Context Free Grammars

Definition of CFG
A context-free grammar is a 4-tuple (V, T, S, P) where
(i) V is a finite set called the variables
(ii) T is a finite set, disjoint from V, called the terminals
(iii) P is a finite set of rules, with each rule being a variable and a
string of variables and terminals, and
(iv) S V is the start variable.
If u, v and w are strings of variables and terminals, and A  w is a rule
of the grammar, we say that uAv yields uwv, written uAv  uwv.

Example of CFG
Given a grammar G = ({S}, {a, b}, R, S).
The set of rules R is
S  aSb
SSS
S 
This grammar generates strings such as
abab, aaabbb, and aababb
If we assume that a is left paranthesis ‘(’ and b is right paranthesis ‘)’,
then L(G) is the language of all strings of properly nested parantheses.

Right-Linear Grammar
In general productions have the form:
(V T)  (V T)*.
In right-linear grammar, all productions have one of the two forms:
VT*V

or V T*
i.e., the left hand side should have a single variable and the right hand side
consists of any number of terminals (members of T) optionally followed by a
single variable.

Right-Linear Grammars and NFAs

There is a simple connection between right-linear grammars and NFAs, as
shown in the following illustration.
x
A  xB A B
x y z
A  xyzB A B

AB A B
x
Ax A
 As an example of the correspondence between an NFA and a right linear
grammar, the following automaton and grammar both recognize the set of set
of strings consisting of an even number of 0’s and an even number of 1’s.
1
S 
S A
S0B
S0A 1

A0C 0 0 0 0
A1S
1
B  0S
B1C B C

Left-Linear Grammar
In a left-linear grammar, all productions have one of the two forms:
V VT*
or V T*
i.e., the left hand side must consist of a single varibale, and the right-hand side
consists of an optional single variable followed by one number of terminals.

2.1.6 Conversion of Left-linear Grammar into

Right-Linear Grammar

Step
(a) Construct a right-linear
grammar for the different
languages LR.
R
(b) Construct an NFA for L from Refer to section 2.1.4 for deriving an
the right-linear grammar. This NFA from a right-linear grammar.
NFA should have just one
final state.
(c) Reverse the NFA for LR to
obtain an NFA for L.
(d) Construct a right-linear
grammar for L from the
NFA for L.
Method
Replace each production A  x of L
with a production A  x R and
replace each production A  Bx
with a production A  x R B
(i) Construct an NFA to
recognize the language L.
(ii) Ensure the NFA has only a
single final state
(iii) Reverse the direction of arcs
(iv) Make the initial state final and
final state initial
This is the technique described in
the previous section.
 Example 2.1.1: Give some example of context-free languages.

Solution
(a) The grammar G = ({S}, {a, b}, S, P) with productions
S  aSa, S  bSb, S 
is context free.
S  aSa  aaSaa  aabSbaa  aabbaa
Thus we have L(a)  {ww R : w {a, b}* }.
This language is context free.
(b) The grammar G, with production rules given by
S  abB,
A  aaBb,
B  bbAa,
A 
is context free.

The language is
L(G)  {ab (bbaa ) n bba (ba ) n :n  0}

 Example 2.1.2: Construct right-and left-linear grammars for the

language L  {a n b m : n  2, m  3}.

Solution
Right-Linear Grammar:
S  aS
S  aaA
A  bA
A  bbb
Left-Linear Grammar:
S  Abbb
S  Sb
A  Aa
A  aa

DERIVATION TREES
A ‘derivation tree’ is an ordered tree which the the nodes are labeled with the
left sides of productions and in which the children of a node represent its
corresponding right sides.

Definition of a Derivation Tree

Let G = (V, T, S, P) be a CFG. An ordered tree is a derivation tree for G iff it
has the following properties:
(i) The root of the derivation tree is S.
(ii) Each and every leaf in the tree has a label from T  {}.
(iii) Each and every interior vertex (a vertex which is no a leaf) has a
label from V.
 (iv) If a vertex has label A V , and its children are labeled (from left
to right) a1 , a 2 , KK an , then P must contain a production of the
form
A  a1 , a 2 , K K an
(v) A leaf labeled  has no siblings, that is, a vertex with a child
labeled  can have no other children.

Sentential Form
For a given CFG with productions S  aA, A  aB , B  bB , B  a. The
derivation tree is as shown below.
S
a
A
a
B
b
B

S  aA  aaB  aabB  aaba

The resultant of the derivation tree is the word w = aaba.
This is said to be in “Sentential Form”.

Partial Derivation Tree

In the definition of derivation tree given, if every leaf has a label from
V  T  {} it is said to be “partial derivation tree”.

Right Most/Left Most/Mixed Derivation

Consider the grammar G with production
1. S  aSS 
 

2. S  b 
Now, we have
1
S  aSS
1
 aaSSS
2
 aabSS (Left Most Derivation)
1
 aabaSSS
2
 aababSS
2
 aababbS
2
 aababbb
The sequence followed is “left most derivation”, following “1121222”, giv
- ing “aababbb”.
 1
S  aSS
2
 aSb
1
 aaSSb (Mixed Derivation)
2
 aabSb
1
 aabaSSb
2
 aabaSbb
2
 aababbb
The sequence 1212122 represents a “Mixed Derivation”, giving
“aababbb”.
1
S  aSS
2
 aSb
1
 aaSSb
1
 aaSaSSb(Right Most Derivation)
2
 aaSaSbb
2
 aaSabbb
2
 aababbb
The sequence 1211222 represents a “Right Most Derivation”, giving
“aababbb”.

 Example 1: A grammar G which is context-free has the productions

S  aAB
A  Bba
B  bB
B  c.
(The word w = acbabc is derived as follows)
S  aAB  a(Bba)B  acbaB  acba(bB )  acbabc.
Obtain the derivation tree.
 Solution
S S S

a B a B a B
A A A

B a B a
b b

c
(a) S  aAB (b) A  Bba (c) B  c

S S

a a
A B A B
a
B b B B a b c
b b

c
(d) B  bB (e) B  c

 Example 2: A CFG given by productions is 

S  a,
S  aAS,
and A  bS
Obtain the derivation tree of the word w = abaabaa.

Solution
w = abaabaa is derived from S as
S  aAS  a (bS )S  abaS  aba (aAS )
  abaa (bs)S
  abaabaS
 abaabaa
The derivation tree is sketched below.
S
a
A S
b
S
S a A
a b S a

a
 Example 3: Given a CFG given by G = (N, T, P, S)
(1) S  aSb
with N = {S}, T = {a, b}, P = .
(2) S  ab 
Obtain the derivation tree and the language generated L(G).

Solution
S  ab i.e., ab  L(G)
S  aSb
 aabb i.e., a 2 b2  L(G)
S  aSb
 aaSbb
 aaabbb i.e., a 3 b3  L(G),
 a 3 b3

Derivation tree is as follows.

S

a b
S

a b
S

a b

Language generated L(G)  {a n bn | n 1}.

 Example 4: Given a CFG G = (N, T, P, S)

 (1) S  aSa 
 
with N = {S}, T = {a, b, c} and P   (2) S  bSb.
 (3) S  c 
 
Obtain the derivation tree and language generated L(G).

Solution
S

(i) S  c, c  L(G)
C
S
a a
(ii) S  aSa  aca  L(G) S

c
 (iii) S  bSb  bcb  L(G)

a a
S
(iv) S  aSa
  abSba b b
 abcba  L(G) S
and so on.
Hence the language generated L(G) is given by c

L(G)  {wcw R | w {a, b}* }

where wR = reversal of w
i.e., if w  a 1 a 2 KK a n 1 an
then wR  a a KK a a .
n n 1 2 1

 Example 5: Given G = (N, T, P, S) with N =

{E}, S = E, T = {id, +, *, c}

P:1.EEE
and 2.EE*E.
3.E(E)
4. E  id
Obtain the derivation tree.

Solution
E E

E E E E
+ *
E E ( )
* id E id

id id E E
+

id id
 id * id + id  id + id) * id 
 Example 6: Obtain the language generated L(G) for a CFG given
1. S  SS 
G(N, T, P, S) with N = {S}, T{a}, P:
2. S  a 

Solution
S
Sa

a
S

SSS S
 aS S
 aa a
a

S  SS  aS  aSS  aaS  aaa and so on....

Therefore the language generated is
L(G)  {a n | n 1}

 Example 7: Obtain the language generated by each of the following

production rules.

(a) A  a (b) S  aS (c) A  a

A  aB S  A  aB
A  A 
(d) A  aS (e) S  aS (f) S  ab
S  bS S  bS S  bs
S  Sa Sa
Sb

Solution
(a) The language generated is a “type-3 language” or “regular set”.
(b) S 
S  aS  a
S  as  aaS  aa
and so on.
Hence the language generated is
L(G)  {a n | n  0}
 (c) A 
Aa L(G)  {ww R | w {a , b} }
A  aB
(d) S  aS
S  bS L(G)  {a, b}*
S  Language generated of any string of a,b
(e) S  aS
S  bS L(G)  {a, b}* a
Sa
(f) S  ab

Sa
Sb

 Example 8: Given a CFG G = (N, T, P, S)

1. S  aS 
2. S  aA 

with N = {S, A}, T = {a, b} and P 3. A  bA 
 

 4. Ab 
Obtain the derivation tree and L(G).

Solution
S  aA  ab
S  aS  aaA  aab
S  aS  aaS  aaaA  aaabA  aaabb
and so on ...
The derivation tree has been shown here in fig.

The language generated is

L(G)  {a n b m n  1, m 1}
  Example 9: Given a CFG with
1. S  aA 
 

P  2. A  bS . Obtain the derivation tree and L(G).

 3. A  b 


Solution
S
a A
S  aA  ab

a A

b S
S  aA  abS  abaA  ababK K
a A

b
The derivation trees suggest ab, abab, ....
Therefore the language generated
L(G)  {(ab) n | n 1}

 Example 10: Obtain the production rules for CFG given the language
generated as

(a) L(G)  {w | w {a, b}* , a (w)  b (w)}
(b) L(G)  {w | w {a, b}* , a (w)  2 b (w)}
(c) L(G)  {w | w {a, b}* , a (w)  3 b (w)}

Solution
(a) S  SaSbS
S 
S  SbSaS
(b) S  SaSaSbS
S  SaSbSaS
S  SbSaSaS
S 
 (c) S  SaSaSaSbS
S  SaSaSbSaS
S  SaSbSaSaS
S  SbSaSaSaS
S 

 Example 11: Given a grammar G with production rules

S  aB
S  bA
A  aS
A  bAA
Aa
B  bS
B  aBB
Bb
Obtain the (i) leftmost derivation, and (ii) rightmost derivation for the
string “aaabbabbba”.

Solution
(i) Leftmost derivation:
S  aB  aaBB  aaaBBB  aaabBB  aaabbB
 aaabbabB  aaabbabbB  aaabbabbbS  aaabbabbba
 aaabbabb

(ii) Rightmost derivation:
S  aB  aaBB  aaBbS  aaBbbA  aaaBBbba
 aaabBbba  aaabbSbba  aaabbaBbba  aaabbabbba