—‹—›ÝØ’‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,5’š‘˜›
Üٝ
6ßÜ8S›ˆ˜ˆðˆ›ˆ‡ ô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“’”’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰Ý‹Œ’‡Ýíã4‹™ÝŒÝ
ôˆ‹›‰’’Ÿ¡ˆ‡ˆŽˆ'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ôˆ‹›‰’’,Üߝ
6ßÙ8™›“ÝØ؝ô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“’”ÝŒ‡“‰ë˜’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰‘‘˜›Ýݗ˜–‹Ž
‹’‡Ž’‡êñˆ‡“‰’ˆŽŒ‡“í㝆4‹™ÝŒÝîôˆ‹›‰’’Ÿ¡ˆ‡ˆŽˆ'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”
ôˆ‹›‰’’,ܝ
6ßß8™›“ÝØ؟4™—Ý‹›Øãô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“’”‘‘˜›Ý—ÝŒ‡“™Œ“™ê݋›‡“‹™
݋‰Ýö‡'S›’ŽŒ‡“Ý’”‹™”’—›‹‡‹™Œ‡‹›‡ˆ‹Œ’‡ˆ‰Ý•Œˆ‰‹Š’‡”›‡’‡
’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰Ý‹›—‹—›ÝØ’‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,}‹’˜›
ܝ
6ßÞ8S›ˆ˜ˆðˆ›ˆ‡ Ÿ4™—Ý‹›Øãô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“’”’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰‘‘˜›Ýö‡'
S›’ŽŒ‡“Ý’”‹™”’—›‹‡‹™Œ‡‹›‡ˆ‹Œ’‡ˆ‰Ý•Œˆ‰‹Š’‡”›‡’‡’‰Žê
”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰Ý‹›—‹—›ÝØ’‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,}‹’˜›Ü
1¿1¯µ́£Ö£«°2¿3¯·«³º£4¢¥§¦)5³¸£̧®¹¬«·¤¬·«£¨6À7ÁÈÆÀ8ÆÈÆ9ÆÆÆ ÜÜÜ
6ßà8õÝ™ˆ›ˆõô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“’”’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰‘‘˜›Ýí㝆4‹™ÝŒÝîŸ Û•ˆ›‹‘‡‹’”‹™õ—Œ‰‹å‡šŒ›’‡‘‡‹åŒ‡Ž™’š‡-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”萍™‡’‰’“ŠŸ ˆ‡ŽŽš‰’•‘‡‹ÝŒ‡’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰ŽÝŒ“‡ˆ‡Ž’‡Ý‹›—‹Œ’‡4‹êø’—ŒÝŸ
-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ôˆ‹›‰’’Ÿôˆ‹›‰’’Ÿ¡ˆ‡ˆŽˆ,ܝ 虐5‹™›‰ˆ‡Ž,ÙÚڝ ãŒÝݒ—›ŒŸ-4†Û•ˆ›‹‘‡‹’”¡ŒšŒ‰Ÿ†›™Œ‹‹—›ˆ‰ˆ‡Žå‡šŒ›’‡‘‡‹ˆ‰å‡“Œê
6ß98õÝ™ˆ›ˆõŸ4™—Ý‹›Øãô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“Žˆ‹ˆˆ‡Žˆ‰Œ˜›ˆ‹Œ’‡Ý’”’‰Žê”’›‘Ž 698œ’”‘Š›œ†‡ò•‰ŒŒ‹ŸŽŠ‡ˆ‘Œ‡Œ‹‰‘‡‹‘’Ž‰”’›‹™‰’ˆ‰”ˆŒ‰—›’” ‡›Œ‡“Ø’‰‰ˆŸãŒÝݒ—›Œ'ãŒÝݒ—›Œ-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”4Œ‡ˆ‡Ž 萍™‡’‰’“Š,
݋‰‘‘˜›ÝäŒ‡ˆ‰›•’›‹ôˆ‹›‰’’Ÿ¡ˆ‡ˆŽˆ'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ôˆ‹›‰’’,ÙÚÚڝ ’‰Žê”’›‘Ž‹›ˆ•é’ŒŽˆ‰Ý™‹Œ‡“ö‡'øˆõ’—˜Ø’“›†ŸQ—ôŒêô‡ŽŒ‹’›Ý }‹’˜›Ùވ‡ŽÙàÙÚÜٝ•ÞÚ7Ùߝ
6ß8õÝ™ˆ›ˆõŸ4™—Ý‹›Øãô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“’”’‰Ž”’›‘Ž¡êˆ‡Žžêݐ‹Œ’‡Ýö‡' S›’ŽŒ‡“Ý’”‹™ÙÜ݋Œ‡‹›‡ˆ‹Œ’‡ˆ‰Ý•Œˆ‰Œ‹Š’‡”›‡’‡›‡‹›Ýˆ›™
S›’ŽŒ‡“Ý’”‹™”‹‡‹™Œ‡‹›‡ˆ‹Œ’‡ˆ‰Ý•Œˆ‰‹Š’‡”›‡’‡’‰Žê”’›‘Ž
݋‰Ý‹›—‹—›ÝØ’‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,}‹’˜›ÙÚÚڝ
6ß8Q’—‡“õŸœˆ‡’ð™ô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“˜™ˆšŒ’—›’”’‰Žê”’›‘Ž—‡‰Œ••Ž
™ˆ‡‡‰Ýö‡'S›’ŽŒ‡“Ý’”‹™”’—›‹‡‹™Œ‡‹›‡ˆ‹Œ’‡ˆ‰Ý•Œˆ‰‹Š’‡”›‡
’‡ ’‰Žê”’›‘Ž ݋‰Ý‹›—‹—›ÝØ’‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,
}‹’˜›Ü
6ß8œ‹›ˆð—‰5ŸQ— ôô¡’‰Žê”’›‘Ž ݋‰öꘐˆ‘Ýݗ˜–‹Ž ‹’’‘˜Œ‡Ž
˜‡ŽŒ‡“ˆ‡Žë˜ê›Œ••‰Œ‡“ö‡'ؙ’ŽÝ Ÿôˆ‰ð›†¡ŸŽŒ‹’›Ýè™Œ‡ê눉‰Ž
݋›—‹—›Ýꛐ‡‹‹™‡Œˆ‰ˆŽšˆ‡Ýˆ‡Ž ‹›‡ŽÝŒ‡ ŽÝŒ“‡Ÿ›Ýˆ›™ ˆ‡Ž
’‡Ý‹›—‹Œ’‡ø’‡Ž’‡'™›ˆ‡ˆŽˆS—˜‰ŒÝ™Œ‡“øŒ‘Œ‹Ž,Üڝ
6ÞÚ8Q—ôôô˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“ˆ‡Ž’‘˜Œ‡Žë˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“ˆ‡Ž˜‡ŽŒ‡“’”Ý‹‰
Žðݝ¡ŒšŒ‰‡“Œ‡›Œ‡“Ý‹—ŽŠÜêٝؒ‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,
†•›Œ‰Üܝ
6ÞÜ8Q—ôô¡’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰ŽÝŒ“‡ß›ŽŽ5ëQ’›ðŸ5Q'’™‡ôŒ‰Š¡4’‡Ý,
ÙÚÚڝ
6ÞÙ8Q’—‡“õŸœˆ‡’ð™åò•›Œ‘‡‹ˆ‰Œ‡šÝ‹Œ“ˆ‹Œ’‡’”’‰Žê”’›‘Ž™ˆ‡‡‰Ý
ݗ˜–‹Ž‹’’‘˜Œ‡Ž˜‡ŽŒ‡“ˆ‡Žë˜›Œ••‰Œ‡“ö‡'S›’ŽŒ‡“Ý’”‹™
”‹‡‹™ö‡‹›‡ˆ‹Œ’‡ˆ‰Ý•Œˆ‰‹Š’‡”›‡’‡’‰Žê”’›‘ŽÝ‹‰Ý‹›—‹—›Ý
ؒ‰‰ˆŸã}'-‡Œš›ÝŒ‹Š’”ãŒÝݒ—›Œêؒ‰‰ˆ,}‹’˜›ÙÚÚڝ
6Þß8œ’”‘Š›œŸ ›Ý‹‡Ý ™ãŸ4‡Œ–Ž›œœŸõˆðð›ã¡ã5ë •›ŽŒ‹Œ’‡‘’Ž‰
”’›”ˆŒ‰—›’”Ý‹‰Ý™‹Œ‡“Ý—˜–‹‹’’‡‡‹›ˆ‹Ž‰’ˆŽí되›Œ••‰Œ‡“ˆ‡Ž
˜‡ŽŒ‡“‘’‘‡‹îè™Œ‡êôˆ‰‰Ž4‹›—‹—›ÝÙÚÚÜ,ßíî'ß79
6ÞÞ8㈛“—›› è™’›ŒŽ›“ð›¢‘‘‹›•‰ˆ‹“›’Ýݐ›ä’›‘£‡Ž›Ž—‡“ö‡'
S›’ŽŒ‡“Ý’”‹™”‹™Œ‡‹›‡ˆ‹Œ’‡ˆ‰’‡“›Ý݈••‰ŒŽã™ˆ‡ŒÝ,Üߝ•ß
6Þà8œ’”‘Š›œŸØ’Ý‘ˆ‡Œ‹ãŸõˆðð›ã¡ãS›ŽŒ‹Œ’‡’”Ý™‹Œ‡“”ˆŒ‰—›˜Šˆ‡
—‰‹Œ‘ˆ‹ ”ˆŒ‰—› ‘’Ž‰—ÝŒ‡“ ‹™ ‹Œ‹Œ’—Ý݋›ˆŒ‡ ‘‹™’Žè™Œ‡êôˆ‰‰Ž
4‹›—‹—›ÝÙÚÚ,ÞíÙî'ÜàÜ79ٝ
6Þ98õŽˆŒ›}4‹ˆ˜Œ‰Œ‹Š’”되•‰ˆ‹ÝŒ‡ôêݙˆ•’‰—‘‡Ýˆ’—‡‹Œ‡“”’›ñˆ‡“ó
되Œ‡‹›ˆ‹Œ’‡è™Œ‡êôˆ‰‰Ž4‹›—‹—›ÝÙÚÚ,Þí97î'97à
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