`

Computer Generations :-
Computer generations are based on when major technological changes in computers occurred, like the use of
vacuum tubes, transistors, and the microprocessor. As of 2020, there are five generations of the computer.
Review each of the generations below for more information and examples of computers and technology that
fall into each generation.

 First generation (1940 - 1956)

 Second generation (1956 - 1963)
 Third generation (1964 - 1971)
 Fourth generation (1972 - 2010)
 Fifth generation (2010 to present)
First generation (1940 - 1956)

The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes as a

major piece of technology. Vacuum tubes were widely used
in computers from 1940 through 1956. Vacuum tubes were
larger components and resulted in first generation computers
being quite large in size, taking up a lot of space in a room.
Some of the first generation computers took up an entire
room. The ENIAC is a great example of a first generation
computer. It consisted of nearly 20,000 vacuum tubes,
10,000 capacitors, and 70,000 resistors. It weighed over 30
tons and took up a lot of space, requiring a large room to
house it. Other examples of first generation computers
include the EDSAC, IBM 701, and Manchester Mark 1
.

Second generation (1956 - 1963)

The second generation of computers saw the use

of transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Transistors were
widely used in computers from 1956 to 1963. Transistors
were smaller than vacuum tubes and allowed computers to be
smaller in size, faster in speed, and cheaper to build. The first
computer to use transistors was the TX-0 and was introduced
in 1956. Other computers that used transistors include the
IBM 7070, Philco Transac S-1000, and RCA 501
Third generation (1964 - 1971)

The third generation of computers introduced the use

of IC (integrated circuits) in computers. Using IC's in
computers helped reduce the size of computers even more
compared to second-generation computers, and make them
faster. Nearly all computers since the mid to late 1960s have
utilized IC's. While the third generation is considered by
many people to have spanned from 1964 to 1971, IC's are still
used in computers today. Over 45 years later, today's
computers have deep roots going back to the third generation.

Fourth generation (1972 - 2010)

The fourth generation of computers took advantage of the

invention of the microprocessor, more commonly known as a
CPU. Microprocessors, along with integrated circuits, helped
make it possible for computers to fit easily on a desk and for
the introduction of the laptop. Some of the earliest computers
to use a microprocessor include the Altair 8800, IBM 5100,
and Micral. Today's computers still use a microprocessor,
despite the fourth generation being considered to have ended
in 2010.

Fifth generation (2010 to present)

The fifth generation of computers is beginning to use AI (artificial

intelligence), an exciting technology that has many potential
applications around the world. Leaps have been made in AI technology
and computers, but there is still room for much improvement. One of
the more well-known examples of AI in computers is IBM's Watson,
which was featured on the TV show Jeopardy as a contestant. Other
better-known examples include Apple's Siri on the iPhone and
Microsoft's Cortana on Windows 8 and Windows 10 computers.
The Google search engine also utilizes AI to process user searches.

Von Neumann Machine Architecture

 A von Neumann architecture machine, designed by physicist and mathematician John von
Neumann (1903–1957) is a theoretical design for a stored program computer that serves as the
basis for almost all modern computers. The von Neumann architecture—also known as the von Neumann
model or Princeton architecture—is a computer architecture based on a 1945 description by John von
Neumann and others in the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. That document describes a design
architecture for an electronic digital computer with these components: A processing unit that contains an
arithmetic logic unit and processor registers.
Von Neumann architecture was first published by John von Neumann. His computer architecture design
consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

Computer Functional Units :-

Functional units of a computer system are parts of the CPU (Central Processing Unit) that performs
the operations and calculations called for by the computer program. A computer consists of five main
components namely, Input unit, Central Processing Unit, Memory unit Arithmetic & logical unit,
Control unit and an Output unit.
Basic Computer Functions

Input function and devices. A computer is a data processing machine

 Process function and devices. Once the data and instructions are received by the input function,
the computer starts the processing function.
 Output function and devices. ...
 Storage function and devices. ...
  Examples. ...
The Four Functions of a Computer
1. Data Input. Every computer is designed with data input as a first function, an activity which is …
2. Data Processing. Data processing is the core function of a computer. Processing involves …
3. Information Output. When raw data has been manipulated by the microprocessor, the outcome is …
4. Data and Information Storage. The fourth and equally very important function of a computer is data …

Components of Computer Organization :-

 Hardware
 Software
 Human ware
 Operational Procedures

The significant components of Computer organization are ALU, CPU, memory and memory organization.
Before learning the concepts of Computer Architecture and Organization, you should have a basic knowledge
prior to Computer Architecture, basic functional units of a computer system, etc.

Block Diagram of Computer:-

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes link between user and
computer. The input devices translate the information into the form understandable by computer.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data,
intermediate results and instructions(program). It controls the operation of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has following three components
  ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer. This unit is a link between
computer and users. Output devices translate the computer's output into the form understandable by users.
CPU consists of the following features:
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to the other units of the
computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main memory or primary storage or Random access
memory(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in the
computer. Functions of memory unit are:
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.
Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely
  Arithmetic section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching and merging of data.

Basic Components of digital computer :-

A typical digital computer system has four basic functional elements:

(1) input-output equipment,
(2) main memory,
(3) control unit, and
(4) arithmetic-logic unit.
Any of a number of devices is used to enter data and program instructions into a computer and to gain access
to the results of the processing operation.

Use of Programm development :-

PLANNING
PROGRAM
DESIGN

MAINTENAN
CE

CODING

TESTING &
DOCUMENTATI DEBUGGING
ON

1. PLANNING
The Planning stage is the stage where programmers decide and define the tasks that should be performed by the program.
This involves identifying the problem, defining the problem in simpler terms, identifying the program requirements
(inputs, outputs the formulas needed), and finally, planning for the solution.
2. PROGRAM DESIGN
This stage deals with the flow of the program, the way it should produce output and gather inputs, the interface or the
working environment of the program, and how it should be used. In planning and designing the program, you need to
have an understanding of the logic behind the programs performance. You also need to be knowledgeable in the
theory, algorithms, pseudocodes, and flowcharts.
3. CODING
It is the process of expressing the fully detailed algorithm to a standard high-level programming language. This stage of
program development requires following the rules of format and syntax (vocabulary, grammar and punctuation. This
stage requires an extensive knowledge in the programming language he will use. Coding is the act of actual writing of
the computer program. It means generating the “source code” in the language of the programmer’s choice. A computer
program is generated through the source code.
4. TESTING & DEBUGGING
The Testing Stage is where the programmer makes sure that the program performs the way it is intended. Programs are
tested by running them and observing the output they produce. The process of correcting mistakes in a program is
called debugging.
5. DOCUMENTATION
– It is the detailed description of a program’s algorithm, design, coding method, testing and proper usage. Documentation
usually includes the necessary information about the requirements of the program.
– The operating system, and hardware requirements needed for the program to run.
– Documentation also contains technical information such as where and who created the program, who contact when
there’s a problem with the program and instructions on the use and maintenance of the program.
6. MAINTENANCE
The final stage in programming is in maintaining or updating the program. This is the stage where the
programmer is tasked to keep the program running smoothly and updated with the developments and changes
in the field where it is used.
Language Processors –
Assembly language is machine dependent yet mnemonics that are being used to represent instructions in it are
not directly understandable by machine and high Level language is machine independent. A computer
understands instructions in machine code, i.e. in the form of 0s and 1s. It is a tedious task to write a computer
program directly in machine code. The programs are written mostly in high level languages like Java, C++,
Python etc. and are called source code. These source code cannot be executed directly by the computer and
must be converted into machine language to be executed. Hence, a special translator system software is used to
translate the program written in high-level language into machine code is called Language Processor and the
program after translated into machine code (object program / object code).
The language processors can be any of the following three types:
Compiler –
The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high level language as a whole in
one go and translates it into an equivalent program in machine language is called as a Compiler.
Example: C, C++, C#, Java
In a compiler, the source code is translated to object code successfully if it is free of errors. The compiler
specifies the errors at the end of compilation with line numbers when there are any errors in the source
code. The errors must be removed before the compiler can successfully recompile the source code again.

Assembler –

The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into machine code. The
 source program is a input of assembler that contains assembly language instructions. The output generated
by assembler is the object code or machine code understandable by the computer.

Interpreter –
The translation of single statement of source program into machine code is done by language processor and
executes it immediately before moving on to the next line is called an interpreter. If there is an error in the
statement, the interpreter terminates its translating process at that statement and displays an error message.
The interpreter moves on to the next line for execution only after removal of the error. An Interpreter
directly executes instructions written in a programming or scripting language without previously
converting them to an object code or machine code.
Example: Perl, Python and Matlab.
Difference between Compiler and Interpreter –
Compiler Interpreter

A compiler is a program which coverts the entire source Interpreter takes a source program and runs it
code of a programming language into executable machine line by line, translating each line as it comes
code for a CPU. to it.

Compiler takes large amount of time to analyze the entire Interpreter takes less amount of time to
source code but the overall execution time of the program is analyze the source code but the overall
comparatively faster. execution time of the program is slower.

Compiler generates the error message only after scanning

the whole program, so debugging is comparatively hard as Its Debugging is easier as it continues
the error can be present anywhere in the program. translating the program until the error is met

Generates intermediate object code. No intermediate object code is generated.

Examples: C, C++, Java Examples: Python, Perl

Algorithm
 In our day-to-day life we perform activities by following certain sequence of steps. Examples of activities
include getting ready for school, making breakfast, riding a bicycle, wearing a tie, solving a puzzle and so on.
To complete each activity, we follow a sequence of steps. Suppose following are the steps required for an
activity ‘riding a bicycle’:
1) Remove the bicycle from the stand,
2) Sit on the seat of the bicycle,
3) Start peddling,
4) Use breaks whenever needed and
5) Stop on reaching the destination. Let us now find Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of two numbers 45 and
56. Note: GCD is the largest number that divides both the given numbers.
Step 1: Find the numbers (divisors) which can divide the given numbers
Divisors of 45 are: 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, and 45
Divisors of 54 are: 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 27, and 54
Step 2: Then find the largest common number from these two lists.
Therefore, GCD of 45 and 54 is 9 Hence, it is clear that we need to follow a sequence of steps to accomplish
the task. Such a finite sequence of steps required to get the desired output is called an algorithm. It will lead to
the desired result in a finite amount of time, if followed correctly. Algorithm has a definite beginning and a
definite end, and consists of a finite number of steps.

Why do we need an Algorithm?

A programmer writes a program to instruct the computer to do certain tasks as desired. The computer then
follows the steps written in the program code. Therefore, the programmer first prepares a roadmap of the
program to be written, before actually writing the code. Without a roadmap, the programmer may not be able
to clearly visualize the instructions to be written and may end up developing a program which may not work as
expected. Such a roadmap is nothing but the algorithm which is the building block of a computer program. For
example, searching using a search engine, sending a message, finding a word in a document, booking a taxi
through an app, performing online banking, playing computer games, all are based on algorithms. Writing an
algorithm is mostly considered as a first step to programming. Once we have an algorithm to solve a problem,
we can write the computer program for giving instructions to the computer in high level language. If the
algorithm is correct, computer will run the program correctly, every time. So, the purpose of using an
algorithm is to increase the reliability, accuracy and efficiency of obtaining solutions.

Characteristics of a good algorithm

• Precision — the steps are precisely stated or defined.
• Uniqueness — results of each step are uniquely defined and only depend on the input and the result of the
preceding steps.
• Finiteness — the algorithm always stops after a finite number of steps.
• Input — the algorithm receives some input.
• Output — the algorithm produces some output. (B) While writing an algorithm, it is required to clearly
identify the following:
• The input to be taken from the user
• Processing or computation to be performed to get the desired result
• The output desired by the user

Flowchart —
A flowchart is a visual representation of an algorithm. A flowchart is a diagram made up of boxes, diamonds and other
shapes, connected by arrows. Each shape represents a step of the solution process and the arrow represents the order
or link among the steps. There are standardized symbols to draw flowcharts. Some are given in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Shapes or symbols to draw flow charts

Example 4.1: Write an algorithm to find the square of a number. Before developing the algorithm, let us first
identify the input, process and output:
• Input: Number whose square is required
• Process: Multiply the number by itself to get its square
• Output: Square of the number Algorithm to find square of a number.
Step 1: Input a number and store it to num
Step 2: Compute num * num and store it in square
Step 3: Print square
The algorithm to find square of a number can be represented pictorially using flowchart as shown in Figure
4.2.
Logic Development and Problem Solving:-

Suppose while driving, a vehicle starts making a strange noise. We might not know how to solve the
problem right away. First, we need to identify from where the noise is coming? In case the problem cannot be
solved by us, then we need to take the vehicle to a mechanic. The mechanic will analyse the problem to
identify the source of the noise, make a plan about the work to be done and finally repair the vehicle in order to
remove the noise. From the above example, it is explicit that, finding the solution to a problem might consist of
multiple steps. When problems are straightforward and easy, we can easily find the solution. But a complex
problem requires a methodical approach to find the right solution. In other words, we have to apply problem
solving techniques. Problem solving begins with the precise identification of the problem and ends with a
complete working solution in terms of a program or software. Key steps required for solving a problem using a
computer are shown in Figure 4.1 and are discussed in following subsections.
Analysing the problem
It is important to clearly understand a problem before we begin to find the solution for it. If we are not clear
as to what is to be solved, we may end up developing a program which may not solve our purpose. Thus, we
need to read and analyse the problem statement carefully in order to list the principal components of the
problem and decide the core functionalities that our solution should have. By analysing a problem, we would
be able to figure out what are the inputs that our program should accept and the outputs that it should produce.
Developing an Algorithm
It is essential to device a solution before writing a program code for a given problem. The solution is
represented in natural language and is called an algorithm. We can imagine an algorithm like a very well-
written recipe for a dish, with clearly defined steps that, if followed, one will end up preparing the dish. We
start with a tentative solution plan and keep on refining the algorithm until the algorithm is able to capture all
the aspects of the desired solution. For a given problem, more than one algorithm is possible and we have to
select the most suitable solution.
Coding
After finalising the algorithm, we need to convert the algorithm into the format which can be understood by
the computer to generate the desired solution. Different high level programming languages can be used for
writing a program. It is equally important to record the details of the coding procedures followed and document
the solution. This is helpful when revisiting the programs at a later stage.
Testing and Debugging
The program created should be tested on various parameters. The program should meet the requirements of
the user. It must respond within the expected time. It should generate correct output for all possible inputs. In
the presence of syntactical errors, no output will be obtained. In case the output generated is incorrect, then the
program should be checked for logical errors, if any. Software industry follows standardised testing methods
like unit or component testing, integration testing, system testing, and acceptance testing while developing
complex applications. This is to ensure that the software meets all the business and technical requirements and
works as expected. The errors or defects found in the testing phases are debugged or rectified and the program
is again tested. This continues till all the errors are removed from the program. Once the software application
has been developed, tested and delivered to the user, still problems in terms of functioning can come up and
need to be resolved from time to time. The maintenance of the solution, thus, involves fixing the problems
faced by the user, answering the queries of the user and even serving the request for addition or modification of
features.
Types of Computer :-
  Microcomputers (personal computers)
 Minicomputers (mid-range computers)
 Mainframe computers
 Supercomputers

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:

 Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.

 Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a
more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.
 Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users simultaneously.
 Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of
users simultaneously.
 Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per
second.

Supercomputer
Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical
calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the
best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.

Mainframe

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame"
of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the
early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as
mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds,
or even thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is
that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a
mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more
powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can
execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and
minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

Minicomputer

It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small
mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in
general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users
simultaneously.

Workstation

It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software
development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution
graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most
workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a
diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are
UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However,
workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as
stand-alone systems.
N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area network. It could be a
workstation or a personal computer.

Desktop model

A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of the
computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall.
Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage devices.
Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.

Notebook computer

An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are
small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a notebook
computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques,
known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of
notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are
nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives.
However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as
equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to run them
without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.

Laptop computer

A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop
computers are more frequently called notebook computers.

Palmtop

A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are severely
limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen
rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size,
most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can
insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers
and pocket computers.

PDA

Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, telephone/fax, and networking
features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable
computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also
incorporate handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice
recognition technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton
MessagePad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs
have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited applications.
However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become common gadgets.

PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.
Personal computer:

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price, personal
computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the
microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and
database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games
and recently for surfing the Internet.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computers was
the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and
competing operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first
personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and
most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM
PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player
in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones,
computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the
same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of running the same software. Over the years, IBM has
lost much of its influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM
the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to the exclusion of other
types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent years, the term PC has become more and more
difficult to pin down. In general, though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor,
or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the operating system,
there are several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and PCs. The
principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems and are based on
microprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to
link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction
between personal computers and workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the
same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-
Packard, and DEC.

Windows may refer to any of the following:

Microsoft Windows, also called Windows and Windows OS, computer operating system (OS) developed
by Microsoft Corporation to run personal computers (PCs). Featuring the first graphical user interface (GUI)
for IBM-compatible PCs, the Windows OS soon dominated the PC market. Approximately 90 percent of PCs
run some version of Windows.
Microsoft Windows (also referred to as Windows or Win) is a graphical operating system developed and
published by Microsoft. It provides a way to store files, run software, play games, watch videos, and connect
to the Internet. Microsoft Windows was first introduced with version 1.0 on November 10, 1983. Over a
dozen versions of Windows were released after that, including the current version, Windows 10.

History of Microsoft Windows

Since 1983, Microsoft is producing Windows. The founder of Microsoft 'Bill Gates' announced for Microsoft
Windows on 10 November 1983 and released the first version of Windows in 1985. The following table
contains history of Windows from edition 1 to 10.

Version History

Windows 1.0 Microsoft introduced Windows with its first version 1.0. It was released on 20
November 1985, and at the beginning, it was sold for $100.00. Additionally, it
was the first effort by Microsoft to produce a graphical user interface in 16-
bit.

Windows 2.0 The second version, Windows 2.0, was produced by Microsoft on 9 December
1987 as well as it also introduced the Window 386 on the same day. Initially, the
price was the same $100.00 for both of the Windows in the market.
It came with new features such as it was able to overlap each other, and it also
introduced the new way to maximize and minimize the window, instead of using
'zooming' and 'iconizing' respectively.
Furthermore, it also included the control panel feature where several system
settings and configuration options are available in one place. Even Microsoft
Word and Excel were also used for the first time on Windows 2.

Windows 286 It was released in June 1988, and at the beginning, its price was $100.00.

Windows 3.0 It was the first Windows that needed a hard drive. It was launched by Microsoft
on 22 May 1990. Its full version was sold for $149.95, and the updated version
was $79.95. Additionally, the multimedia supported Windows 3 was introduced
in October 1991.
Windows version 3.0 gained more success, and it became a challenge for Apple's
 Macintosh and the Commodore Amiga GUI as it was provided pre-installed on
computers by PC compatible manufacturers as well as Zenith Data Systems.
It was also able to run the MS-DOS program in Windows that allowed
multitasking in legacy programs as well as supported 256 colors, which made the
interface more colorful and advanced.

Windows 3.1 It was launched in April 1992, when it was in development its code name was
Sparta. It was the commonly used operating system for the PC graphical user
interface. In the first two months after its release, more than one million copies
were sold. It made the Windows usable publishing platform for the first time by
introducing the TrueType fonts. Minesweeper was also used for the first time on
the Windows 3.1.
It was needed only 1MB of RAM to run, and it allowed users to control the MS-
DOS programs with the help of a mouse for the first time. Furthermore, it was also
the first operating system to be distributed on a CD-ROM.
Some other generations of version 3.1 are as follows:

o In 1992, the Windows for Workgroups 3.1 was launched.

o Microsoft introduced Windows NT 3.1 on 27 July 1993.
o An updated version of Windows 3.1, Windows 3.11, was introduced on 31
December 1993.
o In February 1994, the Windows for Workgroups 3.11 was launched.
o On 21 September 1994, the Windows NT 5 was introduced.
o The next version Windows NT 3.51, was introduced on 30 May 1995.

Windows 95 As the name specifies, Windows 95 was launched on 24 August 1995, and within
four days of its release, more than one million copies were sold. It introduced the
Start button and Start menu features for the first time, including important features
such as a 32-bit environment, multitasking, and taskbar. Furthermore, MS-DOS
still played a vital role in Windows 95, with the help of some programs and
elements.
Internet Explorer was also used on the Windows 95 for the first time, but it could
not be installed by default, it needed the Windows 95 plus pack for it. Later,
Windows 95 improved and included the IE browser by default.

Windows 95 It was introduced on 24 February 1996.

Service Pack
Windows NT On 29 July 1996, Windows NT 4.0 was launched.
4.0

Windows CE o The first version 0 of Windows CE was introduced in November 1996.

o The Second version 0 of Windows CE was launched in November 1997.
o The next version 1 of Windows CE was released in July 1998.
o The third version, 3.0 of Windows CE, was introduced in 1999.

Windows 98 It was developed on Windows 95, and introduced in June 1998. It was released,
including Internet Explorer 4, Windows Address Book, Outlook Express,
Microsoft Chat, and NetShow Player.
The second version of Windows 98 was introduced on 5 May 1999, in this version
the NetShow Player was replaced by Windows Media Player 6.2. It was also
brought with the address bar and back/forward navigation buttons in Windows
Explorer, and more other features.
Windows 98 came with the new feature Windows Driver model for computer
components and accessories, which offered support to all future editions of
Windows. Furthermore, it was improved USB support including USB mice and
USB hubs.

Windows 2000 On 17 February 2000, it was launched.

Windows ME It was invented in September 2000, and it was the last operating system, which
was based on MS-DOS and in the Windows 9x line. According to the enterprise
market, it was considered consumer-aimed Windows with the Windows 2000. It
was also provided some useful features for consumers as well as more automated
system recovery tools.
Additionally, an Internet Explorer, Windows Movie Maker, and Windows Media
Player 7 were used on Windows ME for the first time.

Windows 2000 It was introduced on 17 February 2000. Basically, it was based on Microsoft
business-oriented system Windows NT, and later it provided the base for the
Windows XP. Furthermore, the automatic updating feature made their appearance
for the first time on Windows 2000, and it was the first operating system to
support hibernation.
Windows XP Windows XP was considered the best edition of Windows; it was introduced
on 25 October 2001. It followed Windows ME and provided consumer-friendly
elements. The 64-bit version of Windows XP was introduced on 28 March
2003. Furthermore, Its Professional x64 version was introduced on 24 April
2005.
The start button and taskbar were replaced by including the green Start button,
blue task bar, and vista wallpaper, as well as several shadows and more visual
effects.
It also brought some important features, such as ClearType, which helps to read
content on LCD screens, autoplay from CDs and other media, different automated
update, and recovery tools.
Additionally, It was used for the longest time, and even when it was discontinued,
it was used at an estimated 430 m PC.

Windows Vista It was introduced by Microsoft In January 2007. It was brought the better look and
feel user interface and included transparent elements, security, and search. When it
was in the development phase, its code name was "Longhorn." Windows Media
Player 11 and Internet Explorer 7 were made their appearance for the first time on
Windows Vista, included Windows Defender, an anti-spyware program. It was
also provided some useful features such as Windows DVD Maker, speech
recognition, and Photo Gallery. Furthermore, it was the first operating system to
be distributed on DVD.

Windows On 27 February 2008, Microsoft introduced Windows Server 2008.

Server 2008

Windows 7
It was introduced on 22 October 2009 to overcome all problems that were faced
by Windows Vista. It was released with user-friendly features and less dialogue
box overload. It was more stable, faster, and easy to use as compared to release
other previous versions. Additionally, the handwriting recognition feature was
used for the first time on Windows 7.
As IE was the default browser in Microsoft Windows, the antitrust investigations
used Microsoft in Europe for making it a default browser. Consequently, it had to
provide the users the option to choose and install the browser on the first boot.

Windows On 4 September 2012, Microsoft was released Windows Server 2012.

Server 2012

Windows 8 It was introduced by Microsoft on 26 October 2012. It was released with new
features, such as a fast operating system, support for the USB 3.0 devices, and
 Web store. The Web store is a place where you can download different types of
Windows applications; its full-screen mode was run for the first time on Windows 8.

Windows 8.1 It was launched by Microsoft on 17 October 2013. It was re-launched the Start
button, which was able to display the Start screen from the desktop view of
Windows 8.1. Furthermore, it provided a way to select boot directly into the
desktop.

Windows 10 On 29 July 2015, Microsoft introduced Windows 10. It was released with some
new features such as switching between a keyboard and mouse mode and a tablet
mode, which was beneficial for the users who use computers like surface Pro 3
with a detachable keyboard. It was designed for all Windows platforms across
several devices, as well as Windows tablets and Phones, including common
applications.

Windows' key benefits and features

 Allows the user to interact with the computer (through the keyboard, mouse, microphone, etc.).
 Controls the storage of data (images, files, music).
 Controls hardware attached to the computer such as webcams, scanners and printers.
 Helps to open and close programs (word processors, games, photo editors, etc.), and gives them part of the
computer’s memory to allow them to work.
 Controls what access to a computer different users have and the computer's security.
 Deals with errors and user instructions, and issues simple error messages.
 Promotes multitasking by allowing the user to do several things on the computer at once – for example, watch
a video while writing a letter.

Basic Components of Windows:-

Each window consists of several components:
 the frame.
 the title bar.
 the menu bar.
 the status bar and.
 the main window area.
 Windows consists of the following components:

 Desktop:

 The desktop is the very first screen we see after windows start. Here, we can see folders like
My Computer, Documents, etc. It is the main working area of many of your computer
operations. You keep your special files on the desktop so you can access them easily and it
 gives access to other important functionalities as well such as search bar, taskbar, and file
explorer.

 • Taskbar:

 The taskbar is a simple row at the very bottom of the screen where all currently opened files or
applications are listed. It helps you select what you want to keep opened and what you want to
close.

 • Start Menu:

 By clicking the start menu, in the bottom left corner of the screen, a vertical window consisting
of the recently opened applications and saved locations will pop -up. Although the Start Menu
was a major component of Windows before Windows 8, It was removed from Windows 8 and
then brought back in Windows 10.

 • Maximize/Minimize/Close Buttons:

 These buttons are located at the top right corner of our opened documents, and the area used to
close, minimize or maximize the document window. They help us jump from one task to
another fast and let us decide either we want to close an application or resize it’s area on the
screen or just hide it for a few moments.

 • My Computer:

 When we double click on My Computer, We find ourselves looking at a window where we can
navigate between Computer Drives and Control Panel tools. It also gives us access to different
drives on our computer and the data which lies in those drives.

 • My Computer Right Click Menu:

 When we right-click on My Computer or any other file or folder, We get a menu where we can
look into different options related to that specific file, for example, Properties, etc.

 • Recycle Bin:

 When we delete a file or folder, It goes into the Recycle Bin from where It can either be
restored or permanently deleted from the Computer. Once, a file or folder is deleted from the
Recycle Bin, It is very difficult to recover it again. Therefore, the utility of the recycle bin is
very essential to use properly if you deal with important documents and files on a day to day
basis.

 • Shortcut:

 A shortcut creates a button or icon which typically is located on the Desktop. By clicking on
this Shortcut, We can quickly open the document or appli cation of which it is a shortcut. It
 helps us save the tedious task of going to the main directory again and again and saves our
time.

 • Mouse Functions:

 The mouse is an input device which is essential in the working of a computer. It performs
several important functions on Windows like Scrolling, Right and Left Clicks, etc. It performs
another very important function of modern windows which is pointing towards different things
and giving special instructions whenever needed.

 • Highlight:

 When we have opened a document, we can easily highlight the required portion of our
document by using Mouse. It is essential for documents and helps keep track of useful
information.

 • Copy/Cut/Paste:

 These options are one of the most essential components of Windows. The co py is used to copy
a portion of a document from one document to another or a file or folder from one location to
another. The paste is used to paste the copied item on the desired location. While Cut is used to
move an item to our desired location in the Computer.

 • Toolbar:

 The toolbar is a simple row where we can see different options to customize the look of our
opened window. It has two types, Formatting Toolbar, and Standard Toolbar. The standard
toolbar consists of options like new documents, save a document, etc. While Formatting
Toolbar consists of options like font size, font type, etc.

 • Drag/Drop:

 Dragging an object means to move an object (file or folder) from one location to another and
when we reach our desired location, then we can drop the object to that location. It is one of the
most used features of windows as you have to move files from one location to another.

 • File Extensions:

 File extensions are used to define the type of the file. For example an image file will have an
extension of .jpg, .jpeg and a Word document will have an extension .docx, .xls, .txt etc. You
could have different types of extensions and these extensions help you decide the type of
software that will be used to access these files.

 • Multitasking:
  The term Multitasking means to run more than one file or application on Windows at the same
time. It is a very important component of Windows which saves our time as well as allow us to
perform more tasks at the same time.

 • Virtual Keyboard:

 A virtual keyboard is a software through which we can see a keyboard on our screen and use it
by our Mouse. It is mostly used in the cases when your keyboard is not working properly or you
use windows on a touch device.

 • Disk Drives:

 Disk Drives are drives used to store applications and files. Hard Drives and Floppy Drives are
used for this purpose. They are very important for your instructions as well as your hardware to
work properly.

 • Defragmenting Hard Drives:

 Defragmenting a Drive means to erase all the data from that drive. It is also another important
component of windows as users need to clean up their hard drives from time to time and it also
comes as a built-in utility.

Features of Windows
Microsoft Windows includes a lot of features to help users. Some of its excellent features are as follows:

1. Control Panel: Windows provides a Control Panel feature that includes many tools to configure and
manage the resources on their computer. For example, users can change settings for audio, video,
printers, mouse, keyboard, network connections, date and time, power saving options, user accounts,
installed applications, etc.

The Control Panel is a part of the Microsoft Windows graphical user interface. It allows users to view and
manipulate basic system settings and controls via applets. You can use control panel for the tasks such as
adding hardware, adding and removing software, controlling user accounts, and changing accessibility options.
Additional applets can be provided by third party software.

In recent versions of Windows, the Control Panel has two views, Classic View and Category View, and it is
possible to switch between these through an option that appears on either the left side or top of the window.

The classic view consists of shortcuts to the various control panel applets, usually without any description
(other than the name). The categories are seen if the user use “Details” view.

The category view consists of categories, which when clicked on display the control panel applets related to
the category. In Windows Vista, the category used applets below the name of the category.
2. Cortana: Windows 10 introduced a feature named Cortana, which is able to accept voice commands. It
can perform various tasks such as it can answers your questions, search data on your computer, online
purchases, set reminders, and appointments, etc. Furthermore, it acts like other voice-activated services
such as Google Assistant, Alexa, or Siri, including one more benefit of searching the information on
your computer. To open the Cortana in Windows 10, press Window key + S.

3. File Explorer: It is also known as Windows Explorer, which displays your files and folders on the
computer. It allows users to browse the data on the hard drive, SSD and other inserted removable disks
like pen drives and CDs, and you can manage the content according to the requirements such as delete,
rename, search, and transfer the data.
4. Internet browser: As the internet browser is very important to search for anything, view pages, online
shopping, play games, watch videos, etc. Windows come with a pre-installed internet browser. in
Windows 10, the Edge internet browser is the default browser. Furthermore, Internet Explorer was the
default browser in Microsoft Windows from the Windows edition 95 to 8.1 version.

5. Microsoft Paint: Since November 1985, Microsoft Windows comes with pre-installed Microsoft
Paint. It is a simple software to create, view, and edit an image. It offers several tools to draw an image,
crop, resize, and save an image with a different file extension.
6. Taskbar: Windows comes with a taskbar that displays currently opened programs, it also allows users
to access any specific programs. Additionally, it includes the notification area on the right side that
shows date and time, battery, network, volume, and other background running applications.

7. Start menu: Microsoft Windows contains a start menu to the left side of the taskbar. It displays
programs and utilities that are installed on the computer. It can be simply opened by clicking on the
Start menu button or pressing the start key on the keyboard.

8. Task Manager: Windows includes the task manager feature that provides detail of the running
applications or programs on the computer. You can also check how much of the system resources, such
 as RAM, CPU, disk I/O, are being used by each of the applications.

9. Disk Cleanup: It is used to free up disk space with the help of deleting temporary or unnecessary files.
It also helps to enhance the performance of the computer, and boost storage space to download the
programs and documents. To open Disk Cleanup, follow the below steps:

 Open the File Explorer by pressing Window + E.

 Then, right-click on any disk drive and select Properties option from the drop-down list.
 Now, click on the Disk Cleanup.

Windows Accessories:-
These accessories are not full-featured programs, but they are useful for specific jobs in
the Windows environment Accessories include a calculator, a painting program, a word processor, a text
editor, and Internet applications.
Calculator :-

Windows Calculator is a calculating application included in all the

versions of Windows. It can be used to perform simple calculation,
scientific calculation and Programming calculation.

 Choose Start >> Programs >> Accessories >> Calculator to start

Calculator application, or
 Alternately you can open Run dialog box (Start >> Run) dialog
box then type calc and hit enter.
 From View menu choose the required type of calculator –
Standard, Scientific, Programmer, Statistical
 Edit >> Copy and Paste commands can be used to input the
numbers into calculator or paste the result to other applications

Paint :-

Paint (formerly Paintbrush for Windows) is a simple graphics painting program that has been included with all
versions of Microsoft Windows. It is often referred to as MS Paint or Microsoft Paint. The program opens and
saves files as Windows bitmap (24-bit, 256 color, 16 color, and monochrome) .BMP, JPEG, GIF. Paintbrush
supports GIF without animation or transparency. Since Windows 98 Paint supports GIF with transparency. It
also supports PNG (without alpha channel), and TIFF (without multiple page support).

The program can be in color mode or two-color black-and-white, but there is no grayscale mode. For its
simplicity, it rapidly became one of the most used applications in the early versions of Windows—introducing
many to painting on a computer for the first time—and still has strong associations with the immediate
usability of the old Windows workspace.
Character Map :-

Character Map is a utility included with Microsoft Windows

operating systems and is used to view the characters in any
installed font, to check what keyboard input (Alt code) is used to
enter those characters, and to copy characters to the clipboard in
lieu of typing them.

The tool is usually useful for entering special characters. It can

be opened via the command line or Run Command dialog using
the ‘charmap’ command.

Notepad :-

Notepad is a common text-only (plain text) editor. The

resulting files—typically saved with the .txt extension—have
no format tags or styles, making the program suitable for
editing system files that are to be used in a DOS
environment.

Notepad supports both left-to-right and right-to-left based

languages, and one can alternate between these viewing
formats by using the right or left Ctrl+Shift keys to go to
right-to-left format or left-to-right format, respectively.

WordPad:-

Microsoft WordPad is a free rich text editor included with

Microsoft Windows 95 and the later. Earlier to Windows 95
there used to be an application called Write for the same
task. Although capable of doing much more than Notepad,
WordPad is not as advanced as Microsoft Word.

WordPad can format and print text, but lacks intermediate

features such as a spell checker, thesaurus, and support for
tables. As such, it is suitable for writing letters or short
pieces, but underpowered for work that relies heavily on
graphics or typesetting.

System Tools
For a smooth performance of a system, periodic maintenance is necessary. Tools like Disk Check, Disk
Derangement, etc., helps in system maintenance. Windows includes some of the system utilities such as Disk
Cleanup, Disk Defragment, System Restore, Control Panel and so on.
Disk Cleanup

In Windows 7, Vista, and XP, Disk Cleanup frees disk space by cleaning areas that gather unneeded files.
Using Disk Cleanup regularly, along with ScanDisk, DEFRAG, and up-to-date virus patterns, will help keep
your computer running smoothly.
To run Disk Cleanup:
 From the Start menu, select Programs or All Programs, then Accessories, then System Tools, and then Disk
Cleanup.
 Select the drive on which you would like to clear disk space (usually your C: drive), and click OK.
 Select from the four areas that Disk Cleanup will check and clean up:
Temporary Internet Files: Files stored on your local drive that allow web pages to load more quickly
Downloaded Program Files: A storage location for programs downloaded when you visit specific web sites
that use ActiveX and Java applets
Recycle Bin: Files that have been marked as deleted
Temporary Files: Items in the TEMP folder
Disk Defragment

Disk Defragmenter consolidates files so that each is saved in contiguous physical space on the hard drive.
When your computer crashes or freezes, the drive becomes fragmented. This means the files may be broken up
and stored in different locations in your computer. This causes programs and files to run more slowly.

To run Disk Defragmenter:

  Close all programs.
 Choose Start menu | All Programs | Accessories | System Tools | Disk Defragmenter.
 Select the drive you want to clean and click OK.
 Click Analyze. This may take several minutes.
 Click Close or Defragment. If the drive needs defragmented and you choose Defragment, this may take several
minutes to several hours, depending on the number of files to consolidate.

System Restore

System restore is a feature of Windows that allows you to roll back the system to the same configuration it had
at an earlier time. If this feature is turned on (which it is by default) Windows will take periodic snapshots
(called restore points) of your installation. It can use the information gathered in these snapshots to restore your
system to a previous configuration. It is a good idea to create a restore point before you make major changes to
your system, such as before installing new hardware or doing any major updates.

To run System Restore:

 Go to Start > Programs > Accessories > System Tools > System Restore.
 The System Restore screen will com up.
 Follow the on screen instructions
Format

There are times when Windows becomes so

damaged or so compromised by hackers and Trojan
programs that the only thorough solution is to
essentially start all over. This is accomplished by
formatting your hard drive, which means erasing all
of the programs and the data on your machine, and
re-installing Windows.

The format creates a new root directory and file

system for the disk. It can also check for bad areas
on the disk, and it can delete all data on the disk. To
be able to use a new disk, you must first use this
command to format the disk.

Arrange Icons:-

To arrange icons by name, type, date, or size, right-click a blank area on the desktop, and then
click Arrange Icons. Click the command that indicates how you want to arrange the icons (by Name, by
Type, and so on). If you want the icons to be automatically arranged, click Auto Arrange.
Continuing with our desktop shortcuts series, now that you have created a custom desktop shortcut, you are
probably wondering how to organize all the desktop shortcuts you have.

1. Right click your desktop.

A menu appears.

2. Left click the Arrange Icons By menu item.

A new menu list appears.

Arrange Icons By
Once you left click the Arrange Icons By menu item, you have a number of choices.

The top section of the Arrange Icons By menu contains:

1 Name 2 Size 3 Type 4 Modified

The next section contains:

1 Show in Groups 2 Auto Arrange

This is selected by default by Windows.

 Align to Grid

Align to Grid is also selected by default.

The third section in the Arrange Icons By menu contains:

 Show Desktop Icons

Selected by default

 Lock Web Items on Desktop

 Run Desktop Cleanup Wizard

Arrange Icons by Name

Select Name from the Arrange Icons by menu to arrange your desktop icons by the name underneath the icon.
Your standard Windows icons remain in the top left of the screen. Any other icons added by program installation
or you added your self will be arranged in alphabetical order right under and to the right of the standard
Windows icons.

If you have not edited the name of your desktop shortcuts you created yourself, then all the Shortcut to icons
will be bunched together.

Arrange Icons By Type

Left clicking the Type menu item under Arrange Icons By will sort your icons by type, putting the applications
first, right under the Windows default desktop icons.

Arranging by type would be useful to group all like icons together. i.e. all your Excel file types would be
together, all your web page desktop shortcuts would be together, etc.

Auto Arrange
With Auto Arrange selected in the Arrange Icons By menu, if you wish to move icons around on your desktop
(e.g. manually sort the icons into groups) you will find that Windows wants to pull it back over to the right and
to the end of the group of icons it created. Frustrating! But you can arrange the icons any way you want…

To arrange the icons in any order or on any spot on the desktop, deselect Auto Arrange from the Arrange Icons
By menu. Now grab the icon with your mouse and drag it anywhere you want on the desktop.

Align to Grid
By default Align to Grid is selected. This forces the desktop shortcuts to align to Windows predetermined grid on
the desktop.

When you drag an icon to another spot on the desktop, it will snap to the closest grid spot thus creating typical
spacing between icons both vertically and horizontally.

If this isn’t working out to your satisfaction, deselect the Align to Grid item in the Arrange Icons By menu, and
then you can put the icons anywhere you like. With Align to Grid deselected you can put the icons closer
together if you wish.

Show Desktop Icons

If for some reason your desktop icons have disappeared, select the Show Desktop Icons item in the Arrange Icons
By menu. Your screen will flash and the icons will reappear.

Arranging desktop shortcuts is great way to keep your desktop icons sorted and organized. Play with the Arrange
Icons By options and see which arrangement works for you.

TASKBAR :-

The Taskbar consists of the area between the start menu and the icons to the left of the
clock. It shows the programs that you have open on your computer. To switch from one program to
another, single click the program on the Taskbar, and it will become the front most window.

How to use the taskbar in Windows 10 :-

Windows 10

Use the taskbar for more than seeing your apps and checking the time. You can personalize it in many ways—
change the color and size, pin your favorite apps to it, move it around on your screen, and rearrange or resize
taskbar buttons. You can also lock the taskbar to keep your options, check your battery status, and minimize all
open programs momentarily so that you can take a look at your desktop.

Pin an app to the taskbar,

Pin an app directly to the taskbar for quick access when you're on the desktop.
(Or unpin it, if you want.) You can do it from Start or the Jump List, which is a list of shortcuts to
recently opened files, folders, and websites.
Pin an app from Start,
Pin an app from the App list

Change your taskbar settings

Customize the taskbar from the taskbar itself. If you want to change multiple aspects of the taskbar at one time,
use Taskbar settings. Press and hold or right-click any empty space on the taskbar, and then select Taskbar
settings .

In the Taskbar settings, scroll to see the options for customizing, sizing, choosing icons, battery information
and much more.
 Select any of the following to see more information :-

1. Change the color of your taskbar:-

To change the color of your taskbar, select Start > Settings > Personalization > Colors > Show accent color
on the following surfaces. Select Start, taskbar, and action center. This will change the color of your taskbar to
the color of your overall theme.

2. Lock and unlock the taskbar :-

Locking the taskbar is handy to make sure it remains how you set it up. Unlock the taskbar later when you
want to make changes or change its location on the desktop. Press and hold or right-click any empty space on
the taskbar, select Taskbar settings , and turn on Lock the taskbar.
If Lock the taskbar has a check mark next to it, you know it’s already locked. To turn it off, select Lock the
taskbar or go to Taskbar settings and turn it Off.
If you have multiple monitors that display the taskbar, you'll see Lock all taskbars.
3. Change the taskbar location:-
Typically, the taskbar is at the bottom of the desktop, but you can also move it to either side or the top of the
desktop. When the taskbar is unlocked, you can change its location. See Lock and unlock the taskbar to find
out if yours is locked. When you've confirmed that your taskbar is unlocked, press and hold or right-click any
empty space on the taskbar. Select Taskbar settings > Taskbar location on screen, and then select Left, Top,
Right, or Bottom.

4. Change the height of the taskbar:-

Like many other changes in the taskbar, you'll need to first unlock the taskbar. Then, move the pointer over the
border of the taskbar until the pointer turns into a double arrow. Drag the border to the size you want and
release.
5. See your battery status on the taskbar:-
To add the battery icon to the taskbar, select Start > Settings > Personalization > Taskbar, and then take a
look at the notification area. Choose Select which icons appear on the taskbar, and switch Power to On.

You can check battery status by selecting the battery icon in the taskbar.

6. Rearrange taskbar buttons:-

Whenever you want to change the order of app buttons on the taskbar, just drag a button from its current
position to a different one.

You might want to choose how taskbar buttons are grouped, especially if you have multiple windows open. By
default, all open files from the same app are always grouped together, even if you didn’t open them in
succession.

If you want to change how taskbar buttons group together, press and hold or right-click any empty space on the
taskbar, select Taskbar settings > Combine taskbar buttons and then select from the list:

 Always, hide labels. This is the default setting. Each app appears as a single, unlabeled button, even when
multiple windows for that app are open.
 When taskbar is full. This setting shows each window as an individual, labeled button. When the taskbar
becomes crowded, apps with multiple open windows collapse into a single app button. Select the button to see
a list of the windows that are open.

 Never. This setting shows each window as an individual, labeled button and never combines them, no matter
how many windows are open. As more apps and windows open, buttons get smaller, and eventually the buttons
will scroll.

If you use multiple displays, you can make a different choice for your extra displays. Select Taskbar
settings > Multiple Displays > Combine taskbar buttons on other taskbars. For these displays, select
from Always, hide labels, When taskbar is full, and Never.

7. Use smaller or larger taskbar buttons:-

If you want to show more of your apps on the taskbar, you can show smaller versions of the buttons. Press and
hold or right-click any empty space on the taskbar, select Taskbar settings , and then select On for Use small
taskbar buttons. Select Off to return to the larger taskbar buttons.
8. Show badges on taskbar buttons:-
A badge on a taskbar button is an alert to let you know that some activity is happening or needs to happen with
that app.

For example, a bell badge on the Alarms & Clocks app alerts you to an active alarm that will notify you at the
time you set. This feature is turned on by default, but if you want to make sure it’s on (or to turn it off), press
and hold or right-click any empty space on the taskbar, select Taskbar settings , and go to Show badges on
taskbar buttons.

9. Use the taskbar to peek at the desktop:-

Use the Peek feature to take a quick look at what’s on your desktop behind all the open windows.

1. Press and hold or right-click any empty space on the taskbar, select Taskbar settings , and then turn on Use
Peek to preview the desktop when you move your mouse to the Show desktop button at the end of the taskbar.

2. Move the mouse pointer over (or press and hold) the far-right edge of the taskbar to see the desktop.

3. To restore the view of all your open windows, move the pointer away or press and hold the edge one more
time.

10. Automatically hide the Taskbar:-

You can hide the taskbar based on whether you’re in desktop mode or tablet mode. Press and hold or right-
click any empty space on the taskbar, select Taskbar settings , and then turn on either Automatically hide the
taskbar in desktop mode or Automatically hide the taskbar in tablet mode (or both).

Activating Windows :-
To activate Windows 10, you need a digital license or a product key. If you're ready to activate, select
Open Activation in Settings. Click Change product key to enter a Windows 10 product key. If Windows
10 was previously activated on your device, your copy of Windows 10 should be activated automatically.

 Steps to activate Windows 10 with a product key

STEP 1 For installation of Windows 10, enter your product licence key.
STEP 2 Press the Windows key, go to Settings > Update and Security > Activation.
STEP 3 Press the Change Product key.
STEP 4 Enter your product key into pop-up box and press Next.
STEP 5 Press Activate.
 Steps to activate Windows 10 with a digital licence
STEP 1 While beginning activation, select 'I don't have a product key' option.
STEP 2 Setup and login into Windows 10 with your linked Microsoft account. The Windows 10 will be
automatically activated at this point. In case you had made hardware changes, follow the next steps:
STEP 3 Press the Windows key, then go to Settings > Update and Security > Activation.
STEP 4 If Windows is not activated, search and press 'Troubleshoot'.
STEP 5 Select 'Activate Windows' in the new window and then Activate. Or, select 'I changed hardware on
this device recently', if applicable.
STEP 6 If you get sign in prompts, follow them using Microsoft account linked to your digital licence.
STEP 7 Select the device you're using and check 'This is the device I'm using right now' next to it.
STEP 8 Press Activate.
Your digital licence should be there and your copy of Windows 10 will be activated.

Title bar :-
The title bar is a horizontal bar located at the top of a window in a GUI. It displays the title of the software,
name of the current document,
Title bar

Exploring Computer :-
Exploring Computer Science (ECS) is a yearlong, introductory high school course designed to engage students
in computational thinking and practice. A major aim of ECS is attracting students who might not think of
themselves as “typical” candidates for computer science. ECS provides a comprehensive set of inquiry-based
lessons while using a variety of tools and platforms. The course is a component of the ECS program, a
K12/university partnership committed to democratizing computer science. A major component of this
program is teacher professional development, and CS for All Teachers aims to support that component.
The descriptions below relate to each of the curriculum’s six units, as well as information about available
assessments. To learn more about the curriculum you can browse the ECS groups or join the ECS Open
Group—which is a new group for all ECS teachers (regardless of your project or geographic location) to come
together and talk all things ECS!
  Human computer interaction: In this unit students are introduced to the concepts of computer and
computing while investigating the major components of computers and the suitability of these
components for particular applications.
 Problem solving: This unit provides students with opportunities to become “computational thinkers”
by applying a variety of problem-solving techniques as they create solutions to problems that are
situated in a variety of contexts
 Web design: This section prepares students to take the role of a developer by expanding their
knowledge of algorithms, abstraction, and web page design and applying it to the creation of web pages
and documentation for users and equipment.
 Programming: Students are introduced to some basic issues associated with program design and
development.
 Computing and data analysis: In this unit students explore how computing has facilitated new
methods of managing and interpreting data
 Robotics: This unit introduces robotics as an advanced application of computer science that can be
used to solve problems in a variety of settings from business to healthcare and how robotics enables
innovation by automating processes that may be dangerous or otherwise problematic for humans.
 Assessments (you must join CS for All Teachers and subscribe to the ECS Open Group in order
to view these documents): Assessments have been developed for ECS Units 1-4. Additionally,
a cumulative assessment has been developed covering the first four units. The kind of understanding
that ECS students should have about important computational practices goes beyond recalling facts or
giving inputs to a program and predicting its outputs. Rather, students should demonstrate “ways of
being and doing” when learning and exhibiting computer science knowledge, skills, and attitudes. To
this end, the design of the assessments is based on the model of inquiry-based learning in ECS and the
learning objectives underlying each unit. The assessments presume that knowledgeable students should
be able to apply, evaluate, and explain what they are learning, among other skills.

Managing Files and Folder :-

All the documents and software saved on the computer are stored as individual files. Files are the basic unit of
storage.
Each computer will hold thousands of files - therefore, to make it easier to find and keep track of your files, you
can group them together in folders.

File –
The computer’s basic unit of information storage. Everything on a computer is stored as a file of one type or
another. You can usually think of a file as a single document which can be several pages long, or as an individual item.
Most files are represented by a sheet of paper with the corner folded over. Here are some examples of files and the
icons that represent them:

 a typed letter created in Microsoft Word

 a photograph transferred from a digital camera

Folder –
 Something that can contain files. You can put files into folders to group them together, making them easier to
find. A folder is represented by a yellow folder icon.

Sub-folder – A folder inside another folder. The

diagram here shows that Windows 7 stores most of its folders
in an area called Libraries. In the Libraries area there can be
found other Default Folders which are used to store various
types of file. For instance the Documents folder is the main
folder and holds other folders such as the My Documents
folder, the My Music folder, the Pictures folder and the
Videos folder which are all sub-folders of the Documents
folder. Sub folders sit below and to the right of the folder they
are stored in (as can be seen in the diagram)

Saving A File to Documents :-

Let’s create a Microsoft Word file and save it into Documents
1. First, open Microsoft Word by clicking on the START menu, moving onto All Programs, then clicking
Microsoft Office Folder, then Microsoft Word
2. Type in the following text: Eiffel Tower The Louvre Arc de Triomphe
3. Now save the document – to do this, click on the File menu, then click on Save As.

4. Look at the Save in box – notice that the computer is going to automatically save the file into the My Documents
folder.
5. Give the file a name – to do this, click in the File name box, delete the text there and type in a name for your file.

NOTE: If the file name is already highlighted in blue, you can type the new name straight over it. Here, we’ll call the file
France.
6. Then click on the Save button. Notice that the filename, France, now appears in the title bar of the window, once the
file has been saved.
7. Close the France Document down by clicking X top right of the Screen. Then go and find your France Document in

Documents on the computer through Libraries

Creating and Organizing Folders:-

You can keep files on the same subject together – you do this by making a folder and putting the files into that folder.
For example, you could create a sub-folder inside the My Documents folder and call it Business, then keep all your
business files in that folder. Or you could create a folder, called Letters, on your memory stick, then save all your word-
processed letter files into that folder on the stick.

1. Now navigate to Documents, In my Libraries using one of the methods described in above.
2. Click on New Folder

3. Call the new folder Business and press Enter

 This is how to create a Sub Folder, you can
have folders inside other folders to organize all your
files. In this case you have created a business folder
in documents.

4. Right Click on the Business Folder and select Cut.

5. Navigate to your Memory stick under computer in

devices with removable storage and then double click
on your memory stick.

6. Now select paste. The Business folder you created

in Documents will now have been cut “deleted” from
Documents and then the folder pasted and moved to
your memory stick.

To create a folder on a memory stick:

1. Make sure your memory stick is plugged into the computer – if you have only just plugged it in, wait for a few
seconds for the computer to recognise the memory stick as an additional drive.
2. The memory stick window should open automatically, showing its contents. If it does not, then open My Computer
by double-clicking on the icon on the desktop. Next, open your memory stick drive by double-clicking on its icon in the
My Computer window - it may be named Removable Disk (D:) or USB Disk (E:), or similar, or it may be identified by the
brand name of the device.
3. Click on New folder, on the menu bar along the top of the screen.

A new folder icon will appear in the My Computer window.

Type in a name for the folder – here we’ll call it Raksha

4. Then press the Enter key to accept the name. When the folder turns blue, the folder has been created.
5. Close the window.

Saving a Copy of a File to a folder :-

 Earlier, we saved a Word file, France, in . In the following exercise, we are going to take the France file and save a copy
of it into a folder on a memory stick. Why would you want to do this? You might want to take the file away with you to
use on another computer - or you may simply want to keep a backup (second) copy of an important file in a separate
place, in case your computer breaks down and you cannot access the original. We can use Save As to do this. You have
already used Save As when you saved a file for the very first time, but here you will use Save As to save the file as a
copy in a different place.
To save a copy of a file to a folder:
1. First, open the France document In Documents you want to save elsewhere. Then click on the file tab.

The File Tab menu would have now opened up as you

can see you can also print. Remember if you have
saved already then choosing save will just rewrite
over the current file and you will not see the save as
menu coming up to choose a location. Choose Save
as, as we are going to choose a new location to save
it on to your Memory Stick.

2. Click on your memory stick located under Computer below.

Copying and moving Files and Folders :-

Copy a File or Folder

 Open the drive or folder containing the file or folder you want to copy.

 Select the files or folders you want to copy.

 Click to view larger image

 Click the Organize button on the toolbar, and then click Copy.

 Display the destination folder where you want to copy the files or folder.

 Click the Organize button on the toolbar, and then click Paste.
Move a File or Folder
 Open the drive or folder containing the file or folder you want to move.

 Select the files or folders you want to move.

Click to view larger image

 Click the Organize button on the toolbar, and then click Cut.

 Display the destination folder where you want to move the files or folder.

 Click the Organize button on the toolbar, and then click Paste.
Copy or Move a File or Folder Using Drag and Drop
 Open the drive or folder containing the file or folder you want to copy or move.

 Select the files or folders you want to copy or move.

Click to view larger image

 In the Navigation pane, point to a folder list to display the expand and collapse arrows.

 Click the arrows to display the destination folder, and then click the destination folder.

 Right-click the selected files or folders, drag to the destination folder, and then click Copy Here or Move Here.
Other method
Copying and Moving Files and Folders
Sometimes you will need to move a file from one folder to another, or copy a file from one folder to another, leaving the file in
the first location and placing a copy of it in the second. You can move or copy a file or folder using a variety of methods. If the
file or folder and the location where you want to move it are visible in a window or on the desktop, you can simply drag the item
from one location to the other. Moving a file or folder on the same disk relocates it whereas dragging it from one disk to another
copies it so that it appears in both locations. When the destination folder or drive is not visible, you can use the Move to or
Copy to commands or the Cut (to move), Copy, and Paste commands on the Home tab to move or copy the items.

Copy or Move a File or Folder

 In the desktop, click or tap the File Explorer button on the taskbar.

 Open the drive or folder containing the file or folder you want to copy.

 Select the files or folders you want to copy or move.

 Click or tap the Copy or Cut (to move) button on the Home tab.

 Display the destination folder where you want to copy or move the files or folder.

 Click or tap the Paste button on the Home tab.

Copy or Move a File or Folder Using Drag and Drop

 In the desktop, click or tap the File Explorer button on the taskbar.

 Open the drive or folder containing the file or folder you want to copy or move.

 Select the files or folders you want to copy or move.

 In the Navigation pane, point to a folder list to display the expand and collapse arrows.

 Click or tap the arrows to display the destination folder.

  Right-click or tap-hold the selected files or folders, drag to the destination folder, and then click or tap Copy
Here or Move Here.

Method 1: Create a New Folder with a Keyboard Shortcut:-

The fastest way to create a new folder in Windows is with the CTRL+Shift+N shortcut.

1. Navigate to the location where you want to create the folder. You can create a new folder at any
location on your hard drive or within another folder (creating a subfolder) in File Explorer. You can
also create a new folder on your desktop with this method.
2. Hold down the Ctrl, Shift, and N keys at the same time. Windows will immediately create the new
folder with the not-very-imaginative suggested folder name of "New folder."

3. Enter your desired folder name. It takes just seconds to create a new folder this way, but be sure to
immediately begin typing your folder name when the folder first appears, because if you click on the folder or
click away from File Explorer, the folder name will be "New folder" and you'll have to rename it.

Method 2: Create a New Folder by Right-Clicking

If you don't remember the keyboard shortcut or you prefer using the mouse:
1. Navigate to the location where you want to create the folder.
2. Right-click on a blank space in the folder location. Take care with this: If you right-click on an
existing item in the folder, you'll get the wrong menu.

3. Select New then Folder from the contextual menu. Windows will create the new folder at your
current location.
4. Enter your desired folder name to replace "New folder" and hit Enter.
You can create folders on the Desktop using this method too. Right-click on a blank space on the
Desktop, then go to New > Folder.

Method 3: Create a New Folder from the Ribbon Menu

Another simple way to create a new folder is to use the New folder button in the File Explorer menu.
Just navigate to the place you want the folder and click or tap "New folder" in the Home tab

Steps logging off and shutting down windows

Press Ctrl + Alt + Del and click the power button in the bottom-right corner of the screen. From
the Windows desktop, press Alt + F4 to get the Shut down Windows screen and select Shut down. If you
have no mouse, use the Tab and arrow keys to switch between fields.
The Start menu icon you’re looking for should look like this.

1. Open the Start menu, either by clicking the icon at the bottom left of your screen or by pressing the
Windows logo on your keyboard.

2. Search along the list of options on the left side for your user icon.

3. Click on it, and then select "Sign out."

The Quick Access menu will helpfully underline the letters that you can use to navigate it.

1. Alternatively, press the Windows logo on your keyboard and the "x" key at the same time to bring up the
Quick Access menu.

2. You can then either navigate with your mouse, or press "u" and "i" on your keyboard to log off entirely
using shortcuts.

Control Pannel :-
Windows 7 Control Panel
Take control of your computer by using the Control Panel. Access it by going to the Start Menu and clicking
Control Panel.

Know what you’re looking for but don’t know

where to find it? Use the Search bar and type
in what you’re looking for (sound, backup,
clock, etc).
You can also change your view (default view is
by category; you can also view by large or small
icons.)
Both green text and blue text will link out to
menus. Green text will take you to the full
menu for that topic and blue text will take you
to a specific activity.
System and Security :-
Windows Update: go here to check for updates to your computer. (These are typically set to download automatically.)

Backup and Restore:-

Come here to back up your computer. Backing up
means saving a copy of your files in case something
happens to your computer. Windows recommends saving
your backup on an external hard drive.

If you’re ready to create a backup, click on Set up backup.

It’ll walk you through the process. This is also where you
would come to restore your files from a previous backup

Network and Internet Click on Network and Internet on the Control Panel screen.
 Click on Internet Options
to change your homepage
and delete your browsing
history.
From this window, click
on the Privacy tab to
change privacy settings,
including the pop-up
blocker.

Hardware and Sound :-

Click on Hardware and Sound from the Control Panel screen. Click Mouse to change double-click speed and pointer speed.

User Accounts :-
Click on User Accounts from the Control Panel screen.
Click to change your account picture, add or remove accounts, or set up Parental Controls (set time limits, game
permissions, and access to programs on the computer).

Appearance and Personalization :-

Click on Appearance and Personalization from the Control Panel screen.
Personalization
Click Personalization to change your theme (backgrounds, sounds, and window “glass” colors); change your
desktop background, change your sound effects, or change your screen saver.
(Tip: you can also right click on your desktop and choose Personalize to get here.)

Change Screen Saver:-

 Click Change screen saver to open up this window. You
can choose from preset screen savers or choose Windows
Live Photo Gallery to use your own photos. It will
automatically pull from your Pictures library. If you’d like
to change which folder to pull pictures from, click
Settings and then Browse.
 You can also change how long the computer waits to start
the screen saver, the slide show speed, and whether it
should shuffle the photos.

Display:-

Click on Display to make your text and icons larger or smaller:

Taskbar and Start Menu:-
Under Taskbar, change where your taskbar is located on your screen. Under Start Menu, choose whether to
display recently opened items and programs. You can also customize your Start Menu here.

Folder Options If
you don’t like
double-clicking,
you can set the
computer to
open items with
just single clicks.

Clock, Language, and Region:-

Click on Clock, Language, and Region from the Control Panel screen.

You can set the time and date,

change your time zone, and add
additional clocks.

You can also change the date,

time, and number format that your
computer uses.

Ease of Access :-
Click on Ease of Access from the Control Panel screen.
Come here to make your computer easier to use.

Click Optimize visual display to make the computer screen

easier to see, including turning on screen narration or the
magnifier.

Click Change how your mouse works to alter how your

cursor looks.

Click on Speech Recognition to set up your computer to

recognize spoken commands. Speech recognition needs a
microphone.

Uninstall a Program:-
Click on Uninstall a program on the Control Panel screen (underneath Programs). Be careful what you uninstall. If you’re
not sure what something is, look it up on the internet.
If you’re sure you’re ready to uninstall a piece of software, click on it and click on Uninstall. A window will pop up asking
you to confirm.
Computer Fundamentals
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes it under the control of
set of instructions (called program), gives the result (output), and saves it for the future use.
This Computer Fundamentals tutorial covers a foundational understanding of computer hardware, software, operating
systems, peripherals etc. along with how to get the most value and impact from computer technology.
Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know about computers.
Purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you about computer and its fundamentals.
Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
 Takes data as input.
 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Generates the output
 Controls all the above four steps.

COMPUTER

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Definition
Computer is an electronic data processing device which
 accepts and stores data input,
  processes the data input, and
 generates the output in a required format.
Advantages
Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.
High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many months for
doing the same task.
Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has been given.
Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.
Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a
card game.
Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
 Once a program is given to computer i.e., stored in computer memory, the program and instruction can control
the program execution without human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and results in
speeding up a process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large number of
paper files gets reduced.
Reduction in Cost
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces the cost of each of its
transaction.
Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena
No I.Q
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to computer.
  A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
 It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent on human being
Environment
 The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.
 It cannot make judgement based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike a human being.
Following list demonstrates various applications of computers in today's arena.
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which made it an integrated part
in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for:
 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employees database
 Maintenance of stocks etc.

Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:
 Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest charges,
shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The insurance companies, finance
houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
 procedure to continue with policies
 starting date of the policies
 next due installment of a policy
 maturity date
 interests due
 survival benefits
 bonus
Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
 There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:
 Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print
and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
 At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of computerised catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers are being used in hospitals to
keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG,
Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc., are also done by computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
 Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest,
ECG etc.
 Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug’s side effects etc.
 Surgery : Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design). That provides creation and modification of images. Some fields
are:
 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships, Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes
etc.
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and improvement of integrated systems
of people, materials and equipments.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range of
buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military also employs computerised control
systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are:
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and understood clearly and
correctly by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main areas in this category are:
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Male/Female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of driving licensing system
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting
 Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.
 Sr.No. Type Specifications
PC (Personal
1 It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful microprocessor
Computer)
It is also a single user computer system which is similar to personal computer but have
2 WorkStation
more powerful microprocessor.
It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting hundreds of users
3 Mini Computer
simultaneously.
It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting hundreds of users
4 Main Frame
simultaneously. Software technology is different from minicomputer.
It is an extremely fast computer which can execute hundreds of millions of instructions
5 Supercomputer
per second.
 PC (Personal Computer)
 A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. PCs are based
on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and
database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and
surfing Internet.
 Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally linked together to
form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same
computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and
Dell.


 Workstation
 Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software
development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
 Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt
network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a
disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
 Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, Workstations are also
single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can
also be used as stand-alone systems.


 Minicomputer
 It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.


  Mainframe
 Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands
of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous
execution of programs


 Supercomputer
 Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number
crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical
prospecting).


All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic operations for
converting raw input data into information useful to their users.
Sr.No. Operation Description
1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system
Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as and when
2 Store Data
required.
Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert them into
3 Processing Data
useful information.
The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a printed
4 Output Information
report or visual display.
Control the
5 Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are performed.
workflow

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes link between user and
computer. The input devices translate the information into the form understandable by computer.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data,
intermediate results and instructions(program). It controls the operation of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has following three components
  ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
 Memory Unit
 Control Unit
Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer. This unit is a link between
computer and users. Output devices translate the computer's output into the form understandable by users.
CPU consists of the following features:
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to the other units of the
computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main memory or primary storage or Random access
memory(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in the
computer. Functions of memory unit are:
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely
 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching and merging of data.
Computer - Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage space in
computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into
large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory
size minus one. For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations.
The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types
  Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the
CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The
parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access
them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It has limited capacity
and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as
fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories
 It is known as main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main memory. These are used
for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed via
input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it.
For example : disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories
 It is known as backup memory.
 It is non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
  It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result. It is
read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is
erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as
other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence a
backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size
and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost
when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, thus
making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of the Static RAM
 It has long life
 There is no need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory
on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory
because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
 It has short data lifetime
 Need to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Lesser in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores
such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only
used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Following are the various types of ROM
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of
ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the
desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM
eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge
is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is
passed through a quartz crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both
erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and
programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-
programming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified

RAM ROM

Definition Random Access Memory or
RAM is a form of data storage
that can be accessed randomly
at any time, in any order and
from any physical location.,
allowing quick access and
manipulation.
Read-only memory or ROM is also a form of data
storage that can not be easily altered or
reprogrammed.Stores instuctions that are not
nescesary for re-booting up to make the computer
operate when it is switched off.They are hardwired.

Stands for Random Access Memory Read-only memory

 RAM ROM

Use RAM allows the computer to ROM stores the program required to initially boot the
read data quickly to run computer. It only allows reading.
applications. It allows reading
and writing.

Volatility RAM is volatile i.e. its contents It is non-volatile i.e. its contents are retained even
are lost when the device is when the device is powered off.
powered off.

Types The two main types of RAM are The types of ROM include PROM, EPROM and
static RAM and dynamic RAM. EEPROM.

Input Devices
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the computer. The layout
of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing
additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for
Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows:
Sr.No Keys Description
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which generally
1 Typing Keys
give same layout as that of typewriters.
It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a
2 Numeric Keypad set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding
machines and calculators.

3 Function Keys
4 Control keys
5 Special Purpose Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a
row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and is
used for some specific purpose.
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow
keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page
Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a
round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse
buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. Mouse can be used to
control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a
spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in
all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and playing
computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the
monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is
moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and
sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which
is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball
requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is available on
a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from
the source which are then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited
before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the
television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to
create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because
it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of
drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone is used for various
applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be processed every day. The
bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of
magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR).
The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by character, converts them into a
machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is
generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a
stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to
the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one
out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations
having multiple choice questions.

Webcam

A webcam is a video camera that feeds or streams its image in real time to or through a computer to computer network.
When "captured" by the computer, the video stream may be saved, viewed or sent on to other networks via systems such
as the internet, and email as an attachment. When sent to a remote location, the video stream may be saved, viewed or on
sent there. Unlike an IP camera (which connects using Ethernet or Wi-Fi), a webcam is generally connected by a USB
cable, or similar cable, or built into computer hardware, such as laptops.
The term 'webcam' (a clipped compound) may also be used in its original sense of a video camera connected to the Web
continuously for an indefinite time, rather than for a particular session, generally supplying a view for anyone who visits
its web page over the Internet. Some of them, for example, those used as online traffic cameras, are expensive, rugged
professional video cameras.
Touchscreen

"Touch sensitive" redirects here. For the album, see Touch Sensitive.
A touchscreen is an input device normally layered on the top of an electronic visual display of an information
processing system. A user can give input or control the information processing system through simple or multi-touch
gestures by touching the screen with a special stylus/pen and-or one or more fingers.[1] Some touchscreens use ordinary
or specially coated gloves to work while others use a special stylus/pen only. The user can use the touchscreen to react to
what is displayed and to control how it is displayed (for example by zooming the text size)•
The touchscreen enables the user to interact directly with what is displayed, rather than using a mouse, touchpad, or any
other intermediate device (other than a stylus, which is optional for most modern touchscreens).
Touchscreens are common in devices such as game consoles, personal computers, tablet computers, and smartphones.
They can also be attached to computers or, as terminals, to networks. They also play a prominent role in the design of
digital appliances such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), GPS navigation devices, mobile phones, video games and
some books (E-books).
The popularity of smartphones, tablets, and many types of information appliances is driving the demand and acceptance
of common touchscreens for portable and functional electronics. Touchscreens are found in the medical field and in
heavy industry, as well as for automated teller machines (ATMs), and kiosks such as museum displays or room
automation, where keyboard and mouse systems do not allow a suitably intuitive, rapid, or accurate interaction by the
user with the display's content.
Output Devices
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It forms images
from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the
number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat- Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
cathode ray tube (CRT)
A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuumtube in which images are produced when an electron beam strikes
aphosphorescent surface. Most desktop computer displays make useof CRTs. The CRT in a computer display is similar
to the"picture tube" in a television receiver.
A cathode ray tube consists of several basiccomponents, as illustrated below. The electron gun generates anarrow beam
of electrons. The anodes accelerate the electrons.Deflecting coils produce an extremely low frequency electromagnetic
field that allowsfor constant adjustment of the direction of the electron beam.There are two sets of deflecting coils:
horizontal and vertical.(In the illustration, only one set of coils is shown forsimplicity.) The intensity of the beam can be
varied. Theelectron beam produces a tiny, bright visible spot when itstrikes the phosphor-coated screen.

To produce an image on the screen, complexsignals are applied to the deflecting coils, and also to theapparatus that
controls the intensity of the electron beam. Thiscauses the spot to race across the screen from right to left, andfrom top to
bottom, in a sequence of horizontal lines called theraster. As viewed from the front of the CRT, the spot moves in
apattern similar to the way your eyes move when you read asingle-column page of text. But the scanning takes place at
sucha rapid rate that your eye sees a constant image over the entirescreen.
The illustration shows only one electron gun.This is typical of a monochrome, or single-color, CRT. However,virtually
all CRTs today render color images. These devices havethree electron guns, one for the primary color red, one for
theprimary color green, and one for the primary color blue. The CRTthus produces three overlapping images: one in red
(R), one ingreen (G), and one in blue (B). This is the so-called RGB colormodel.
In computer systems, there are several display modes, or setsof specifications according to which the CRT operates. The
mostcommon specification for CRT displays is known as SVGA (SuperVideo Graphics Array). Notebook computers
typically use liquid crystal display.The technology for these displays is much different than that forCRTs.
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in
comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays
include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:
 Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. Example are
plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some
other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)

There are a variety of video standards that define the resolution and colors for displays. Support for a graphics standard is
determined both by the monitor and by the video adapter. The monitor must be able to show the resolution and colors
defined by the standard, and the video adapter must be capable of transmitting the appropriate signals to the monitor.
LCD (liquid crystal display) is the technology used for displays in notebook and other smaller computers. Like light-
emitting diode (LED) and gas-plasma technologies, LCDs allow displays to be much thinner than cathode ray tube
(CRT) technology. LCDs consume much less power than LED and gas-display displays because they work on the
principle of blocking light rather than emitting it.
LCD (liquid crystal display)
An LCD is made with either a passive matrix or an active matrix display display grid. The active matrix LCD is also
known as a thin film transistor (TFT) display. The passive matrix LCD has a grid of conductors with pixels located at
each intersection in the grid. A current is sent across two conductors on the grid to control the light for any pixel. An
active matrix has a transistor located at each pixel intersection, requiring less current to control the luminance of a pixel.
For this reason, the current in an active matrix display can be switched on and off more frequently, improving the screen
refresh time (your mouse will appear to move more smoothly across the screen, for example).
Some passive matrix LCD's have dual scanning, meaning that they scan the grid twice with current in the same time that
it took for one scan in the original technology. However, active matrix is still a superior technology.
LED-A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits
light when activated.[4] When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron
holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color
of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern.Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light.
Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote
controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to
red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
TFT A thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD) is a variant of a liquid-crystal display (LCD) that uses
thin-film transistor (TFT) technology to improve image qualities such as addressability and contrast. A TFT LCD is an
active-matrix LCD, in contrast to passive-matrix LCDs or simple, direct-driven LCDs with a few segments.
TFT LCDs are used in appliances including television sets, computer monitors, mobile phones, handheld video game
systems, personal digital assistants, navigation systems and projectors.[1]
TFT LCDs are also used in car instrument clusters because they allow the driver to customize the cluster, as well as
being able to provide an analogue-like display with digital elements.
Listed here, in approximate order of increasing power and sophistication, are the more popular video standards for PCs.
Note that many of these numbers represent only the minimums specified in the standards. Many suppliers of video
adapters provide greater resolution and more colors.
  VGA -- 640 x 480 resolution
 SVGA -- 800 x 600 resolution
 XGA -- 1024 x 768 resolution
 SXGA -- 1280 x 1024 resolution
 UXGA -- 1600 x 1200 resolution
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types
 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of their ease of
printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins
of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower name) that is why it is
called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices which require a few letters
to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 The fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
  More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of further two types

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into number of tracks.
Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set
is embossed on track. The different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.
One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set may have 48, 64, or
96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a time so they are
also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers.
 They are not noisy.
 High quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters to be printed
on a page.
Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Give good graphics quality
 Support many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
 Expensive.
  Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by spraying
small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available. Colour
printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable
Disadvantages
 Expensive as cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer

Speakers
Speakers are one of the most common output devices used with computer systems. Some speakers are designed to work
specifically with computers, while others can be hooked up to any type of sound system. Regardless of their design, the
purpose of speakers is to produce audio output that can be heard by the listener.
Speakers are transducers that convert electromagnetic waves into sound waves. The speakers
receive audio input from a device such as a computer or an audio receiver. This input may be
either in analog or digital form. Analog speakers simply amplify the analog electromagnetic
waves into sound waves. Since sound waves are produced in analog form, digital speakers must
first convert the digital input to an analog signal, then generate the sound waves.

Cards, Ports and SMPS:

A video card (also called a video adapter, display card, graphics card, graphics board, display adapter, graphics
adapter or frame buffer[1]) is an expansion card which generates a feed of output images to a display (such as a computer
monitor). Frequently, these are advertised as discrete or dedicated graphics cards, emphasizing the distinction between
these and integrated graphics. Within the industry, video cards are sometimes called graphics add-in-boards, abbreviated
as AIBs,[2] with the word "graphics" usually omitted.
A sound card (also known as an audio card) is an internal computer expansion card that facilitates economical input and
output of audio signals to and from a computer under control of computer programs. The term sound card is also applied to
external audio interfaces that use software to generate sound, as opposed to using hardware inside the PC. Typical uses of
sound cards include providing the audio component for multimedia applications such as music composition, editing video or
audio, presentation, education and entertainment (games) and video projection.
A Network interface card, NIC, or Network card is an electronic device that connects a computer to a computer network,
usually a LAN. It is considered a piece of computer hardware. Today, most computers have network cards. Network cards
enable a computer to exchange data with the network. To achieve the connection, network cards use a suitable protocol, for
example CSMA/CD. Network cards usually implement the first two layers of the OSI model, that is the physical layer, and
the data link layer. Today, most network cards use Ethernet. Other network types are ARCNET, introduced in 1977,
LocalTalk or Token Ring.
port:
 A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be
connected to the computer.
can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows
from a program to computer or over the internet.
Characteristics
A port has the following characteristics:
 External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.
 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external
device is plugged in.
 Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse,
keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers etc.

Following are few important types of ports:

Serial Port

 Used for external modems and older computer mouse

 Two versions : 9 pin, 25 pin model
 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second
Parallel Port
 Used for scanners and printers
 Also called printer port
 25 pin model
 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
PS/2 Port
 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
 Also called mouse port
 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard
 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard
etc.
 It was introduced in 1997.
 Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port
VGA Port
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
 Has 15 holes.
 Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has holes.
Power Connector
 Three-pronged plug
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket
Firewire Port
 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
 Connects camcorders and video equipments to the computer
 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds
 Invented by Apple
 Three variants : 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector
Modem Port
 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network
Ethernet Port
 Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
 Connect network cable to a computer.
 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network bandwidth.
Game Port
 Connect a joystick to a PC
 Now replaced by USB.
Digital Video Interface, DVI port
 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high end video graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.
Sockets
 Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer

Switched-mode power supply (SMPS)

A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, switch-mode power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an
electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. Like other power
supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a source, like mains power, to a load, such as a personal computer, while
converting voltage and current characteristics. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching-mode supply
continually switches between low-dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends very little time in the high dissipation
transitions, which minimizes wasted energy. Ideally, a switched-mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation
is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time. In contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by
continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. This higher power conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a
switched-mode power supply. Switched-mode power supplies may also be substantially smaller and lighter than a linear
supply due to the smaller transformer size and weigh

STORAGE DEVICES
Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of
plastic film. It was developed in Germany, based on magnetic wire recording. Devices that record and play back audio
and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders. A device that stores computer data on
magnetic tape is a tape drive (tape unit, streamer).
Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording. When all radio was live, it allowed programming to be recorded.
At a time when gramophone records were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings to be made in multiple parts, which
were then mixed and edited with tolerable loss in quality. It is a key technology in early computer development, allowing
unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long periods, and to be rapidly accessed.

Tape Cartridge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the RCA 4-track cartridge. For the Muntz 4-track cartridge, see Stereo-Pak. For the 8-track cartridge,
see 8-track tape.
RCA tape cartridge
Media type Magnetic tape cartridge
Encoding Analog
Capacity 30 min per side, two sided
Developed by RCA
5 x 7 1/8 x 1/2 inches
Dimensions
(127 x 197 x 13 mm)
Usage Home audio recording
Extended from 1958
 Extended to 1964
The RCA tape cartridge (also known as the Magazine Loading Cartridge and Sound Tape) is a magnetic tape format
that was designed to offer stereo quarter-inch reel-to-reel tape recording quality in a convenient format for the consumer
market.[1] It was introduced in 1958, following four years of development. This timing coincided with the launch of the
stereophonic phonograph record.

A data storage device is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording can be done using virtually any
form of energy, spanning from manual muscle power in handwriting, to acoustic vibrations in phonographic recording, to
electromagnetic energy modulating magnetic tape and optical discs.
A storage device may hold information, process information, or both. A device that only holds information is a recording
medium. Devices that process information (data storage equipment) may either access a separate portable (removable)
recording medium or a permanent component to store and retrieve data.

SanDisk Cruzer Micro, a brand of USB flash drives

A USB flash drive, also known under a variety of other names,[a] is a data storage device that includes flash memory
with an integrated Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, and
physically much smaller than an optical disc. Most weigh less than 30 grams (1.1 oz).[1] As of January 2013, drives of up
to 512 gigabytes (GB) were available.[2] A one-terabyte (TB) drive was unveiled at the 2013 Consumer Electronics Show
and became available later that year.[3] Storage capacities as large as 2 TB are planned, with steady improvements in size
and price per capacity expected.[4] Some allow up to 100,000 write/erase cycles, depending on the exact type of memory
chip used, and have a 10-year shelf storage time.
Hard disk
A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive or fixed disk[b] is a data storage device used for storing and
retrieving digitalinformation using one or more rigid ("hard") rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic
material. The platters are paired with magnetic heads arranged on a moving actuator arm, which read and write data to
the platter surfaces.[2] Data is accessed in arandom-access manner, meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored
or retrieved in any order rather than sequentially. HDDs retain stored data even when powered off.
A hard drive has only a few basic parts. There are one or more shiny silver platters where information is stored
magnetically, there's an arm mechanism that moves a tiny magnet called a read-write head back and forth over the
platters to record or store information, and there's anelectronic circuit to control everything and act as a link between the
hard drive and the rest of your computer.
The data is stored in a very orderly pattern on each platter. Bits of data are arranged in concentric, circular paths
called tracks. Each track is broken up into smaller areas called sectors. Part of the hard drive stores a map of sectors that
have already been used up and others that are still free
 Compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format. The format was originally developed to store and play
only sound recordings but was later adapted for storage of data (CD-ROM). Several other formats were further derived
from these, including write-once audio and data storage (CD-R), rewritable media (CD-RW), Video Compact Disc
(VCD), Super Video Compact Disc (SVCD),
A CD or compact disc is a thin plastic silvery disc for audio recordings.
CD-R (CD Recordable):
It can be written in data or music once, if written, the data can not be changed or deleted, so it has a much higher safety
grade to the storage of data.
CD-RW (CD Rewritable):
CD-RW can be read in and erased repeatedly. The repetition can be 1000 times.

VCD stands for 'Video Compact Disc' and basically it is a CD that contains moving pictures and sound. If you're
familiar with regular audio/music CDs, then you will know what a VCD looks like. A VCD has the

DVD-RW

DVD-RW discs on a spindle

A DVD-RW disc is a rewritable optical disc with equal storage capacity to a DVD-R, typically 4.7 GB (4,812,800,000
bytes). The format was developed by Pioneer in November 1999 and has been approved by the DVD Forum. The smaller
Mini DVD-RW holds 1.46 GB, with a diameter of 8 cm.[1]
The primary advantage of DVD-RW over DVD-R is the ability to erase and rewrite to a DVD-RW disc. According to
Pioneer, DVD-RW discs may be written to about 1,000 times before needing replacement [1]. DVD-RW discs are
commonly used to store data in a non-volatile format, such as when creating backups or collections of files. They are also
used for home DVD video recorders. One benefit to using a rewritable disc is if there are writing errors when recording
data, the disc is not ruined and can still store data by erasing the faulty data.
One competing rewritable format is DVD+RW. Hybrid drives that can handle both, often labeled "DVD±RW", are very
popular due to the lack of a single standard for recordable DVDs.
The recording layer in DVD-RW and DVD+RW is not an organic dye, but a special phase change metal alloy, often
GeSbTe. The alloy can be switched back and forth between a crystalline phase and an amorphous phase, changing the
reflectivity, depending on the power of the laser beam. Data can thus be written, erased and re-written.
Blu-ray Disc
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Blu-ray Disc is a high-density optical disc format similar to DVD. Blu-ray is the type of disc used for PlayStation 3
games and for playing high-definition (HD) movies. In the past, there were other standards for such movies, such as the
HD DVD format. Blu-ray won what is called the format war.
A dual-layer Blu-ray disc can store up to 50GB (gigabytes) of data. This is over five times the capacity of a DVD, and
over 70 times more than a CD or VCD.
The disc was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association (BDA). a group of consumer electronics, personal computer and
media manufacturers. The format was developed to enable recording, rewriting and playback of high-definition video
(HD), as well as storing large amounts of data.

Memory card

A memory card is a form of flash memory that is used in a range of electronic devices such as a digital cameras or video
game console. The memory card stores data, images, music, saved games or other computer files.
Flash memory devices like this contain no moving parts so they are not easily damaged. This means that they are ideal
for use in portable devices such as MP3 players, digital cameras, mobile phones etc.
The amount of data memory cards can store depends on the capacity of the card. Currently (in 2010) the largest memory
cards can store 64 gigabytes of data. As the technology improves, larger capacity cards are expected.
There are many different types of memory cards, for example Secure Digital (SD) or CompactFlash (CF), but the
majority are SD cards or MicroSD.

This short article about technology can be made longer. You can help Wikipedia by adding to it.
UNIT IV
Definition of Operating System:
1. An operating system (OS) is a software, that manages the computer hardware, and provides common services for
execution of various application software For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the
operating system acts as an intermediary between application programs and the computer hardware
2. An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as "OS") is the program that, after being initially loaded into the
computer by a boot program, manages all the other programs in a computer

Objectives of Operating System:

1. Convenience: makes computer user friendly.
2. Efficiency: allows computer to use resources efficiently.
3. Ability to evolve: constructed in a way to permit effective development, testing and introduction of new functions
without interfering with service
 Functions of Operating System:
1. Resource Management: The resource management function of an OS allocates computer resources such as CPU
time, main memory, secondary storage, and input and output devices for use [5].
a. Process Management: The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process
management:
i. Creating and deleting both user and system processes.
iii. Suspending and resuming processes.
ii. Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.
iv. Providing mechanisms for process communication
v. Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling.
b. Memory Management: The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with memory
management:
i. Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
ii. Deciding which processes and data to move into and out of memory. iii. Allocating and deallocating
memory space as needed
c. Storage Management:
i. File – System Management: The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with
the file management:
Creating and deleting files
Creating and deleting directories to organize files.
Supporting primitives for manipulating files and directories.
Mapping files onto secondary storage.
Backing up files on stable (nonvolatile) storage media
ii. Mass – Storage Management: The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with
disk management:
Free-space Management
Storage Allocation
Disk Scheduling [4].
d. Device Management: One of the purposes of operating system is to hide the peculiarities of specific hardware
devices from the user.
2. Data Management: The data management functions of an OS govern the input and output of the data and their
location, storage, and retrieval
3. Job Management: The job management function of an OS prepares, schedules, controls, and monitors jobs
submitted for execution to ensure the most efficient processing. A job is a collection of one or more related programs and
their data
4. Standard means of communication between user and computer: The OS establishes a standard means of
communication between users and their computer systems. It does this by providing a user interface and a standard set of
commands that control the hardware
5. In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same time, the operating system
determines which applications should run in what order and how much time should be allowed for each application
before giving another application a turn
6. It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications
7. It handles input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks, printers, and dial-up ports
8. It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about the status of operation and any
errors that may have occurred
9. It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so that the initiating application is
freed from this work
10. On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how to divide the program so
that it runs on more than one processor at a time
11. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display
screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and
printers
12. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system

Types of Operating System:

1. Batch Operating System: Batch operating system is the operating system which analyzes your input and groups
them into batches i.e. data in each batch is of similar characteristics. And then it performs operation on each individual
batch.
2. Real-time: A real-time operating system is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time
applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a
deterministic nature of behavior. The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response
to events. They either have an event-driven or a time-sharing design. An event-driven system switches between tasks
based on their priorities while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts [3].
a. Hard real-time system: It has the most stringent requirements, guaranteeing that real-time tasks be completed
within their deadlines. Safety-critical systems are typically hard real-time systems [4].
b. Soft real-time system: It is less restrictive, simply providing that a critical real-time task will receive priority over
other tasks and that it will retain that priority until it completes. Many commercial operating systems – as well as Linux –
provide soft real-time support [4].
3. Multi-user vs. Single-user: A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system
concurrently. Time-sharing system can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a
computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are
usable by a single user at a time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a
multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system, it is
possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system [3].
4. Multi-tasking vs. Single-tasking: When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under a
single-tasking system, while in case the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one time, it is
classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two types namely, pre-emptive or co-operative.
In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs.
Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is
achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. MS Windows prior to
Windows 95 used to support cooperative multitasking [3].
5. Single-processor Systems: On a single-processor system, there is one main CPU capable of executing a general-
purpose instruction set, including instructions from user processes
6. Multi-processor Systems: A multiprocessing operating system allows a program to run on more than one central
processing unit (CPU) at a time. This can come in very handy in some work environments, at schools, and even for some
home-computing situations.
a. Asymmetric multiprocessing: In this each processor is assigned a specific task. A master processor controls the
system; the other processors either look to the master for instruction or have predefined tasks. This scheme defines a
master-slave relationship. The master processor schedules and allocates work to the slave processors
b. Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP): In this each processor performs all tasks within the operating system. SMP
means that all processors are peers; no master-slave relationship exists between processors
7. Distributed: A distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to
be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other,
gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers
in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system
8. Embedded: Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are
designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of
resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of
embedded operating systems
mobile operating system
A mobile operating system (or mobile OS) is an operating system for smartphones, tablets, PDAs, or other mobile
devices. While computers such as the typical laptop are mobile, the operating systems usually used on them are not
considered mobile ones as they were originally designed for bigger stationary desktop computers that historically did not
have or need specific "mobile" features. This distinction is getting blurred in some newer operating systems that are
hybrids made for both uses.
Mobile operating systems combine features of a personal computer operating system with other features useful for
mobile or handheld use; usually including, and most of the following considered essential in modern mobile systems;
a touchscreen, cellular, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, GPS mobile navigation, camera, video camera, speech recognition, voice
recorder, music player, near field communication and infrared blaster.
Mobile devices with mobile communications capabilities (e.g. smartphones) contain two mobile operating systems – the
main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary real-time operating system which
operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security
vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations to gain high levels of control over the mobile devic
iPad (/ˈaɪpæd/ EYE-pad) is an iOS-based line of tablet computers designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The first iPad
was released on April 3, 2010; the most recent iPad models are the iPad Air 2, released on October 22, 2014, and
the iPad Mini 4, released on September 9, 2015. The user interface is built around the device's multi-touch screen,
including a virtual keyboard. The iPad includes built-in Wi-Fi and cellular connectivity on select models. As of January
2015, there have been over 250 million iPads sold.[7]
An iPad can shoot video, take photos, play music, and perform Internet functions such as web-browsing and emailing.
Other functions – games, reference, GPS navigation, social networking, etc. – can be enabled by downloading and
installing apps. As of October 2013, the App Store has more than 475,000 native apps by Apple and third parties

 Current software platforms

 1 Android
o CyanogenMod
o Cyanogen OS
o Fire OS
o Flyme OS
o MIUI
o iOS
o Windows Phone
o BlackBerry
o Firefox OS
o Sailfish OS
o Tizen
o Ubuntu Touch OS
 2 Discontinued software platforms
o Bada
o Symbian
o Windows Mobile
o Palm OS
o webOS
o Maemo
o MeeGo
o LiMo

Disk operating system

Disk Operating System (specifically) and disk operating system (generically), most often reveal themselves in
abbreviated form as DOS, refer to an operating system software used in most computers that provides the abstraction and
management of secondary storage devices and the information on them (e.g., file systems for organizing files of all
sorts). Such software is referred to as a disk operating system when the storage devices it manages are made of rotating
platters, such as floppy disks or hard disks.
MS-DOS / PC DOS and some related disk operating systems use the files mentioned here.
System Files:
 IO.SYS (or IBMBIO.COM): This contains the system initialization code and builtin device drivers.
 MSDOS.SYS (or IBMDOS.COM): This contains the DOS kernel.
Command line interpreter (Shell):
 COMMAND.COM: This is the command interpreter.
User configuration files:
 AUTOEXEC.BAT: This is run by the default shell (usually COMMAND.COM) to execute commands at startup.
 CONFIG.SYS: This contains statements to configure DOS and load device drivers.
DOS commands are small programs, which are made to perform a particular job. Every DOS command performs
different task. It is not possible to work on the computer without these commands. There are two types of DOS
command.
(1) Internal Commands
(2) External Commands
Internal Commands :
An internal command is an MS-DOS command that is stored in the system memory and loaded from
the command.com. The illustration shows how commands contained within command.com are part of the
command.com file. However, with the external commands, each of the commands are their own separate file.
These commands enter into the computer memory during computer booting. These commands are not in the form of
any file; so neither they can be viewed nor can be edited or detected. For example : MD, CD, TIME, DATE, COPY,
COPR CON, TYPE ETC.
External Commands :
An internal command is an MS-DOS command that is stored in the system memory and loaded from
the command.com. The illustration shows how commands contained within command.com are part of the
command.com file. However, with the external commands, each of the commands are their own separate file. These
commands are stored in the computer list in the form of files. These Commands can be viewed, copied, changed or
deleted. For example : FORMAT, COPY, PRINT, SYS, EDIT, TREE, SORT, PROMPT etc.
Important Internal DOS Commands :
(i) MD (Make Directory) : We use this commands to make a new directory or sub directory.
Syntax : C\:>MD DIRECTORY NAME
Example : MD STUDENT
(ii) CD (Change Directory) : This commands is used to move from one directory to another.
Syntax : C:\> CD Directory name
Example : > CD Student
Exit to Directory :
CD… The command move the subdirectory to parent directory.
CD\ The command is used to move directly to the root directory.

(iii) RD (Remove Directory) : If a Directory which was earlier is ;not required than such directory can be removed
by using
Syntax : C:\> RD Directory name
Example : >RD student
Note : (a) The directory, which is to be removed, must be empty.
(b) The directory in which one is working cannot be removed.
One has to close the directory and come to the parent directory to remove that directory.
(iv) Copy Con : Its command is used to create a file. The name of the file, which is to be created, is written after the
copy Con leaving one space in between
Syntax : Copy Con file name
 -------------------------------
-------------------------------
To created a file, the following steps are :
(i) Type Copy Con Monu and press Enter.
(ii) Type whatever is to be typed in the file.
(iii) Press F6 function key or CTRL + Z keys ‘?Z’ will be displayed on the screen, which indicates that the file is
complete.
(iv) Press Enter and after that the DOS will save the file and will display the message ‘1 File(s) copied.
(v) Del : This command is used to erase the files which are no longer required.
Syntax : C:\> Del < File name >
Example : >Del Monu
(vi) Type : This command is used to view the contents of text file.
Syntax : Type <file name>
(vii) Copy : This command is used to copy of file from one place to another place. A copy of file is another file with
the same contents.
Syntax : C:1> copy <source> < destination path>
(viii) Ren : This command is used to rename the file. In REN command two parameters are used. The first is the file
we want to rename and the second is the new name for the file.
Syntax : > Ren <old file name> <New file name>
(ix) DIR : This command is used to display of directory and files.
Syntax : C:\> DIR ?

(x) CLS : This command is used to clear the screen.

Syntax : C:\> CLS
External commands
External commands are known as Disk residence commands. Because they can be store with DOS directory or any disk
which is used for getting these commands. Theses commands help to perform some specific task. These are stored in a
secondary storage device. Some important external commands are given below-
MORE MOVE FIND DOSKEY
MEM FC DISKCOPY FORMAT
SYS CHKDSK ATTRIB
XCOPY SORT LABEL

1. MORE:-Using TYPE command we can see the content of any file. But if length of file is greater than 25 lines then
remaining lines will scroll up. To overcome through this problem we uses MORE command. Using this command we
can pause the display after each 25 lines.
Syntax:- C:\> TYPE <File name> | MORE
C:\> TYPE ROSE.TXT | MORE
or
C:\> DIR | MORE
2. MEM:-This command displays free and used amount of memory in the computer.
Syntax:- C:\> MEM
the computer will display the amount of memory.
3. SYS:- This command is used for copy system files to any disk. The disk having system files are known as Bootable
Disk, which are used for booting the computer.
Syntax:- C:\> SYS [Drive name]
C:\> SYS A:
System files transferred
This command will transfer the three main system files COMMAND.COM, IO.SYS, MSDOS.SYS to the floppy disk.
4. XCOPY:- When we need to copy a directory instant of a file from one location to another the we uses xcopy
command. This command is much faster than copy command.
Syntax:- C:\> XCOPY < Source dirname > <Target dirname>
C:\> XCOPY TC TURBOC
5. MOVE:- Move command is used for moving one file or multiple files from one location to another location or from
one disk to another disk.
Syntax:- C:\> MOVE <file name> <path name>
C:\SONGS> MOVE *.MP3 C:\ SONGS\OLD SONGS\
C:\>
6. FC:-(File Compare) This command is capable for comparing two set of files and display difference between two files.
Syntax:- C:\> FC <First set of file> <Second set of file>
C:\> FC ROSE.TXT GULAB.TXT
7.CHKDSK:-(Check disk) - This command is used to check the status of a disk and show the report of result status.
Syntax:- C:\> CHKDSK
C:\>CHKDSK
Instead of using CHKDSK, try using SCANDISK. SCANDISK can reliably detect
and fix a much wider range of disk problems.
8. SORT:- This command is useful when we want to sort a file. When we run this command the result can be get to
display device or file.
Syntax:- C:\> SORT /R < Input file name> <output file name>
Suppose we have a file Player.txt which having the list of a cricket player team and we want to sort the list of players,
then we uses this command
C:\> SORT Player.txt
If we not specify the output file name then result will show to the screen.
/R- switch is used for sorting the file in descending order like from Z to A or from 9 to 0.
9. FIND:- The FIND command is used to search a file for a text string.
Syntax:- C:\> FIND "String to search" <File name>
C:\TEST>find "office" gulab.txt

---------- gulab.txt
A clock in a office can never get stolen
10. DISKCOPY:- DISKCOPY copies the contents of a floppy disk to another.
Syntax:- C:\> DISKCOPY <Drive1> <Drive2>
C:\> DISKCOPY A: B:
This command will be copy all contents of A drive to B drive.
11. ATTRIB:- Sets the various type of attribute to a file. Like Read only, Archive, Hidden and System attribute.
Syntax:- C:\> ATTRIB [± r] [± a] [± h] [± s] <File name>
here r - for read only, a- for archive, h - for hidden, s - for hidden attribute.
C:\> ATTRIB +r Gulab.txt
This command will change the attribute of file gulab.txt to read only mode. To remove the read only attribute we will
follow this command.
C:\> ATTRIB -r Gulab.txt
12. LABEL:- If you are not happy with the volume label of hard disk, you can change it.
Syntax:- C:\> LABEL
C:\>LABEL
Volume in drive C is JAI
Volume Serial Number is 3E42-1907
Volume label (11 characters, ENTER for none)? INFOWAY
13. DOSKEY:- Once we install doskey , our dos will star to memorize all commands we uses. We can recall those
commands using up or down arrow keys. It also gives the facility to create macros, which creates a short key for long
keyword or command.
 Key function for Doskey are given as-
UP,DOWN arrows recall commands
Esc clears current command
F7 displays command history
Alt+F7 clears command history
F9 selects a command by number
Alt+F10 clears macro definitions
Syntax:- C:\> DOSKEY
DOSKey installed
Creating Macros:-
C:\>doskey t=time
C:\>t
C:\>time
Current time is 3:39:05.97p
Enter new time:

To list out all macros defined just type DOSKEY/MACROS at dos prompt and press enter.
C:\>DOSKEY/MACROS
$D=date
T=time
14. FORMAT:- This command creates new Track & Sectors in a disk. Every
Syntax:- C:\> FORMAT [drive name] [/S]
C:\> FORMAT A:
this command will create new track & sectors.
C:\> FORMAT A: /S
This command will transfer system files after formatting the disk.
Linux System
Linux is one of popular version of UNIX operating System. It is open source as its source code is freely available. It is
free to use. Linux was designed considering UNIX compatibility. It's functionality list is quite similar to that of UNIX.
Components of Linux System
Linux Operating System has primarily three components
 Kernel - Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this operating
system. It is consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the underlying hardware. Kernel provides
the required abstraction to hide low level hardware details to system or application programs.
 System Library - System libraries are special functions or programs using which application programs
or system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries implements most of the functionalities of the
operating system and do not requires kernel module's code access rights.
 System Utility - System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual level tasks.

Kernel Mode vs User Mode

Kernel component code executes in a special privileged mode called kernel mode with full access to all resources of the
computer. This code represents a single process, executes in single address space and do not require any context switch
and hence is very efficient and fast. Kernel runs each processes and provides system services to processes, provides
protected access to hardwares to processes.
Support code which is not required to run in kernel mode is in System Library. User programs and other system
programs works in User Mode which has no access to system hardwares and kernel code. User programs/ utilities use
System libraries to access Kernel functions to get system's low level tasks.
Basic Features
Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System.
 Portable - Portability means softwares can works on different types of hardwares in same way.Linux
kernel and application programs supports their installation on any kind of hardware platform.
 Open Source - Linux source code is freely available and it is community based development project.
Multiple teams works in collaboration to enhance the capability of Linux operating system and it is continuously
evolving.
 Multi-User - Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access system resources like
memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.
 Multiprogramming - Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple applications can run at same
time.
 Hierarchical File System - Linux provides a standard file structure in which system files/ user files are
arranged.
 Shell - Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute commands of the
operating system. It can be used to do various types of operations, call application programs etc.
 Security - Linux provides user security using authentication features like password protection/
controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data
Linux Logging in, Logging Out, and Shutting down
Logging in
Once you have completed your system install and booted your system, you should see a login prompt on your monitor.
When you did your Linux install you should have set a root password. You may have also created a user with a
password. Therefore to log in, you will want to type the name of a user or "root" for the login name and enter the
appropriate password. If you logged in as a normal user and know the root password and want to use administration
commands, you may use the command "su" to become a "super user". Some systems also support the "sudo" command,
which allows administrative privileges on a command by command basis.
Linux Shell levels and the su command
The command, "su" will allow a normal user to enter a new shell level as the root user or as another user if they know
the root user's or that user's password respectively. To become the root user, type "su" then you will be prompted for the
root password. To become another user, type "su username". You must enter either that user's password to become that
user. Every time you use the su command you enter a new shell level which means you have invoked a new running
copy of the shell program, such as bash. You can see this change by typing the command "env" and looking at the value
of the environment variable "SHLVL". This value increments when you use the su command and decrements when you
use the "exit" command to exit that shell environment. You can also see the shell level value by typing "printenv
SHLVL".
Logging out
Use the command "logout" to exit a given session. If you have logged in, then typed "su" to become a superuser or
another user, you may need to type "exit" until your SHLVL environment value is 1. Then you can type "logout" to exit
your session. The "exit" command will take you back to previous shell levels.
Shutting Linux Down
The system is intended to be shutdown by the system administrator using the shutdown command in one of the forms
shown below. Many systems are set up to capture the <CTRL><ALT><DEL> keystroke combination to issue the
shutdown command through the init program. This will work on most systems if the root user is logged in. Examples of
using the shutdown command are shown below.
shutdown -h now
shutdown -r +10 "Rebooting in 10 minutes"
shutdown -r 13:00
The first command will shutdown and halt the system immediately. The second will reboot the system in 10 minutes and
send the message to all users. The third command will shut the system down and do a reboot at 1:00 in the afternoon.
Linux file system
3.1.1. Files
3.1.1.1. General
A simple description of the UNIX system, also applicable to Linux, is this:
"On a UNIX system, everything is a file; if something is not a file, it is a process."
This statement is true because there are special files that are more than just files (named pipes and sockets, for instance),
but to keep things simple, saying that everything is a file is an acceptable generalization. A Linux system, just like
UNIX, makes no difference between a file and a directory, since a directory is just a file containing names of other files.
Programs, services, texts, images, and so forth, are all files. Input and output devices, and generally all devices, are
considered to be files, according to the system.
In order to manage all those files in an orderly fashion, man likes to think of them in an ordered tree-like structure on the
hard disk, as we know from MS-DOS (Disk Operating System) for instance. The large branches contain more branches,
and the branches at the end contain the tree's leaves or normal files. For now we will use this image of the tree, but we
will find out later why this is not a fully accurate image.
3.1.1.2. Sorts of files
Most files are just files, called regular files; they contain normal data, for example text files, executable files or
programs, input for or output from a program and so on.
While it is reasonably safe to suppose that everything you encounter on a Linux system is a file, there are some
exceptions.
 Directories: files that are lists of other files.
 Special files: the mechanism used for input and output. Most special files are in /dev, we will discuss
them later.
 Links: a system to make a file or directory visible in multiple parts of the system's file tree. We will talk
about links in detail.
 (Domain) sockets: a special file type, similar to TCP/IP sockets, providing inter-process networking
protected by the file system's access control.
 Named pipes: act more or less like sockets and form a way for processes to communicate with each
other, without using network socket semantics.
The -l option to ls displays the file type, using the first character of each input line:

jaime:~/Documents> ls -l
total 80
-rw-rw-r-- 1 jaime jaime 31744 Feb 21 17:56 intro Linux.doc
-rw-rw-r-- 1 jaime jaime 41472 Feb 21 17:56 Linux.doc
drwxrwxr-x 2 jaime jaime 4096 Feb 25 11:50 course
This table gives an overview of the characters determining the file type:
Table 3-1. File types in a long list
Symbol Meaning
- Regular file
d Directory
l Link
c Special file
s Socket
p Named pipe
b Block device
In order not to always have to perform a long listing for seeing the file type, a lot of systems by default don't issue just ls,
but ls -F, which suffixes file names with one of the characters "/=*|@" to indicate the file type. To make it extra easy on
the beginning user, both the -F and --color options are usually combined, see Section 3.3.1.1. We will use ls -F
throughout this document for better readability.
As a user, you only need to deal directly with plain files, executable files, directories and links. The special file types are
there for making your system do what you demand from it and are dealt with by system administrators and programmers.
Technical variations of Linux distributions include support for different hardware devices and systems or software
package configurations. Organizational differences may be motivated by historical reasons. Other criteria include
security, including how quickly security upgrades are available; ease of package management; and number of packages
available.
These tables compare each actively and noteworthy distribution's latest stable release on wide-ranging objective criteria.
It does not cover each operating system's subjective merits, branches marked as unstable or beta, nor compare Linux
distributions with other operating systems.
Linux distributions
The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open-source software collaboration. The
underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under
the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a form
known as a Linux distribution, for both desktop and server use. Some of the popular mainstream Linux distributions are
Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Fedora, openSUSE, Arch Linux and Gentoo, together with commercial Red Hat Enterprise
Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise Server distributions. Linux distributions include the Linux kernel, supporting utilities
and libraries, and usually a large amount of application software to fulfill the distribution's intended use.
Best distro for personal server: Debian
If you are running your own server for your own use, Debian is the distro to go for. Debian is known for its rock-solid
foundation; nothing could possibly go wrong on a Debian server. Then it's extremely easy to manage a Debian system
and a plethora of information is available through forums.
Best laptop distro: Ubuntu MATE
Laptops, unlike desktop PCs may not be that mighty when it comes to hardware and there are possibilities of proprietary
hardware, that's where Ubuntu MATE does the job the best. Based on Ubuntu, MATE makes it extremely easy to deal
with any proprietary hardware.
Fedora /fɨˈdɒr.ə/ (formerly Fedora Core) is an operating system based on the Linux kernel, developed by the
community-supported Fedora Project and sponsored by Red Hat. Fedora contains software distributed under a free and
open source license and aims to be on the leading edge of such technologi

Diffrence between linux and DOS(Windows)

Linux is case sensitive, whereas DOS is not.
tain only 11
characters (8 for name+3 for extension). Windows is a special case here, it may contain 256 characters.

-most of the time and that for DOS is COMMAND.COM. For Windows it
is EXPLORER.EXE

pports file system security by default. DOS and Windows 9x does not support file system security. Only
Windows NT/2K/XP allows file system security.

represents all the devices connected to your computer as files. For eg: your monitor is a file. This is not the case
for DOS.

-tasking OS, whereas DOS is not. Windows is also Multi-tasking.

UNIT V

PDF (Portable Document Format)

Portable Document Format (PDF) is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application
software, hardware and operating systems.[2] Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat
document, including the text, fonts, graphics and other information needed to display it. In 1991, Adobe Systems' co-
founder John Warnock outlined a system called "Camelot"[3] that evolved into PDF.
PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share documents, including text formatting and inline images, among
computer users of disparate platforms who may not have access to mutually-compatible application software.[12] It was
among a number of competing formats such as DjVu (still developing), Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon
Replica and even Adobe's own PostScript format (.ps). In those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and
HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows.
Adobe Acrobat
Adobe Acrobat is a family of application software and Web services developed by Adobe Systems to view, create,
manipulate, print and manage files in Portable Document Format (PDF).[14]
The family comprises Acrobat Reader (formerly Adobe Reader), Acrobat (formerly Acrobat Exchange) and
Acrobat.com. The freeware Acrobat Reader, available for several desktop and mobile platforms, can view, print and
annotate PDF files.[15] The commercial proprietary Acrobat, available for Microsoft Windows and OS X only, can also
create, edit, convert, digitally sign, encrypt, export and publish PDF files. Acrobat.com complements the family with a
variety of enterprise content management and file hosting services.
Information about PDF Readers
Some examples of Pdf material on our site
 Factsheets
 Research Papers
 Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST)
 The House of Lords - A Brief Guide which is listed, among other one-off Pdf documents produced by the
House of Lords, on the What the Lords Does web page.
Pdf stands for Portable Document Format and is an alternative way of supplying material on our web pages when the use
of Html is not appropriate. This page sets out information that may be useful to people who need to know more about
how to use Pdf documents.
Pdf material on this site is identified by the following icon

 Adobe website - freely available and works as a helper application or plug-in to a WWW browser
 Brava! Reader - Free PDF viewer by Informative Graphics
 Foxit Reader - Foxit Software
 Zetadocs PDF - Equisys
Adobe Acrobat Reader DC software is the free global standard for reliably viewing, printing, and commenting on PDF
documents.
And now, it's connected to the Adobe Document Cloud − making it easier than ever to work across computers and
mobile devices.
It's the only PDF viewer that can open and interact with all types of PDF content, including forms and multimedia.
Nitro PDF
Nitro develops commercial software used to create, edit, sign, and secure Portable Document Format (PDF) files and
digital documents. The Nitro ecosystem consists of Nitro Pro, Nitro Cloud, Nitro Reader, and a suite of document
conversion sites.
Nitro’s product family is intended for the professional market and although its desktop products are Windows-only, Nitro
Cloud is compatible with any web browser on any machine. The Nitro PDF Reader is freeware for both personal and
professional use.
Nitro Pro (previously Nitro PDF Professional) is a desktop product that offers full PDF creation and editing
capabilities.
Some of the key features include:
 Disables Adobe products once installed.
 Lets you edit text, graphics, and the page arrangement.
 Lets you modify text and graphics properties.
 Converts PDF files to Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, Microsoft Excel, JPEG (at a select DPI),
PNG, TIFF or text files.
 Viewing, creating and printing PDF files
 Reviewing, commenting and adding markups to PDF documents
 Creating and filling PDF forms
 Converting paper-based files to searchable and editable PDF documents with OCR
 QuickSign allows the user to scan a copy of their signature to stamp into any PDF documents
 Nitro Cloud integration gives the user the ability to start collaboration, signing, and sharing workflows
directly in the cloud.
PDF-XChange Viewer is a free PDF reader for Microsoft Windows.[2][3][4] The basic reader, which can be
downloaded free of charge, includes extended/markup capabilities such as typing, highlighting, callouts, and notes.
Another useful feature is its ability to display PDF files in the "preview" pane of the Windows Explorer without
locking the file (and thus allowing for easy setting of metadata info). An advanced paid version is also available.
It supports saving of filled PDF forms (AcroForms) and import/export of form data in FDF/XFDF format. Since
version 2.5 there is a partial support for XFA and export of form data in XDP or XML format. It added OCR support
as of version 2.5.
PDF-XChange Lite print driver is a print driver enabling the creation of PDFs from Microsoft Windows
applications. It is free for academic and home use. Also available is PDF-XChange Standard,[5] which brings
advanced PDF creation options.
A related product is PDF-Tools,[6] which allows creation and manipulation of PDFs from a variety of sources
including images, text documents, etc. Batch conversion capabilities with filename macros are included.
Finally, a number of PDF-related SDKs for developers are available, including PDF Tools SDK, PDF-XChange
Viewer SDK, PDF-XChange Drivers SDK, and Image SDKs.[7] These allow creation, manipulation, reading, writing,
OCR, search, and display of PDFs; and multi-language support (C++, C#, C, VB, VB.NET, Delphi, Clarion) is
available.
PDF-XChange Viewer works under Wine, providing another way to annotate PDFs under Linux

Microsoft Office
Microsoft Office is an office suite of applications, servers and services. It was first announced by Bill Gates of
Microsoft on 1 August 1988 at COMDEX in Las Vegas. Initially a marketing term for a bundled set of applications,
the first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel and Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years,
Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a common spell checker, OLE data
integration and Visual Basic for Applications scripting language. Microsoft also positions Office as a development
platform for line-of-business software under the Office Business Applications brand.
On 10 July 2012, Softpedia reported that Office is used by over a billion people worldwide.[4]
The desktop version of Office is available for Windows and OS X. A touch-optimised version of Microsoft Office is
available pre-installed on Windows RT tablets. A mobile version of Office, Office Mobile, is available for free on
Windows Phone, iOS and Android. A web-based version of Office, Office Online, is also available.[5] Microsoft has
stated that it plans to create a version of Office for "other popular platforms" as well.[citation needed]
The current desktop version is Office 2016 for Windows and OS X, released on 22 September 2015[6] and 9 July
2015,[3] respectively.

List of Microsoft Office programs

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Microsoft Office is a set of interrelated desktop applications, servers and services, collectively referred to as an office
suite, for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X operating systems.
This list contains all the programs that are, or have been, in Microsoft Office since it began and are in alphabetical order.
Desktop applications
 Microsoft Access
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft Exchange
 Microsoft InfoPath
 Microsoft Lync
 Microsoft OneNote
 Microsoft Outlook
 Microsoft PowerPoint
 Microsoft Project
 Microsoft Publisher
 Microsoft SharePoint Designer
 Microsoft SharePoint Foundation
 Microsoft SharePoint Workspace
 Microsoft Visio
 Microsoft Word
Tools
 Microsoft Equation Editor
 WordArt
 Microsoft Graph
 Hotmail Connector
 Ribbon Hero
 Ribbon Hero 2
 Visual Studio Tools for Office
Server applications
 Microsoft Lync Server
 Microsoft SharePoint
o Excel Services
o InfoPath Forms Services
o Microsoft Project Server
o Microsoft Search Server
Online services
 Microsoft Office Live
 Microsoft Office Live Meeting
 Microsoft Office Online
o Outlook.com
o Calendar
o People
o OneDrive
o Outlook Web App
o Sway
Discontinued programs
 Microsoft Binder
 Microsoft Data Analyzer
 Microsoft Mail
 Microsoft FrontPage
 Microsoft Photo Editor
 Microsoft PhotoDraw
 Microsoft Schedule Plus
 Microsoft Vizact
 Office Assistant
  Office Web Components
 Microsoft Office Accounting
 Microsoft SharePoint Workspace
 Microsoft InterConnect
 Microsoft Entourage
 Microsoft Office Document Imaging
 Microsoft Office Document Scanning
 Microsoft Office Picture Manager
 Microsoft Office Groove Server
 Microsoft Office PerformancePoint Server
 Microsoft Office Project Portfolio Server
 Microsoft Clip Organizer
Technologies
 Information Bridge
 Microsoft Office Open XML
 Microsoft Office XML formats
 Smart Tags
 Visual Basic for Applications
See also
Microsoft portal
 List of office suites
 Comparison of office suites
 Microsoft MapPoint
 Microsoft Visual Studio
 Microsoft Works
External links
 The Microsoft Office page for Windows
 The Microsoft Office page for Mac OS X

Desktop components
Word
Main article: Microsoft Word
Microsoft Word is a word processor and was previously considered the main program in Office. Its proprietary DOC
format is considered a de facto standard, although Word 2007 can also use a new XML-based, Microsoft Office-
optimized format called .DOCX, which has been standardized by Ecma International as Office Open XML, and its SP2
update supports PDF and a limited ODF.[7] Word is also available in some editions of Microsoft Works. It is available for
the Windows and OS X platforms. The first version of Word, released in the autumn of 1983, was for the MS-DOS
operating system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse to a broad population. Word 1.0 could be purchased
with a bundled mouse, though none was required. Following the precedents of LisaWrite and MacWrite, Word for
Macintosh attempted to add closer WYSIWYG features into its package. Word for Mac was released in 1985. Word for
Mac was the first graphical version of Microsoft Word.
Excel
Main article: Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that originally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, and eventually
outsold it. It is available for the Windows and OS X platforms. Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Mac
OS in 1985, and the first Windows version (numbered 2.05 to line up with the Mac and bundled with a standalone
Windows run-time environment) in November 1987. It provided more functionality than the previous version.
PowerPoint
Main article: Microsoft PowerPoint
Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation program for Windows and OS X. It is used to create slideshows, composed of
text, graphics, and other objects, which can be displayed on-screen and shown by the presenter or printed out on
transparencies or slides.
Access
Main article: Microsoft Access
Microsoft Access is a database management system for Windows that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database
Engine with a graphical user interface and software-development tools. Microsoft Access stores data in its own format
based on the Access Jet Database Engine. It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and
databases.[8]
Outlook
Main articles: Microsoft Outlook and Microsoft Entourage
Microsoft Outlook (not to be confused with Outlook Express) is a personal information manager. The replacement for
Windows Messaging, Microsoft Mail, and Schedule+ starting in Office 97, it includes an e-mail client, calendar, task
manager and address book.
On the Mac OS, Microsoft offered several versions of Outlook in the late 1990s, but only for use with Microsoft
Exchange Server. In Office 2001, it introduced an alternative application with a slightly different feature set called
Microsoft Entourage. It reintroduced Outlook in Office 2011, replacing Entourage.[9]
OpenOffice
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
OpenOffice or open office may refer to:
Contents
 1 Computing
o 1.1 Software
o 1.2 File format
 2 Other uses
 3 See also
Computing
Software
 OpenOffice.org (OOo), a former open-source office software suite, originally based on StarOffice
o Apache OpenOffice (AOO), a derivative of OOo by the Apache Software Foundation, with
contribution from IBM Lotus Symphony
o LibreOffice, a derivative of OOo by The Document Foundation
o NeoOffice, a Mac-specific derivative of OOo by Planamesa Software
o StarOffice (briefly renamed Oracle Open Office after Oracle acquired Sun), a discontinued
commercial proprietary office suite acquired by Sun Microsystems
File format
 OpenOffice.org XML, a file format used by earlier versions of OpenOffice.org
o OpenDocument, also known as Open Document Format for Office Applications (ODF), a
widely-supported standard XML-based file format originating from OOo
 Office Open XML, a competing file format from Microsoft
 OpenOffice Basic, (formerly known as StarOffice Basic or StarBasic or OOoBasic) is a dialect of the
programming language BASIC.
Other uses
 Open plan office, a floor plan
See also
 Open Document Architecture (ODA), document interchange format (CCITT T.411-T.424, equivalent to
ISO 8613)
 OpenDoc, an abandoned multi-platform standard for compound documents, intended as an alternative to
Microsoft's Object Linking and Embedding (OLE)
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title.
 If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
Note: This page may need to be cleaned up to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Further information might be found
on t
WPS Office (an initialism for Writer, Presentation and Spreadsheets,[2] previously known as Kingsoft Office) is an
office suite for Microsoft Windows, Linux,[1] iOS[3] and Android OS,[4] developed by Zhuhai-based Chinese software
developer Kingsoft. WPS Office is a suite of software which is made up of three primary components: WPS Writer,
WPS Presentation, and WPS Spreadsheet.[5]
The personal basic version is free to use, but a watermark is printed on all printed output after the 30 day trial ends. [6][7] A
fully featured professional-grade version is also available for a subscription fee. The current version of WPS Office is
WPS Office 10.[5]
The product has had a long history of development and success in China under the name "WPS" and "WPS Office". For
a time, Kingsoft branded the suite under the "KSOffice" brand in an attempt to gain a foothold in international markets,
but has since returned to "WPS Office". Since WPS Office 2005, the user interface is similar to that of Microsoft Office
products, and supports Microsoft document formats besides native Kingsoft formats.
Microsoft Word 2007 for Windows
Microsoft Word is a word processing software package. You can use it to type letters, reports, and other documents. This
tutorial teaches Microsoft Word 2007 basics. Although this tutorial was created for the computer novice, because
Microsoft Word 2007 is so different from previous versions of Microsoft Word, even experienced users may find it
useful.
This lesson will introduce you to the Word window. You use this window to interact with Word. To begin this lesson,
open Microsoft Word 2007. The Microsoft Word window appears and your screen looks similar to the one shown here.

Note: Your screen will probably not look exactly like the screen shown. In Word 2007, how a window displays depends
on the size of your window, the size of your monitor, and the resolution to which your monitor is set. Resolution
determines how much information your computer monitor can display. If you use a low resolution, less information fits
on your screen, but the size of your text and images are larger. If you use a high resolution, more information fits on your
screen, but the size of the text and images are smaller. Also, Word 2007, Windows Vista, and Windows XP have settings
that allow you to change the color and style of your windows.

The Microsoft Office Button

In the upper-left corner of the Word 2007 window is the Microsoft Office button. When you click the button, a menu
appears. You can use the menu to create a new file, open an existing file, save a file, and perform many other tasks.
The Quick Access Toolbar
Next to the Microsoft Office button is the Quick Access toolbar. The Quick Access toolbar provides you with access to
commands you frequently use. By default Save, Undo, and Redo appear on the Quick Access toolbar. You can use Save
to save your file, Undo to rollback an action you have taken, and Redo to reapply an action you have rolled back.
The Title Bar

Next to the Quick Access toolbar is the Title bar. The Title bar displays the title of the document on which you are
currently working. Word names the first new document you open Document1. As you open additional new documents,
Word names them sequentially. When you save your document, you assign the document a new name.
The Ribbon

You use commands to tell Microsoft Word what to do. In Microsoft Word 2007, you use the Ribbon to issue commands.
The Ribbon is located near the top of the screen, below the Quick Access toolbar. At the top of the Ribbon are several
tabs; clicking a tab displays several related command groups. Within each group are related command buttons. You click
buttons to issue commands or to access menus and dialog boxes. You may also find a dialog box launcher in the bottom-
right corner of a group. Clicking the dialog box launcher gives you access to additional commands via a dialog box.
The Ruler

The ruler is found below the Ribbon.

You can use the ruler to change the format of your document quickly. If your ruler is not visible, follow the steps listed
here:

1. Click the View tab to choose it.

2. Click the check box next to Ruler in the Show/Hide group. The ruler appears below the Ribbon.
The Text Area
Just below the ruler is a large area called the text area. You type your document in the text area. The blinking vertical
line in the upper-left corner of the text area is the cursor. It marks the insertion point. As you type, your text displays at
the cursor location. The horizontal line next to the cursor marks the end of the document.
The Vertical and Horizontal and Vertical Scroll Bars
The vertical and horizontal scroll bars enable you to move up, down, and across your window simply by dragging the
icon located on the scroll bar. The vertical scroll bar is located along the right side of the screen. The horizontal scroll bar
is located just above the status bar. To move up and down your document, click and drag the vertical scroll bar up and
down. To move back and forth across your document, click and drag the horizontal scroll bar back and forth. You won't
see a horizontal scroll bar if the width of your document fits on your screen.
The Status Bar
The Status bar appears at the very bottom of your window and provides such information as the current page and the
number of words in your document. You can change what displays on the Status bar by right-clicking on the Status bar
and selecting the options you want from the Customize Status Bar menu. You click a menu item to select it. You click it
again to deselect it. A check mark next to an item means it is selected.

Understanding Document Views

In Word 2007, you can display your document in one of five views: Draft, Web Layout, Print Layout, Full Screen
Reading, or Online Layout.
Draft View
Draft view is the most frequently used view. You use Draft view to quickly edit your document.
Web Layout
Web Layout view enables you to see your document as it would appear in a browser such as Internet Explorer.
Print Layout
 The Print Layout view shows the document as it will look when it is printed.
Reading Layout
Reading Layout view formats your screen to make reading your document more comfortable.
Outline View
Outline view displays the document in outline form. You can display headings without the text. If you move a
heading, the accompanying text moves with it.
You should use Draft view for these lessons. Before moving ahead, make sure you are in Draft view:

1. Click the View tab.

2. Click Draft in the Document Views group. When the Draft option is selected it appears in a contrasting
color.
Click
During the lessons that follow, you will be asked to "click" items and to choose tabs. When asked to click:
1. Point to the item.
2. Press your left mouse button once.
If you are asked to double-click an item:
1. Point to the item.
2. Quickly press your left mouse button twice.
If you are asked to right-click:
1. Point to the item.
2. Press your right mouse button.
If you are asked to choose a tab, click the tab.
Create a New Document
There are several ways to create new documents, open existing documents, and save documents in Word:

 Click the Microsoft Office Button and Click New or

 Press CTRL+N (Depress the CTRL key while pressing the “N”) on the keyboard
You will notice that when you click on the Microsoft Office Button and Click New, you have many choices about the
types of documents you can create. If you wish to start from a blank document, click Blank. If you wish to start from a
template you can browse through your choices on the left, see the choices on center screen, and preview the selection on
the right screen.

Opening an Existing Document

  Click the Microsoft Office Button and Click Open, or
 Press CTRL+O (Depress the CTRL key while pressing the “O”) on the keyboard, or
 If you have recently used the document you can click the Microsoft Office Button and click the name
of the document in the Recent Documents section of the window Insert picture of recent docs
Saving a Document

 Click the Microsoft Office Button and Click Save or Save As (remember, if you’re sending the
document to someone who does not have Office 2007, you will need to click the Office Button, click Save As,
and Click Word 97-2003 Document), or
 Press CTRL+S (Depress the CTRL key while pressing the “S”) on the keyboard, or
 Click the File icon on the Quick Access Toolbar

Renaming Documents
To rename a Word document while using the program:

 Click the Office Button and find the file you want to rename.
 Right-click the document name with the mouse and select Rename from the shortcut menu.
 Type the new name for the file and press the ENTER key.

Working on Multiple Documents

Several documents can be opened simultaneously if you are typing or editing multiple documents at once. All open
documents will be listed in the View Tab of the Ribbon when you click on Switch Windows. The current document has
a checkmark beside the file name. Select another open document to view it.

Document Views
There are many ways to view a document in Word.
 Print Layout: This is a view of the document as it would appear when printed. It includes all tables,
text, graphics, and images.
 Full Screen Reading: This is a full view length view of a document. Good for viewing two pages at a
time.
 Web Layout: This is a view of the document as it would appear in a web browser.
 Outline: This is an outline form of the document in the form of bullets.
 Draft: This view does not display pictures or layouts, just text.
To view a document in different forms, click the document views shortcuts at the bottom of the screen
or:
 Click the View Tab on the Ribbon
 Click on the appropriate document view.


Close a Document
To close a document:
 Click the Office Button
 Click Close
1. of file that you want to open.
2. Click the file, and then click Open.
Save a document in Word
You can use the Save and Save As commands to store your work, and you can adjust the settings that Microsoft
Office Word uses to save your documents.
The way that you save a document and the format that you save it in depends on how you plan to use the document. For
example, if the document is for your own use and you never expect to open it in a previous version of Microsoft Office
Word, the simplest way to save it is to use the Save command, using all the default settings.
However, if you are posting the document for others to open, if people reading your document are using software other
than Microsoft Office Word 2007, or if you intend to open the document on another computer, you need to choose how
and where you want to save the document.
If you commonly save documents in a particular place or format, you can adjust settings so that Word defaults to these
choices.
Important If you intend to share the document with other readers, be sure to use the Prepare menu under the

Microsoft Office Button before you save the document. The Prepare menu provides commands that enhance the
privacy, security, and authenticity of your document.
What do you want to do?
Save a document for the first time
Save an existing document as a new document (Save As)
Save a document on a CD
Save a document on a USB memory device
Save a document in a location that can be accessed remotely
Save a document so that it can be opened in a previous version of Word
Save a document in alternative file formats
Adjust settings for saving documents
Save a document for the first time
1. On the Quick Access Toolbar, click Save , or press CTRL+S.
2. Type a name for the document, and then click Save.
Word saves the document in a default location. To save the document in a different location, select another
folder in the Favorite Links if your computer is running Windows Vista, or in the Save in list if your computer
is running Microsoft Windows XP. If you want to change the default location where Word saves documents,
adjust the settings for saving documents.
Top of Page
Save an existing document as a new document (Save As)
To prevent overwriting the original document, use the Save As command to create a new file as soon as you open the
original document.
1. Open the document that you want to use as the basis for the new document.
 2. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click Save As.
3. Type a name for the document, and then click Save.
o Word saves the document in a default location.
o To save the document in a different location, click another folder in the Save in list in the Save
As dialog box. If you want to change the default location where Word saves documents, adjust the
settings for saving documents.
4. Edit the document the way that you want.
Tip To make it easy to use one document as the basis for others, save the document where templates are stored. In the
Save As dialog box, click Templates if your computer is running Windows Vista, or click Trusted Templates if your
computer is running Windows XP, and then click Save. When you want to create a new document, in the New
Document dialog box, double-click New from Existing.

How to Attach a New Template to a Word 2007 Document

By Dan Gookin from Word 2007 For Dummies
All Word 2007 documents have templates attached to them. Choose the template when the document is first created or
you just create a new document, in which case the NORMAL.DOTM template is used. You can also attach a new
template to a document.
1. Open the document that needs a new template attached.
2. From the Office Button menu, choose the Word Options command.
3. Choose Add-Ins from the left side of the Word Options dialog box.
4. On the right side of the window, near the bottom, choose Templates from the Manage drop-down list.

5. Click the Go button.

The Templates and Add-ins dialog box appears. You can see which template is currently attached to the
document by checking the Document Template field.

ave as a template
You can start with a blank document and save it as a template, or you can create a template that is based on an existing
document or template.
Start with a blank template

1. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click New.

2. Click Blank document, and then click Create.
3. Make the changes that you want to the margin settings, page size and orientation, styles, and other
formats.
You can also add instructional text, content controls such as a date picker, and graphics that you want to appear
in all new documents that you base on the template.

4. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click Save As.
5. In the Save As dialog box, do one of the following:
o On a computer that is running Windows Vista, under Favorite Links, click Templates.
 o On a computer that is running Windows XP, under Save in, click Trusted Templates.
6. Give the new template a file name, select Word Template in the Save as type list, and then click Save.
Note You can also save the template as a Word Macro-Enabled Template (.dotm file) or a Word 97-2003
Template (.dot file).
7. Close the template.
Create a template based on an existing document

1. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click Open.

2. Open the document that you want.
3. Make the changes that you want to appear in all new documents that you base on the template.

4. Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click Save As.
5. In the Save As dialog box, do one of the following:
o On a computer that is running Windows Vista, under Favorite Links, click Templates.
o On a computer that is running Windows XP, under Save in, click Trusted Templates.
6. Give the new template a file name, select Word Template in the Save as type list, and then click Save.
Note You can also save the template as a Word Macro-Enabled Template (.dotm file) or a Word 97-2003
Template (.dot file).
7. Close the template.
Edit Microsoft Word 2007 Documents in Print Preview
When working on Word 2007 documents for the office wouldn’t it be nice to edit them while in Print Preview instead of
going back into the document? Today we look at how to accomplish editing documents while in Print Preview.
Print Preview is used to see how the document will look like when it is printed to paper. You can get into Print Preview
mode by clicking the Print Preview icon on the Quick Access Toolbar or clicking on the Office Start Menu \ Print \ Print
Preview.

Now while in Print Preview un-check Magnifier located in the Preview tab on the Ribbon.

Now you can go in and make any adjustments to the document while still in Print Preview.
Follow these step-by-step instructions to print a document from Microsoft Word

Step 1: Open an existing Word document or start a new document and type your text.

Step 2: Once you’ve completed your document and are ready to print, click File in the top left-hand corner of your
document.
Alternatively, some versions of Word may have an Office button instead of a ‘File’ button – it’s a round Office icon in
the top left-hand corner of the screen. Click on this if you have one.

Step 3: Move down and click Print in the menu. This will bring up the ‘Print’ dialogue box.

Step 4: Choose how many copies of your document you need.

Step 5: Depending on your printer options, you can choose other printing features such as whether you want to print all
pages or only certain pages. You can also change the orientation of the print from portrait to landscape and tell your
computer and printer whether you’re printing on a certain size of paper. You’ll also
see, on the right, a preview of your printed document will look like

Step 6: When you’re happy with your settings, click Print. The document will now
start printing on your printer.

- See more at: http://digitalunite.com/guides/microsoft-word/how-print-

document#sthash.Ema14It0.dpuf
Styles
A style is a format enhancing tool that includes font typefaces, font size, effects (bold, italics, underline, etc.), colors and
more. You will notice that on the Home Tab of the Ribbon, that you have several areas that will control the style of your
document: Font, Paragraph, and Styles.

Change Font Typeface and Size

To change the font typeface:
Click the arrow next to the font name and choose a font.

Remember that you can preview how the new font will look by highlighting the text, and hovering over the new font
typeface.

To change the font size:

Click the arrow next to the font size and choose the appropriate size, or
Click the increase or decrease font size buttons.

Font Styles and Effects

Font styles are predefined formatting options that are used to emphasize text. They include: Bold, Italic, and
Underline. To add these to text:
Select the text and click the Font Styles included on the Font Group of the Ribbon, or
Select the text and right click to display the font tools

Change Text Color

To change the text color:
 Select the text and click the Colors button included on the Font Group of the Ribbon, or
 Highlight the text and right click and choose the colors tool.
 Select the color by clicking the down arrow next to the font color button.

Highlight Text
Highlighting text allows you to use emphasize text as you would if you had a marker. To highlight text:
 Select the text
 Click the Highlight Button on the Font Group of the Ribbon, or
 Select the text and right click and select the highlight tool
 To change the color of the highlighter click on down arrow next to the highlight button.

Copy Formatting
If you have already formatted text the way you want it and would like another portion of the document to have the same
formatting, you can copy the formatting. To copy the formatting, do the following:
 Select the text with the formatting you want to copy.
 Copy the format of the text selected by clicking the Format Painter button on the Clipboard Group of
the Home Tab
 Apply the copied format by selecting the text and clicking on it.

Clear Formatting
To clear text formatting:
 Select the text you wish to clear the formatting
 Click the Styles dialogue box on the Styles Group on the Home Tab
 Click Clear All
 Formatting paragraphs allows you to change the look of the overall document. You
can access many of the tools of paragraph formatting by clicking the Page Layout Tab of the Ribbon or the Paragraph
Group on the Home Tab of the Ribbon.

Change Paragraph Alignment

The paragraph alignment allows you to set how you want text to appear. To change the alignment:
 Click the Home Tab
 Choose the appropriate button for alignment on the Paragraph Group.
o Align Left: the text is aligned with your left margin
o Center: The text is centered within your margins
o Align Right: Aligns text with the right margin
o Justify: Aligns text to both the left and right margins.

Indent Paragraphs
Indenting paragraphs allows you set text within a paragraph at different margins. There are several options for indenting:
 First Line: Controls the left boundary for the first line of a paragraph
 Hanging: Controls the left boundary of every line in a paragraph except the first one
 Left: Controls the left boundary for every line in a paragraph
 Right: Controls the right boundary for every line in a paragraph
To indent paragraphs, you can do the following:
 Click the Indent buttons to control the indent.
 Click the Indent button repeated times to increase the size of the indent.

 Click the dialog box of the Paragraph Group

 Click the Indents and Spacing Tab
 Select your indents
Add Borders and Shading
You can add borders and shading to paragraphs and entire pages. To create a border around a paragraph or paragraphs:
 Select the area of text where you want the border or shading.
 Click the Borders Button on the Paragraph Group on the Home Tab
 Choose the Border and Shading
 Choose the appropriate options

Apply Styles
Styles are a present collection of formatting that you can apply to text. To utilize Quick Styles:
 Select the text you wish to format.
 Click the dialog box next to the Styles Group on the Home Tab.
 Click the style you wish to apply.

Create Links
Creating links in a word document allows you to put in a URL that readers can click on to visit a web page. To insert a
link:
 Click the Hyperlink Button on the Links Group of the Insert Tab.
 Type in the text in the “Text to Display” box and the web address in the “Address” box.

Change Spacing Between Paragraphs and Lines

You can change the space between lines and paragraphs by doing the following:
 Select the paragraph or paragraphs you wish to change.
 On the Home Tab, Click the Paragraph Dialog Box
 Click the Indents and Spacing Tab
 In the Spacing section, adjust your spacing accordingly
Editing Text Guide
A guide for Jaws users, written by Chorlton Workshop for hsbp. More guides are available on the Jaws Guides page of
the VIP Software Guides website.
Contents
 Introduction
 Undo and redo
 Inserting text
 Deleting text
 Selecting text
 Cut, copy, and paste
 Keystrokes
Introduction
This guide describes some basic ways of editing text which you can use in a large range of contexts:
 Edit boxes in program windows and dialog boxes.
 Edit boxes in web pages.
 Microsoft Word.
Undo and redo
If you make a mistake whilst editing, you can always undo your last edit by pressing CTRL + Z. This undoes your last
insertion of text, delete, cut, or paste.
In fact, programs keep track of your last few edits, so if you press CTRL + Z repeatedly, your edits are undone one by
one in reverse order.
Once you've undone one or more edits, you can redo the last undone edit by pressing CTRL + Y.
Inserting text
To insert some new text into some existing text, simply move to where you want to insert the new text, and start typing.
The new text is inserted before the character which was the current character before you started typing.
Deleting text
Deleting characters
 BACKSPACE deletes the previous character, and Jaws says the deleted character.
 DELETE deletes the current character, and Jaws says the new current character.
Deleting words
The keystrokes for deleting words described below are useful, but their implementation is patchy. They work in both
Microsoft Word and most email programs such as Outlook Express, but elsewhere it's best to check whether or not they
work. An alternative is to select the words and press DELETE as described in the next section.
To delete a word:
 If the current character is the the first character of a word or the character after a word, then CTRL +
BACKSPACE deletes the previous word, and Jaws says the deleted word.
 If the current character is the first character of a word, then CTRL + DELETE deletes the current word,
and Jaws says the new current word.
Deleting the selected text
To delete the selected text, press DELETE. Pressing CTRL + A selects all the text, and so lets you easily delete all the
text. The selection of part of the text is described in the next main section below.
Overwriting the selected text
If any text is selected and you start typing, the selected text is replaced by the text that you type – there's no need to press
DELETE to delete the selected text before starting to type the new text.
For example, when you move to an edit box in a program window or dialog box the text is normally initially selected, so
you can just type in text to replace the existing text.
Selecting text
As mentioned above, you can select all the text by pressing CTRL + A. This section describes how to select any series
of characters which are next to each other.
Apart from CTRL + A, all keystrokes for selecting text have the form SHIFT + navigation keystroke, where a
navigation keystroke is a keystroke which changes which character in the text is the current character. A navigation
keystroke can be:
 One of the keystrokes for moving to the start or the end of a line or a document (HOME, END, CTRL
+ HOME, or CTRL + END respectively).
 A Jaws reading keystroke for the next or previous character, word, or line. Note that all of these
keystrokes change which is the current character as well as reading the text.
If you press one or more navigation keystrokes on their own, then you'll end up with some character as the final current
character. If you add SHIFT to all of these, then:
 If the final current character is positioned after the initial current character, then all the the characters
starting with the initial current character and up to but not including the final current character are selected.
 If the final current character is positioned before the initial current character, then all the characters
starting with the final current character and up to but not including the initial current character are selected.
As you press these selection keystrokes, Jaws gives you a running commentary on what is being added or removed from
the selection. If you need to check what text is selected, then you can press SHIFT + INSERT + DOWN ARROW,
which reads the selected text. Note that this doesn't always work for selected text in edit boxes on web pages.
If some text is selected and you press any navigation key on its own, then the selection is deselected, as described in
more detail in the Deselecting text section.
Selection examples
Using the line of text “my kingdom for a horse” as an example, and assuming that no text is initially selected and that the
initial current character is the k at the beginning of kingdom:
 Pressing RIGHT ARROW reads the next character, i, and and this character becomes the current
character. Pressing SHIFT + RIGHT ARROW selects the initial current character k.
 Pressing INSERT + RIGHT ARROW says the next word, for, and the first letter of this word, f,
becomes the current character. Pressing SHIFT + INSERT + RIGHT ARROW selects the text “kindom ”
 If you press END, the end of line character, blank, becomes the current character. Pressing SHIFT +
END selects the text “kingdom for a horse”.
 If you press HOME, the first character in the line, m, becomes the current character. Pressing SHIFT +
HOME selects the text “my ”.
 Pressing INSERT + RIGHT ARROW twice reads “for a” and the character a becomes the current
character. Pressing SHIFT + INSERT + RIGHT ARROW twice selects the text “kingdom for ”.
 Pressing END, then INSERT + LEFT ARROW reads the word horse, and the first letter of horse, h,
becomes the current character. Pressing SHIFT END, then SHIFT + INSERT + LEFT ARROW selects the
text “kingdom for a ”
Deselecting text
If some text is selected and you press any navigation keystroke, then the selection is cancelled, and which character in
the text is the current character is changed. In particular:
 If you press RIGHT ARROW, then the selection is cancelled, and the first character after the text
which was selected becomes the current character.
  If you press LEFT ARROW, then the selection is cancelled, and either the first or last character of the
text which was selected becomes the current character. The first character becomes the current character in
Microsoft Word and email programs such as Outlook Express. Other programs vary in which convention they
follow. In single line edit boxes, the last character often becomes the current character.
Cut, copy, and paste
The cut, copy and paste commands are used for moving or copying text. This can either be within a single edit box or
document, or between edit boxes or documents in the same program or different programs.
These commands all use the clipboard, which can temporarily store text (and other objects), and which is available to all
programs.
To copy text:
1. Select the text you want to copy.
2. Press CTRL + C to copy: the selected text is copied to the clipboard.
3. Move to where you want to copy the text, which might involve switching programs.
4. Press CTRL + V to paste: the text on the clipboard is copied to the new location.
To move text, the procedure is the same to copy text, except that in the second step the copy command is replaced by the
cut command (CTRL + X). This removes the text from its current location as well as copying it to the clipboard.
Note that after a paste command, the text on the clipboard is unchanged. So if you paste twice, without any cut or copy
commands between them, the same text is pasted on both occasions.
Keystrokes
Description Keystroke
Undo the last edit CTRL + Z
Redo the last undo CTRL + Y
Delete the previous character BACKSPACE
Delete the current character DELETE
Delete the previous word CTRL + BACKSPACE
Delete the current word CTRL + DELETE
Delete the selected text DELETE
Select all the text CTRL + A
Select text SHIFT + (HOME or END or CTRL + HOME or CTRL + END)
Select text SHIFT + (Read previous or current character, word, or line)
Read selected text SHIFT + INSERT + DOWN ARROW
Deselect text Any navigation keystroke
Copy the selected text to clipboard CTRL + C
Cut the selected text to clipboard CTRL + X
Paste text from clipboard CTRL + V
Protection features in Word
Word 2007 is designed to meet the reality that our workplace has changed—the global, mobile, and wireless workforce
now has security concerns that standalone, desktop PC users did not have. Many of today's users need to be able to
access documents in a variety of versions and share them with people all over the world, at a moment's notice. Securing
sensitive documents has become more important than ever.
When you click the Microsoft Office Button and point to Prepare you'll find the following features to give you what
you need to help safeguard your documents:
 Inspect Document When you click Inspect Document, the Document Inspector launches, enabling
you to have Word review your document and point out any sensitive or personal information you might not want
to share.
 Encrypt Document Clicking Encrypt Document lets you encrypt (which includes setting a
password) your document before sending it to others.
  Restrict Permission Restrict Permission enables you to limit the functionality of a document while
still allowing others to view it, and, if they have the necessary permissions, work with it. For example, you might
want to set options that block the print or copy commands so that others cannot print copies of your document or
copy and paste sections into other files.
Note The Restrict Permission feature is available only in 2007 Microsoft Office Ultimate, available through
retail outlets, or 2007 Microsoft Office Professional Plus and 2007 Microsoft Office Enterprise, both available
through volume licensing.
 Add A Digital Signature Add a Digital Signature enables you to authenticate your document for
others by adding a digital signature directly in the document file.
 Mark As Final Mark as Final saves the document in its final form, as read-only, so others receiving
the file will only be able to view and print the file.
In addition to the options available in the Prepare menu, Word enables you to safeguard your documents in the following
ways as well:
 The Word 2007 Trust CenterYou'll find the Word 2007 Trust Center by clicking the Microsoft
Office Button, choosing Word Options, and clicking Trust Center. The Word 2007 Trust Center enables you
to disable macros in your Word documents, choose whether Microsoft ActiveX controls are enabled in
documents you receive, and create a list of Trusted Publishers.
 PDF and XPS formatsSupport for saving your documents in PDF and XPS is available as a
downloadable add-in utility, and the options will appear as choices when you point to Save As (display this by
clicking the Microsoft Office Button) after you've installed the utility. PDF and XPS formats give you the means
to save your formatted and finished Word documents in a platform-independent format others can view but not
change.
Tip If you haven't installed the PDF and XPS utility, Word will display a link in place of the command that
enables you to download and install the tool.
Top of Page
What's new in Office 2010
The Office Blog
Removing personal information and hidden data
One easy security measure you can take when sharing documents with others is to remove information you don't intend
others to see. For example, you can remove personal information so that people who view your document won't be able
to see the names of reviewers, the author of the document, and so forth. If your document contains other hidden
information, you'll want to eliminate that information as well. If you don't delete hidden information, other people who
view your document might see information you'd rather they didn't, especially if they save your Word document in
another file format (because information hidden in a Word document doesn't remain hidden when a Word document is
saved in another format and viewed in another application). This section shows you how to remove unnecessary personal
information from documents before you share the documents with others.
Tip In addition to removing personal information, be sure to remove hidden text and accept or reject any tracked
changes before you pass your document to others.
Removing personal information
In Word, you can easily remove the following types of personal information.
 File properties, such as author name, manager name, company name, and last saved by information
 Names associated with comments and revisions (Word will change reviewers' names to Author
automatically)
 Routing slips
 E-mail message header generated when you click the E-Mail button
To remove these informational tidbits, run the Document Inspector, available in the Prepare menu. Here are the steps.
1. With your file open, click the Microsoft Office Button and point to Prepare.
2. Click Inspect Document.
3. The Document Inspector dialog box appears, as you see in Figure 1. All items are selected. This means
that all the listed checks will be performed automatically. If you want to skip any of the items in the list, click it
to deselect it.
 Figure 1 The Document Inspector searches the document for sensitive, personal, or hidden information and
prompts you to remove it.
4. Click Inspect to evaluate the document. The results show you what the Document Inspector found. If
hidden items were discovered, the Inspector alerts you and provides a Remove All button for each inspection
type so that you can delete the unwanted information.
5. Click Remove All to clear the unwanted items.
6. Click Reinspect to run the Document Inspector again.
7. When the inspection reveals no more hidden information, click Close to complete the process and return
to your document.
Notes
o If you are unable to lock or unlock your document, you may need to activate Word 2007. For
more information on activation, see Activate Microsoft Office programs.
o For more information on protecting documents, see Restrict or permit formatting changes.
Microsoft Word 2007
Creating Headers and Footers
You can create headers and footers in your Word document so that information such as the author's name, document title,
or page numbers will appear in the top and/or bottom margin of your document. You can create a header and footer that
appears the same on every page, or you can customize the pages with different headers and footers.
 Inserting a Header or a Footer
 The Header & Footer Tools Design Tab
 Creating a Different First Page Header and Footer
 Creating Odd and Even Page Headers and Footers
Inserting a Header or a Footer
By default, headers and footers appear on every page of your document. Word gives you have several presets to select
from; you can also begin with a blank header or footer.

1. From the Insert command tab, in the Header & Footer section, click HEADER or FOOTER

The scroll list of preset headers or footers appears.

2. Select the desired header or footer style
HINT: To start with a blank Header/Footer, select Edit Header or Edit Footer
Editing Header or Footer Content
Once you have inserted a header or footer you can edit or format the content. Additional options appear in the Header &
Footer Tools Design Tab.
1. Double-click within the header or footer
2. To edit the content of a header, on the Ribbon, click HEADER » select Edit Header
To edit the content of a footer, on the Ribbon, click FOOTER » select Edit Footer
Additional options appear in the Ribbon.
 3. Edit text as desired
4. From the Ribbon, select additional customizing options as desired
5. Click CLOSE HEADER & FOOTER
The Header & Footer Tools Design Tab
The Header & Footer Tools Design command tab appears on the Ribbon only when an existing header or footer is
active. This special command tab providing several unique header and footer formatting options.
1. To access the Design tab of the Headers & Footers Tools, double-click a header or footer
A new contextual command tab appears next to the other command tabs in the Ribbon and gives you access to
the header and footer functions.
Header & Footer Group
The Header & Footer group lets you to format the appearance of the header or footer and/or format page numbers.

Insert Group
The buttons in the Insert group let you add graphics and preformatted text elements (e.g., time and date, document
properties) to your headers and footers.

Navigation Group
The Navigation group buttons let you navigate between headers and footers and from the header in one section to the
header in another section.

Options Group
This group provides the options of creating a different header on the first page. You can also select to have a different
header/footer on the odd & even pages, this is useful if you need to adjust the alignment of the headers/footers for facing
pages. If Show Document Text is deselected (i.e., there is no checkmark), then your document's text will not show--only
your header/footer will show.

Position Group
This group allows you to adjust where your header appears on the page(s). The default setting is 0.5 inches from the top
and bottom of the page.

Close Header and Footer Group

From here you can exit the header/footer text box and continue editing your document.
 Creating a Different First Page Header and Footer
If you want the header/footer of your document to be different on your first page, you first need to create a header or
footer. You can customize headers and footers in the Header & Footer Tools Design tab, which appears only when you
select a header or footer.
1. On the first page of the document, double click within the header or footer
The Header & Footer Tools Design tab appears.
2. From the Header & Footer Tools Design command tab, in the Options group, select Different First
Page
The label on the first page header text box changes from Header to First Page Header.
3. In the First Page Header text box, insert the desired information

4. To edit the First Page Footer, click GO TO FOOTER

5. In the First Page Footer text box, insert the desired information
6. To create subsequent headers and footers, in the Navigation section, click NEXT
7. In the Footer text box, insert the desired information

8. Click GO TO HEADER
9. In the Header text box, insert the desired information
10. To return to your document, click CLOSE HEADER AND FOOTER
Creating Odd and Even Page Headers and Footers
You can create different odd and even page headers and footers, which display different information on the odd and even
pages of your document.
1. On the first page of the document, double click within the header or footer
The Header & Footer Tools Design tab appears.
2. From the Headers & Footers Tools Design tab, in the Options section, select Different Odd & Even
Pages
3. In the Odd Page Header text box, insert the desired information

4. Click GO TO FOOTER
5. In the Odd Page Footer text box, insert the desired information
6. To create the header and footer for even pages, in the Navigation section, click NEXT
7. In the Even Page Footer text box, insert the desired information

8. Click GO TO HEADER
9. In the Even Page Header text box, insert the desired information
10. To return to your document, click CLOSE HEADER AND FOOTER
 Microsoft Word 2010

Microsoft Word 2010 is the word processing component of the Microsoft Office Suite.

It is used primarily to enter, edit, format, save, retrieve and print documents

MS-Word Icons

Objectives:-

• Identify the main components of the user interface.

• Identify the purpose of the commands on the menu bar.

• Explain the difference between copy and cut.

• Copy, cut and paste text.

• Work with the buttons on the toolbar.

• Work with the pointer in a program.

• Work with text and characters in a program.

• Explain the use of primary keyboard shortcuts and key combinations.

• Perform basic tasks by using a word processor.

• Edit and format text.

• Work with pictures.

• Work with language tools (spell check, dictionary, thesaurus).

• Identify the various benefits of using word processing software.

Main Window of MS-Word 2010:-

Terminology- While different versions have different appearances, they all have most of the same features. If you
know what to call it, you should be able to find it in other versions.
 MS-EXCEL 2010
File Menu:-
Here you will find the basic commands such as open, save, print, etc.
Quick Access Toolbar:-
Formula Bar Expand Formula Bar Button Insert Worksheet Button Worksheet Navigation Tabs Normal View
Page Layout View Page Break Preview Vertical Scroll Horizontal Scroll Bar Zoom 2 Quick Access Toolbar
The place to keep the items that you not only need to access quickly, but want to be immediately available
regardless of which of the Ribbon's tabs you're working on. If you put so many items on the Quick Access
Toolbar that it becomes too big to fit on the title bar, you can move it onto its own line.
Formula Bar:-
A place where you can enter or view formulas or text.
Expand Formula Bar Button:-
This button allows you to expand the formula bar. This is helpful when you have either a long formula or large
piece of text in a cell.
Worksheet Navigation Tabs:-
By default, every workbook has 3 sheets. You are able to navigate the sheets by clicking on the sheet tab.
Insert Worksheet Button:-
Click the Insert New Worksheet button to insert a new worksheet in your workbook.
Normal View:-
This is the “normal view” for working on a spreadsheet in Excel.
Page Layout View:-
View the document as it will appear on the printed page.
Page Break Preview:-
View a preview of where pages will break when the document is printed.
Zoom Level:-
Allows you to quickly zoom in or zoom out of the worksheet.
Horizontal/Vertical Scroll:-
Allows you to scroll vertically/horizontally in the worksheet.
Introduction To MS Excel

By the end of this session you will know and be able to:

• Describe structure and function of a spreadsheet (i.e., cell, column, row, values, labels, chart, graph).
• Create an original spreadsheet, entering simple formulas.
• Use advanced formatting features of a spreadsheet application (e.g., reposition columns and rows, add and
name worksheets, alignment of data).
• Define and use functions of a spreadsheet application (e.g., sort, filter, find)
• Identify, discuss, and explore how spreadsheets are used to calculate and graph in a variety of settings
(e.g., schools, government, business, industry, scientific research labs).

What is Excel? Why do I want to know how to use it?

• Excel is a spreadsheet program that allows large amounts of data to be stored, calculated, sorted, and accessed
quickly.

• Some uses:

• Store Information

• Maintain Budgets

• Inventories

• Attendance

• Grade book
Launching Excel
In order to use a program, you must start—or launch—it first.

1. Click the Start button. The Start menu appears.

2. Click All Programs. The left pane of the Start menu displays

the programs and menus installed on your computer.

3. Click Microsoft Office.

4. Select Microsoft Office Excel 2010. The Excel 2010 program

screen appears.

The File Menu

In Microsoft Office 2007, there was something called the Microsoft Office Button ( ) in the
top left-hand corner. In Microsoft Office 2010, this has been replaced with a tab in the
Ribbon called “File.” When you left-click on this tab, a drop-down menu appears. From this
menu, you can perform the same functions as were found under the Microsoft Office
Button menu, such as: Create a new worksheet, open existing files, save files in a variety of
ways, and print.

Quick Access Toolbar

On the top left-hand side of the Title Bar, you will see several little icons above the File menu. These let you perform
common tasks, such as saving and undoing, without having to find them in a menu. We’ll go over the meanings of the

icons a little later.

The Home Tab

The most commonly used commands in Excel are also the most accessible. Some of these commands available in the
Home Tab are:
The Home Tab Toolbar offers options that can change the font, size, color, alignment, organization and style of the text
in the spreadsheet and individual cells. For example, the “Calibri” indicates the FONT of your text, the “11” indicates
the SIZE of your text; etc. We will go over how to use all of these options to format your text in a little while. Each of
these options expands into a menu if you left-click on the tiny down-arrow in the bottom right corner of the window.
This tab works the exact same way as the MS Word Formatting Toolbar. The main difference is that the format changes
will only affect the selected cell or cells, all unselected cells remain in the default setting (“Calibri” font, size “11”).

Formula Bar

The Formula Bar is generally found below the ribbon menu. The left side denotes which cell is selected (“C5”) and the
right side allows you to input equations or text into the selected cell. Font Style Font Name Font Size Font Color
Alignment AutoSum Sort 7 There are two ways to input information into a cell. You may either select an individual cell
and type the equation or text into the Formula Bar or type the equation or text directly into the selected cell. Equations
(for example, =SUM(D5+E5)) will automatically be hidden inside the cell and can only be viewed using the formula bar;
the result of the equation will display in the cell. If any written text is longer than the cell width, then the spreadsheet
will cover up any portion longer than the cell width. The information will still be in the cell, you just won’t be able to see
it at all times.

CLOSING MICROSOFT EXCEL

When you finish your spreadsheet and want to leave the computer, it is
important to save your work, even if you are printing a hard copy. To save
your work in Excel, it is essential to know WHAT you are trying to save and
WHERE you are trying to save it. Click on the File Tab, then click “Save As” to
get started. You can change the filename that Excel has chosen just by
typing a new one in the “File name” box at the bottom of the window that
appears. The My Documents folder on your computer’s hard drive is a good
place to store your documents. A blank CD or a USB jump drive are great
portable storage options and can contain a LOT of data.

Saving Spreadsheets:
Excel will automatically save your document with the suffix “.xlsx”–this is simply a tag that lets Excel know that your
work is specific to this program and what version it is in. You do not have to type it–just highlight what is there (default
is “Book1”) and write a new file name. You may also chose to save it in an older format so that it can be opened with
older versions of Excel. After the first save, you can just click “Save” to preserve your work. However, it is important to
note that every following command of SAVE will overwrite your original file, creating the most up-to-date version. If
you would like to keep saving different versions of your worksheet, be sure to use the “Save As” function each time you
save, using a slightly different name for each version.
Finding More Help:

You can get help with Excel by clicking on the Question

Mark symbol in the upper-right hand corner of the main
menu bar or by pressing the “F1” button. This will take you
to help from Office.com, Microsoft’s help website. There
are also many other resources and tutorials available
online. You might try a Google search with the words
“Excel 2010” and the function you are trying to perform.
Ask your instructor for help finding these resources if you
have any trouble.

Closing the Program:

Click on the File Tab, then click “Exit.” OR Click on the X in the top right
corner of the Excel screen. It’s that easy! If you don’t save before
attempting to close the program, Excel will prompt you to save the file.
Make sure you save if you don’t want to lose any changes!!

WorkBook -vs.- Worksheets

• A Microsoft Excel workbook is a file that contains one or more worksheets.

• A worksheet is the primary document that allows you to store and work with data. It is sometimes referred to as a
spreadsheet.

A worksheet consists of cells that are organized into columns and rows; a worksheet is always stored in a
workbook.
Workbook -vs.- Worksheet

• A Workbook by default has 3 worksheets

• To create an additional Worksheet within a Workbook

• Menu Bar>Insert>Worksheet

• A Worksheet always insert to the left.

Naming a Worksheet Put cursor over Sheet Tab Right Click and pick Rename from Pop-up Menu Type in an
Worksheet name:

Columns, Rows, Cells

• Columns labeled A, B, C . . .
• Rows labeled 1, 2, 3 . . .
• Cell - where Columns and Rows Intersected A1, C25, D32 . . . .
➤ To print row and column titles on every page :
1. On the Page Layout tab, in the Page Setup group, click the Print titles button.
2. On the Sheet page of the Page Setup dialog box, in the Print titles area, click in the Rows to repeat at top box. Then in
the worksheet, select the row(s) containing the column titles you want to print on each page.
3. Click in the Columns to repeat at left box. Then in the worksheet, select the column (s) containing the row titles you
want to print on each page.
Highlighting/Selecting Areas Using the Mouse Select Cells: Moves a cell’s contents: Activate the Autofill feature: . To
Select a Column: Click on the column letter To Select a Row: Click on the row number To Select the Entire Worksheet:
Click above row 1 and to the left of column A or hit CTRL A on the keyboard

Entering Text :-
Any items that are not to be used in calculations are considered, in Excel’s terminology, labels. This includes numerical
information, such as phone numbers and zip codes. Labels usually include the title, column and row headings.

To Enter Text/Labels:-
1) Click in a cell
2) Type text
3) Press Enter
NOTE: By default, pressing the Enter key will move you to the cell below the active cell.

The label actually “lives” in the cell you typed it into, if you type long text it might appear to be in multiple columns. It is
important to understand this concept when trying to apply formatting to a cell. Using the formula bar will confirm
where the label actually “lives.”

Autofill :-
Frequently, it is necessary to enter lists of information. For example, column headings are often the months of the year
or the days of the week. To simplify entering repetitive or sequential lists of information, Excel has a tool called Autofill.

Entering Values:-
Numerical pieces of information that will be used for calculations are called values. They are entered the same way as
labels. It is important NOT to type values with characters such as “,” or “$”.

To Enter Values:
1) Navigate to a cell
2) Type a value
3) Press Enter
Creating Formulas Formulas perform calculations or other actions on the data in your worksheet. A formula starts with
an equal sign (=). It is possible to create formulas in Excel using the actual values, such as “4000*.4” but it is more
beneficial to refer to the cell address in the formula, for example “D1*.4”. One of the benefits of using a spreadsheet
program is the ability to create a formula in one cell and copy it to other cells. Most spreadsheet formulas use a
concept called relative referencing.

This is the explanation of relative referencing from Excel’s help file: “A relative cell reference in a formula, such as A1, is
based on the relative position of the cell that contains the formula and the cell the reference refers to. If the position of
the cell that contains the formula changes, the reference is changed. If you copy the formula across rows or down
columns, the reference automatically adjusts. By default, new formulas use relative references. For example, if you
copy a relative reference in cell B2 to cell B3, it automatically adjusts.”

It is also important to know the operators Excel uses for formulas:

To Create a Formula:
1) Click in a cell
2) Press the = key
3) Type the formula
4) Press Enter
Copying Formulas
Like many things in Excel, there is more than one way to copy formulas. Feel free to choose what works best for you.
To Copy Formulas Using Autofill:
1) Click in the cell that contains the formula
2) Position the mouse on the Autofill handle (a thin black cross will appear)
3) Click and drag to copy the formula
To Copy Formulas Using Copy and Paste:
1) Click in the cell that contains a formula
2) Select Copy on the Home Ribbon in the Editing group
3) Highlight the cell where you would like to paste the formula
4) Select Paste on the Home Ribbon in the Editing group

Auto sum Function:-

The most common formula in Excel is SUM, or the addition of multiple values. In this example, we could create a
formula that reads =C6+D6+E6+F6+G6+H6. That’s a lot of typing! Instead, we can use the SUM function and specify a
range of cells. Functions are more complex formulas that are invoked by typing their name. In this example, we will use
the SUM function. Excel has over 200 functions that can be used. Because SUM is the most common function, it is the
only one with its own toolbar button. When working with functions, the cells used in the formula are referred to as the
range. A range is a group of cells that are specified by naming the first cell in the group and the last cell. For example,
A1:D1 is a range that includes cells A1, B1, C1 and D1.

To Create the Total Column’s Values Using Auto sum:

1) Click in the cell where you would like the Total to be located

2) Press the Auto sum button on the Home Ribbon

The Autosum function automatically looks for cells that have values in them. It will read values until it finds the first
blank cell. Autosum will always look for values in the cells above it first, then to the left. This means that you need to be
aware of what cells will be in the formula. Autosum will select the range of cells to use in the formula by highlighting
the range.
3) Press Enter
Saving a Worksheet:-
When working in Excel it is necessary to save your files. It is also very important that while working, your file is saved
frequently. When naming a file, you are restricted to 255 characters. Avoid most punctuation; spaces are acceptable.
To Save the File:
1) Click on the File tab
2) Click Save
3) Type a file name
4) Click Save
Editing Cells:-
Excel provides a major enhancement over earlier spreadsheet products in its ability to edit cells easily. There are
various methods for cell editing, including double-clicking in the cell, using the F2 key, and typing in the formula bar.
To Edit a Cell in the Worksheet:-
1) Position yourself in the cell you would like to edit
2) Press the F2 key on the keyboard or double-click in the cell
3) Use the backspace or delete keys to edit the cell
4) Press Enter when you have finished editing the cell
~OR~
5) Click in the cell you would like to edit
6) Click in the formula bar and make any necessary changes
7) Press Enter when you have finished editing the cell
Undo:-
Excel and other Windows applications have a convenient method of correcting mistakes known as Undo. In many
applications, including Excel, you can undo an almost limitless number of commands. The Undo button has a small
down-pointing arrow next to it. When pressed, it will display a list of actions that can be undone. Redo works in the
same way, allowing you to repeat actions.

Excel will undo actions in reverse chronological order, meaning that the most recent command is reversed first, then the
one prior to that, and so on. You cannot reverse an earlier action using Undo without first undoing the actions that were
performed after it.

NOTE: The list of commands to undo is reset after the file is saved. You cannot use Undo to fix an error after the file
is saved.

To Undo a Command:-

Click Undo

Clearing Cells:-
As we begin to look at formatting, it is important to understand what makes up the contents of a cell. There are three
distinct items that can be in a cell:
• Contents
• Formats
• Comments
These allow items to be formatted properly, even if the values change. However, when trying to delete or clear a cell, it
can be a bit tricky. Excel stores formats and contents separately, simply deleting the contents does not delete the
format.

To Clear a Cell Format:-

1) Click in the cell that contains formatting
2) Click the drop-down arrow next to the Clear button on the Home tab in the Editing group
3) Click Clear Formats

Formatting Values:-
Applying formats to any cell(s) can be done either using the Font, Alignment and Number groups or using the dialog
box which will include all the formatting options.

To Apply the Currency Format:

1) Highlight the cells

2) Click on the Currency Style button $ on the Home tab in the Number group
3) If necessary, click on the Increase or Decrease Decimal button on the Number group

To Apply the Comma Format:

1) Highlight cells

2) Click on the Comma Style button , on the Number group

3) If necessary, click on the Increase or Decrease Decimal button on the Number group

Formatting Labels:-
A Label, or text formatting is applied virtually the same way it is done in word processing programs.

To Format the Title Labels:-

1) Highlight the cell(s)

2) Select a font from the Font group

3) Select a point size from the Font group

Using the Dialog Box:-
1) Highlight the cells

2) Click on the arrow in the corner of one of the formatting groups (Font, Alignment, Number) to open the Format Cells
dialog box and click on one of the tabs

Format Painter:-
Frequently, you will need to take a format that is applied to one cell and apply it to other cells. A quick way to do this is

by using the Format Painter .

To Apply a Format to Cells:-

1) Highlight cell(s)

2) Format the cell(s) to the desired format

3) Select the formatted cell(s)

4) Click the Format Painter from the Clipboard group of the Home tab

5) Highlight the cells you wish to format

Tips and Tricks: If you would like the Format Painter to remain active, double-click the Format Painter. It will
remain active until you press the Esc key.

To Change a Cell’s Alignment:-

1) Highlight the cell(s)

2) Click the orientation button on the Alignment group

3) Select an alignment

Centering Text Across Columns:-

When it comes to titles, it may be preferable to have the information centered across the document, rather than in
only one cell. Excel uses the feature Merge Cells to accomplish this.

To Center the Title Across Columns:-

1) Highlight cell(s)

2) Click the Merge and Center button on the Alignment group

NOTE: Each cell must be done individually. Excel will delete the contents of all but the top most cell if multiple cells
are selected.

This option basically takes all the cells in the highlighted range and merges them into one large cell. For example, the
range A1:F1 became cell A1 after the Merge Cells button was selected. There is no cell B1, C1, etc. any longer.

Creating a Basic Chart:-

1) Highlight the data to be charted

2) Click on the Insert tab

3) Click on a Chart Type in the Charts group

4) Click on a Chart Style

To Move your Chart:-
Click and drag the chart to a new location on the worksheet. When the chart is selected you will notice a new tab
“Chart Tools” on the Ribbon. If you do not see the Chart Tools, click on the chart to select it. Under Chart Tools you will
find 3 tabs:
• Design
• Layout
• Format

Excel Functions:-
As we have previously seen, the power of Excel lies in its ability to perform calculations. The real strength of this is
shown in Functions. Functions are more complex formulas that are executed by using the name of a function and
stating whatever parameters the function requires.
Function Defined
=SUM(range of cells) returns the sum of the selected cells
=AVERAGE (range of cells) returns the average of the selected cells
=MAX(range of cells) returns the highest value of the selected cells
=MIN(range of cells) returns the lowest value of the selected cells
=COUNT(range of cells) returns the number of values of the selected cells
To Enter the SUM Function:
1) Click in a cell
2) Click on the AutoSum button in the Editing group
3) Highlight the range of cells that are to be added (The colon means “through”)
4) Press ENTER
To Insert the Average Function into the Worksheet:
1) Click in a cell
2) Click on the drop-down arrow next to the AutoSum button
3) Click on Average
4) Highlight the range of cells be calculated
5) Press ENTER
To Insert the MAX Function into the Worksheet:
1) Click in a cell
2) Click on the drop-down arrow next to the AutoSum button
3) Click on Max
4) Highlight the range of cells be calculated
5) Press ENTER
To Insert the MIN Function into the Worksheet:
1) Click in a cell
2) Click on the drop-down arrow next to the AutoSum button
3) Click on Min
4) Highlight the range of cells be calculated
5) Press ENTER
To Insert the COUNT NUMBERS Function into the Worksheet:
1) Click in a cell
2) Click on the drop-down arrow next to the AutoSum button
3) Click on Count Numbers
4) Highlight the range of cells be calculated
5) Press ENTER
Printing a Worksheet To Print, Preview and Modify Page Setup
1) Click on the File tab
2) Click on Print
The spreadsheet shows as it will be printed. You can proceed to print the document from here, or you can change
things to make the printed output look different.
Page Setup:-
You can change options under Settings or you can click on Page Setup. Clicking on Page Setup will open a dialog box
with four tabs:
• Page
• Margins
• Header/Footer
• Sheet

Page Options:-
1) Change the Orientation
2) Adjust the Scaling
3) Change the Paper Size
Margins:-
1) Change the margins
2) Center on the page either horizontally, vertically or select both
Header/Footer:-
1) To select from one of the already created headers/footers, click on the drop-down arrow for Header and also for
Footer and choose from the list
2) To create a custom header and/or footer, click on Custom Header and Custom Footer
This area is made of three sections – left, center and right. Any information added in these sections will appear in that
area (left, center or right) in the header or footer. You will also see a row of buttons in this dialog box. Following are
their functions:

3) Click in a section to position your cursor

4) Enter text/fields
5) Click OK when finished
Sheet Tab:-
1) Repeat Rows and Columns under Print Titles

2) Check off what to print under Print

3) Change the Page Order

To Print the Document:-

Click Print

Power Point Presentations :

In this chapter, we will understand how to get started with PowerPoint 2010. We will understand how to start
PowerPoint 2010 application in simple steps. To access PowerPoint 2010, you must have Microsoft Office 2010
installed in your PC. Only Office 2010 Home and Student, Home and Business, Standard, Professional and Professional
Plus packages have PowerPoint included in them. Other packages may have a viewer, but you cannot create
presentations with them.

Step 1: Click the Start button.

Step 2: Click All Programs option from the menu.

Step 3: Search for Microsoft Office from the sub menu and click it.

Step 4: Search for Microsoft PowerPoint 2010 from the submenu and click it.

This will launch the Microsoft PowerPoint 2010 application and you will see the following presentation window.

The following screenshot shows the various areas in a standard PowerPoint file. It is important to familiarize yourself
with these areas as it makes learning and using PowerPoint easier.
File Tab
This tab opens the Backstage view which basically allows you to manage the file and settings in PowerPoint. You can
save presentations, open existing ones and create new presentations based on blank or predefined templates. The
other file related operations can also be executed from this view.

Ribbon

The ribbon contains three components:

 Tabs: They appear across the top of the Ribbon and contain groups of related commands. Home, Insert, Page
Layout are examples of ribbon tabs.

 Groups: They organize related commands; each group name appears below the group on the Ribbon. For
example, a group of commands related to fonts or a group of commands related to alignment, etc.

 Commands: Commands appear within each group as mentioned above.

Title Bar
This is the top section of the window. It shows the name of the file followed by the name of the program which in this
case is Microsoft PowerPoint.
Slide Area
This is the area where the actual slide is created and edited. You can add, edit and delete text, images, shapes and
multimedia in this section.

Help
The Help Icon can be used to get PowerPoint related help anytime you need. Clicking on the "?" opens the PowerPoint
Help window where you have a list of common topics to browse from. You can also search for specific topics from the
search bar at the top.
Zoom Options
The zoom control lets you zoom in for a closer look at your text. The zoom control consists of a slider that you can slide
left or right to zoom in or out, you can click on the - and + buttons to increase or decrease the zoom factor. The
maximum zoom supported by PowerPoint is 400% and the 100% is indicated by the mark in the middle.
Slide Views
The group of four buttons located to the left of the Zoom control, near the bottom of the screen, lets you switch
between PowerPoint views.
 Normal Layout view: This displays page in normal view with the slide on the right and a list of thumbnails to the left.
This view allows you to edit individual slides and also rearrange them.
 Slide Sorter view: This displays all the slides as a matrix. This view only allows you to rearrange the slides but not edit
the contents of each slide.
 Reading View: This view is like a slideshow with access to the Windows task bar in case you need to switch windows.
However, like the slideshow you cannot edit anything in this view.
Notes Section
This sections allows you to add notes for the presentation. These notes will not be displayed on the screen during the
presentation; these are just quick reference for the presenter.
Quick Access Toolbar
The Quick Access Toolbar is located just under the ribbon. This toolbar offers a convenient place to group the most
commonly used commands in PowerPoint. You can customize this toolbar to suit your needs.
Slide Tab
This section is available only in the Normal view. It displays all the slides in sequence. You can add, delete and reorder
slides from this section.
Backstage View
In Office 2010, Microsoft replaced the traditional file menu with the new Backstage view. This view not only offers all
the menu items under the file menu, but additional details which makes management of your files a lot easier.
Accessing Backstage View
You can access the Backstage view simply by clicking on the File tab. You can exit this view by clicking on any tab
(including the File tab again). You can also press the 'Esc' button on the keyboard.
Organizationof Backstage View
The backstage view has three sections or panes.
  First Pane: This is the commands pane which consists of all the commands you would typically find in the
file menu of older versions. You also have the Options menu which lets you edit the options on the program
like customizing the ribbon.
Various commands under the first pane are described in the table below:

Command Description
Save This allows you to save a new file or an existing file in standard format. If you are working on a
previously saved file this will save the new changes in the same file format. If PowerPoint 2010
10 you are working on a new file, this command would be similar to the Save As command.
Save as Allows you to specify the file name and the file type before saving the file.
Open Allows you to open new PowerPoint files.
Close Allows you to close an existing file.
Info Displays the information about the current file.
Recent Lists series of recently viewed or edited PowerPoint files.

New Allows you to create a new file using blank or pre-defined templates.
Print Allows you to select the printer settings and print the presentation.
Save & Send Allows you to share your presentation with larger audience via emails, web, cloud services, etc.
Help Provides access to PowerPoint Help.
Options Allows you to set various options related to PowerPoint program.
Exit Closes the presentation and exits the program.

 Second Pane: This is the subcommands pane. This will list all the commands related to the main command
you choose in the first pane. For example, if you select Print in the first pane, you get to choose the printer and
adjust the print settings in the second pane.
 Third Pane: This is the preview or file information page. Depending on the command and the subcommand
you select, this pane will either display the properties of the file or give you a preview of the file.

Creating Presentation:
PowerPoint offers a host of tools that will aid you in creating a presentation. These tools are organized logically into
various ribbons in PowerPoint. The table below describes the various commands you can access from the different
menus.
 Menu Category Ribbon Commands
Home Clipboard functions, manipulating slides, fonts, paragraph settings, drawing objects and
editing functions
Insert Insert tables, pictures, images, shapes, charts, special texts, multimedia and symbols
Design Slide setup, slide orientation, presentation themes and background
Transitions Commands related to slide transitions
Animations Commands related to animation within the individual slides
Slideshow Commands related to slideshow set up and previews
Review Proofing content, language selection, comments and comparing presentations
View Commands related to presentation views, Master slides, color settings and window
arrangements

Besides these depending on the objects selected in the slide, there are other menu tabs that get enabled.

Adding New Slides:-

In this chapter, we will understand how to add new slides in an existing presentation. Here are the steps that allow
you to insert a new slide in the deck:
Step 1: Right-click in the Navigation Pane under any existing slide and click on the New Slide option.
Step 2: The new slide is inserted. You can now change the layout of this slide to suit your design requirements.

Step 3: To change the slide layout, right-click on the newly inserted slide and go to the Layout option where you
can choose from the existing layout styles available to you.
You can follow the same steps to insert a new slide in between existing slides or at the end on the slide list.
When we insert a new slide, it inherits the layout of its previous slide with one exception. If you are inserting a new
slide after the first slide (Title slide), the subsequent slide will have the Title and Content layout.
You will also notice that if you right-click in the first step without selecting any slide the menu options you get are
different, although you can insert a new slide from this menu too.

Adding Text in Boxes:

PowerPoint allows users to add text to the slide in a well-defined manner to ensure the content is well distributed
and easy to read. The procedure to add the text in a PowerPoint slide is always the same - just click in the text box
and start typing. The text will follow the default formatting set for the text box, although this formatting can be
changed later as required. What changes is the different kinds of content boxes that support text in a PowerPoint
slide.
Given below are some of the most common content blocks you will see in PowerPoint.
Title Box:
This is typically found on slides with the title layout and in all the slides that have a title box in them. This box is
indicated by "Click to add title".

Subtitle Box:
This is found only in slides with the Title layout. This is indicated by "Click to add subtitle".
Content Box:
This is found in most of the slides that have a placeholder for adding content. This is indicated by "Click to add
text". As you can see, this box allows you to add text as well as non-text content. To add text to such a box, click
anywhere on the box, except on one of the content icons in the center and start typing.

Text Only Box:

This is not a default content box available in PowerPoint, but you can create it using Slide Master, if required. This is
also indicated by "Click to add text". The only difference between the Text Only Box and the Content Box is that the
former only supports text in the content area.

Adding New Text Boxes:

This chapter will teach you how to add new text boxes in a slide. Most of the standard layouts come with the text
box option. As mentioned in the previous chapter, text boxes will have "Click to add text" as the default text. Here
are the steps to add new text boxes in slide.
Step 1: Click on the Text Box icon in the Home ribbon under the Drawing section.

Step 2: You will get the insert text box cursor that looks like an inverted cross.
Step 3: Click to insert a text box. You can now start typing directly into the text box.

Step 4: Alternately, you can click and drag the cursor without releasing the click to create a text box.
The size of the text box can be adjusted by selecting one of the edges marked by squares or corners marked by
circles.

Deleting Existing Slide

There are times while building a slide deck, you may need to delete some slides. This can be done easily from
PowerPoint. You can delete the slides from the Normal view as well as the Slide Sorter view. In each view, you can
delete the slides in two ways.
Deleting from Normal View
Step 1: Go to the Normal view.

Step 2: Right-click on the slide to be deleted and select the Delete Slide option.
Alternately, you can select the slide and press the Delete button on your key board.

Deleting from Slide Sorter View

Let us now understand how to deleted slides from the Slide Sorter View.
Step 1: Go to the Slide Sorter view.

Step 2: Right-click on the slide to be deleted and select the Delete Slide option.
Alternately, you can select the slide and press the Delete button on your key board.

Rearranging Slides
Rearranging slides is important when it comes to organizing the overall presentation flow. While it is vital that you
get the right content in every slide, it is equally important that you are able to present them in a format that makes
it easier for the audience to understand the content too; most times this will require rearranging the slides.
You can rearrange slides from two views in PowerPoint - Normal View and Slide Sorter View. Given below are the
steps to rearrange slides from different views.
Normal View
Step 1: Select the slide to be moved
Step 2: Left click on the slide and drag it to the position in the sequence where you want to place it. PowerPoint
will indicate the insert position with a line in-between existing slides.
Step 3: When you get to the right position release the left click button to insert the slide. Alternately you can also
cut the selected slide and paste it back in the sequence as shown below.

Slide Sorter View

Let us now understand how the Slide Sorter View works.
Step 1: Select the slide to be moved.
Step 2: Left click on the slide and drag it to the position in the sequence where you want to place it. PowerPoint
will indicate the insert position with a line in-between existing slides.
Step 3: When you get to the right position, release the left click button to insert the slide Alternately you can also
cut the selected slide and paste it back in the sequence as shown below.

Graphics and Charts:

Avoid using graphics that are difficult to read. In this example, the bright colors on a white background and the
small font make the graph hard to read. It would be very difficult to see, especially in the back of a room.