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Retención de La Información Transmitida Por El Professor en Las Clases de Educación Física en Función de Las Características de La Información
Retención de La Información Transmitida Por El Professor en Las Clases de Educación Física en Función de Las Características de La Información
To cite this article: Nuno Januário, António Rosado, Isabel Mesquita, José Gallego & José-
Manuel Aguilar-Parra (2015) Student retention of the information transmitted by the teacher in
physical education classes depending on the characteristics of the information / Retención de
la información transmitida por el profesor en las clases de educación física en función de las
características de la información, Infancia y Aprendizaje: Journal for the Study of Education and
Development, 38:1, 212-242, DOI: 10.1080/02103702.2014.996405
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Infancia y Aprendizaje / Journal for the Study of Education and Development, 2015
Vol. 38, No. 1, 212–242, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02103702.2014.996405
a
Universidade de Lisboa; bUniversidade do Porto; cUniversidad de Almería
(Received 27 May 2013; accepted 7 May 2014)
Abstract: The aim of this study was to analyse students’ capacity to retain
information, taking into account the information transmitted by teachers
during physical education classes. In addition, we examine the influence of
variables such as the amount and nature of the information. Data were
collected through the observation of 36 physical education classes, with
students from 12 to 19 years old. The data consisted of 596 students’
responses to instruction episodes provided by their teachers, corresponding
to 1,604 information units. The results suggested that the students’ retention
was inversely related to the quantity of information. Retention varied depend-
ing on the nature of the message, its purpose and the type of information.
Information transmitted across the auditory-visual route or whose objective
was descriptive evaluation corresponded to higher levels of retention.
Keywords: information retention; physical education; students; teachers;
feedback
information, they do not always understand it in the way the teacher would like,
with losses occurring in terms of their information retention. With regard to
strategies for transmitting information in physical education and sports, the goal
is to create conditions in which the information can be processed easily and in
such a way that it is retained, understood and accepted. Such conditions are
deemed essential to ensure learning takes place. In this context, various research-
ers (Piéron, 1988; Reinboth, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2004; Rink, 1993; Siedentop,
1991; Vickers, 1990) describe and explain some of the basic conditions that ought
to govern effective information transmission. Depending on the context, specifi-
city of the learning content, objectives and level of performance shown by the
students or sports participants, the teacher needs to specify the content of the
information supplied and choose suitable strategies for transmitting it (Rink, 1996;
Rosado & Mesquita, 2009).
What we do know, however, is that students’ information processing is limited
and subject to various selection processes, such that they do not treat all the
information they receive in the same way. The effect of the information trans-
mitted depends on how students process it (Doyle, 1986) and what they can use it
for — that is, not only how the students receive the information, but also how they
understand and accept it (Januário, Rosado, & Mesquita, 2006). The interpretation
of information involves its transformation through processes that are not fully
understood and that depend on very different perceptive and interpretative pro-
cesses, as well as on the characteristics of the information itself. DeFleur (1970)
emphasized that messages have particular characteristics that may interact in
different ways in line with the specific characteristics of the receptor, meaning
that information is actively recreated by the receiver (Badzinski & Gill, 1994).
According to Webster (2010), and based on the principles of receiver selectiv-
ity theory (McCroskey & Richmond, 1996), it is possible to overcome obstacles
to learning, specifically in relation to remembering information. This theory
argues that the capacity to remember information depends, among other things,
on the degree to which receivers are involved and actively develop the meaning of
the message. This idea is supported by Ros (2009), who suggested that students’
involvement is a direct predictor of information retention and an indirect predictor
214 N. Januário et al.
the instruction, the greater the levels of retention students achieve (Carreiro da
Costa et al., 1996; Cloes et al., 1990; Januário et al., 2011; Mesquita et al., 2008;
Rosado et al., 2008).
The nature of information, including the form and purpose, also appears to
influence retention, although the results of research in this area are often contra-
dictory. Carreiro da Costa et al. (1998) found levels of information retention
differed according to the purpose of the information. Moreover, information
with an interrogative purpose led to greater retention levels. Meanwhile,
Januário et al. (2006) concluded that prescriptive information brought about
greater levels of retention. Both prescriptive and interrogative information corre-
sponded to significantly higher retention levels than information of a descriptive
nature. With regard to ways of presenting information, Quina (1993), Marques da
Costa (1991) and Januário et al. (2006) concluded that information that was
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Method
Participants
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A total of 596 students participated in the study (268 boys and 328 girls), aged 12
to 19 years old (M = 15.1, SD = 1.56), and 158 eighth-year students (second year
of secondary school in the Spanish system), 178 ninth-year students (third year of
secondary school), 114 tenth-year students (fourth year of secondary school), and
146 eleventh-year students (higher education). A total of 18 teachers took part (10
women and eight men, all of whom had over eight years of teaching experience).
We observed a total of 36 physical education class sessions for eighth- to
eleventh-year students, with nine classes per grade. A total of 596 student
responses were observed in relation to the instruction provided by the teachers
in episodes amounting to 1,604 information units.
Variables
Information retention was considered a dependent variable, measured by the
coherence of the information reported by the student (coherence = number of
ideas transmitted/number of ideas retained × 100).
As independent variables, the length of the information transmitted by the
teacher (in relation to the number of words used to transmit the same information),
the number of different ideas presented, and the nature of the information (i.e.,
form, objective, direction, and emotional load).
Instruments
The use of different instruments was established on the basis of the methodology
already used (Januário et al., 2006; Rosado et al., 2008). For this type of research,
interviews were also used, in addition to the System for Analysing the Information
Transmitted.
Interviews
During the observed lesson and immediately after students had received an episode of
instruction from the teacher, they were asked to participate in a brief interview with
the researcher, in which they were requested to repeat what the teacher had said.
Students’ retention of information / Retención de la información 217
content and for the system of analysing the information transmitted using
Bellack’s formula (1966, cited by Van der Mars, 1989). Twenty percent of the
information transmitted was analysed, taking into account Tabachnick and
Fidell’s (1989) proposal that 10% is the minimum acceptable ratio to ensure
the adequate reliability of the study. The minimum reliability found was 88% for
Table 1. Definition of the dimensions and categories of the System for Analysing the
Information Transmitted.
Dimension/category Definition
Objective
Evaluative information Information that the teacher sends by way of a judgement or
evaluation without specific content.
Prescriptive information The teacher sends information, informing students how they
should behave or not behave.
Descriptive information Information that the teacher sends to the student discussing
their behaviour.
Interrogative information Information that the teacher sends to students which asks
them about their behaviour.
Mixed information The teacher provides information that includes at least two of
the aspects described above.
Form
Auditory information Information that the teacher sends to students in an oral way only.
Auditory-visual The teacher gives the information to students orally,
information accompanied by visual information.
Direction
Individual information Information that the teacher directs to a student.
Group information The teacher directs the information to more than one student
but not the whole class.
Class information The teacher gives information directly to the whole class.
Emotional dimension
Positive affectivity Information that the teacher sends to students, praising and/or
encouraging them.
Negative affectivity The teacher gives students information that the teacher sends
to students, contradicting and/or discouraging them.
218 N. Januário et al.
the intercoder and 91% for the intracoder, i.e., a high level of concordance
according to Fleiss (1981), who considers high concordance values to be those
exceeding 75%.
8.05 seconds (SD = 2.81). The students’ answers were audio-recorded. All the
students’ and teachers’ interventions were then transcribed following the written
protocol.
The record of the data obtained was taken as the base for analysing the
information. The information transmitted by the teachers was compared with the
information retained by the students.
Data analysis
The information was divided into units (ideas). The logical semantics method
was used to analyse the content, supported by the MAXQDA programme, the
prior application of which presented the training, observation and codification
phases. Dividing the instruction episodes into information units helped to
assess the reliability of the study. The analysis of the extent of the information
took into account the number of words used during the instruction.
The data were described by calculating the frequency of the response, means,
standard deviation and minimum and maximum values. A one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was used, supplemented by the Scheffe test for multiple
comparisons (post hoc). The Spearman correlation was used to evaluate the
degree of association between information retention and the variables related to
the quantity of information transmitted by the teacher (i.e., extent and number of
ideas). Although normality requirements were not checked with the Kolmogorov-
Sminorv test, the ANOVA was used since it is sufficiently robust in situations in
which the distribution of the dependent variable is not very skewed (Maroco,
2007). The SPSS-v.20 statistical programme was used, and the level of signifi-
cance for all the tests was p ≤ .05.
Results
The collation of the results began with a descriptive analysis of the information
provided in relation to the extent and number of ideas transmitted, as well as a
description of the levels of student information retention. We then verified the
Students’ retention of information / Retención de la información 219
extent to which information retention varied, taking into account the quantity of
information transmitted by the teacher (i.e., extent and number of ideas). Finally,
we verified whether the students’ information retention was affected by the
nature of the information (i.e., objective, form, direction and emotional load).
Number of ideas
The total number of ideas transmitted by the teacher in each episode of instruction
varied between one and nine ideas (see Figure 2). In 31.5% of the instruction
episodes, the teacher transmitted two ideas, while just one idea was transmitted in
24.2% of the episodes.
The average number of ideas presented by the teachers in each episode of
instruction was 2.69, resulting in a high standard deviation (SD = 1.60) in
comparison with the average value of the ideas transmitted.
Information retention
The percentage of students who reported all the ideas transmitted by the teacher
was 40.30%. Therefore, the episodes of information transmission in which stu-
dents found it difficult to reproduce the teacher’s ideas (in part or in total) was
59.70%, while the percentage of cases in which they failed to retain any of the
information was 4.70%. Figure 3 shows the variation in the students’ information
retention.
These values signify a loss of information retention by the students, with a
mean retention of 68.83% and standard deviation of 30%.
Table 2. Level of information retention (n, M, SD) depending on the nature of the
information (objective, form, direction and emotional load).
Variable n M SD
Objective
Prescriptive 224 64.49 34.88
Descriptive 116 76.77 24.20
Interrogative 32 69.79 26.08
Evaluative 72 85.19 29.55
Mixed 152 61.31 22.25
Form
Auditory 328 73.13 27.94
Auditory-visual 264 63.52 31.85
Direction
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Discussion
Overall, the percentage of information the students retained in this study was
68.8%, a figure similar to those found by Marques da Costa (1991), Januário et al.
(2006) and Mesquita et al. (2008), but slightly higher those found by Rosado et al.
(2008) and Januário et al. (2009), in which the mean values were around 60%.
Research on this subject enables us to conclude that loss of information
retention occurs depending on the information provided by teachers and that the
average percentage of information retained by students varies between 37.8%
(Lima et al., 2007) and 71% (Marques da Costa, 1991).
Students’ retention of information / Retención de la información 223
The divergence of the results could be explained by the fact that the studies
were significantly different in terms of the contexts, content and teaching strate-
gies used, and this may have had an effect on the students’ and athletes’ capacity
to retain information. However, even though the research contexts were different,
the cases involve the transmission of information to students and athletes.
Therefore, at least to some extent, some of the mechanisms involved in informa-
tion retention could present similar aspects. Bearing this in mind, it seems that this
discussion should not be focused on a strict comparison of the results, but rather
on a comparative evaluation of important regularities.
Taking into account the influence of the quantity of information transmitted on
information retention, studies in this area (Cloes et al., 1991, 1990; Januário et al.,
2006; Mesquita et al., 2008; Rosado et al., 2008; Swalus, Carlier, & Renaud,
1991) reveal that the more information the teacher transmits, the more difficulty
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students have retaining it. This supports the idea that, from a practical point of
view, the teacher should transmit short episodes of instruction in order to facilitate
better retention by students.
In this study, the information retention was inversely related to the number of
ideas transmitted, and no statistically significant correlation was found between
the information retention levels and the extent of the information (number of
words). Similar results were found by Januário et al. (2011), who concluded that
the number of ideas transmitted in each episode of instruction is the variable
which has the most influence on information retention. In a previous study,
Januário et al. (2009) reported that the number of ideas presented by the teacher
is the variable that has the most impact on the consistency level of information
reported by the students, even more so than the extent of the information.
Goodwin and Meeuwsen (1995) and Hughes and Franks (2004) also concluded
that the number of ideas transmitted affects information retention. Another study
(Williams & Hodges, 2005) examined the negative effects of ‘information over-
load’ in relation to selective attention, also concluding that athletes have a limited
capacity for retaining key information. From the point of view of professional
intervention, these results reinforce the idea that teachers should transmit a small
number of different ideas in each episode of instruction in order to enable greater
retention.
Considering the nature of information, the results of this study suggest that
information retention varies according to the objectives of the information and the
method of transmission. The influence of the transmission method on the process
of information retention has already been established (Carreiro da Costa et al.,
1998; Januário et al., 2006; Quina, 1993), but contradictory results were also
found in other studies. Cloes et al. (1990) and Carreiro de Costa et al. (1998)
found information retention was greater when the teacher used demonstration,
while Quina (1993), Marques da Costa (1991) and Januário et al. (2006) con-
cluded that auditory information resulted in the highest levels of retention,
corroborating the results of this research, in which auditory information showed
higher levels of retention than auditory-visual information. Janiszewski (1990)
considers that information processes continue to show low levels of attention even
224 N. Januário et al.
when students are concentrating on a particular idea, which, in turn, impacts upon
their capacity to process the information. Thus, when a message is predominantly
visual, even though it is considered to be at a secondary level, the verbal level
becomes the main focus for capturing the message. The opposite also occurs when
the word element is predominant, with the word being subject to the influence of
the visual elements present in the message formulation (Janiszewski, 1990;
Winkielman & Berridge, 2004).
Winkielman and Berridge’s (2003) studies of decoding, comprehension and
retention showed that the participants chose stimuli that were easier to process.
Bearing this in mind, it is suggested that the combined use of strategies is
beneficial to avoid information overload, which results in an excess of informa-
tion that means the information received by the students is not processed
sufficiently.
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nature of the message, in particular, the objective and method of transmission. For
example, information transmitted only in auditory form had greater levels of
retention than auditory-visual information.
In relation to the objective of the information transmitted, information with an
evaluative or descriptive purpose showed higher levels of retention than prescrip-
tive and mixed information.
Information retention was inversely related to the number of ideas presented.
This finding reinforces the importance of presenting brief, concise information
which is focused on the content to be learned.
The combined use of strategies is beneficial as long as it does not result in
information overload, while greater quantities of information may lead to addi-
tional problems for students.
This study helps to identify some of the variables that influence students’
information retention, taking into account descriptive and comparative character-
istics. However, not being able to identify the effect of the interaction between the
different variables is presented as a limitation.
New qualitative studies are needed to complement the quantitative studies to
enable a deeper comprehension of the retention process, in particular, through the
introduction of other variables that may explain information retention, such as
variables related to student characteristics, characteristics of the context, the
acceptance and importance given to the information transmitted by students, etc.
It is important to highlight the need to study student information retention to
help identify the variables that have an impact on effective instruction. From the
perspective of professional intervention, these subjects appear to be particularly
important and may help the teacher reflect on the teaching processes used, thereby
optimizing teaching strategies and promoting student retention.
226 N. Januário et al.
esta información por parte de los estudiantes y atletas pueden presentar ciertas
similitudes. Por todo ello, queda patente la necesidad de nuevos estudios para
aclarar estos y otros determinantes contextuales.
Este estudio tiene como objetivo determinar el nivel de retención de información
por parte de los estudiantes, teniendo en cuenta la información transmitida por el
docente durante las clases de educación física. Su objetivo es determinar la influen-
cia de variables tales como la cantidad de información transmitida por el docente (y
el número de extensión de las ideas) y la naturaleza de la información (el objetivo,
la forma, la dirección y la carga emocional) en la capacidad de retener la
información por los estudiantes. Esta investigación pretende dar una respuesta
más concreta a las siguientes preguntas: ¿Qué nivel de retención de la
información se proporciona en las clases de educación física? ¿Qué factores
relacionados con las características de la información afecta a la retención de la
información en las clases de educación física? Estas preguntas parecen especial-
mente relevantes desde el punto de vista de la intervención profesional, ya que
puede ayudar a definir las estrategias de enseñanza, la comprensión mejorada de los
estudiantes, así como la reflexión sobre el valor de la información y la
comunicación utilizada en los procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje.
Método
Participantes
En el estudio participaron 596 estudiantes (268 chicos y 328 chicas), con edades
comprendidas entre los 12 y 19 años (M = 15.1, SD = 1.56), y 158 estudiantes del
8º año (2º de ESO en el sistema educativo español), 178 estudiantes del 9º año (3º
de ESO), 114 estudiantes de 10º año (4º de ESO) y 146 estudiantes del 11º año (1º
de Bachiller). Los docentes participantes fueron 18 (10 mujeres y ocho hombres,
todos ellos con más de ocho años de experiencia profesional). Se observó un total
de 36 sesiones de educación física entre ocho y 11 años de escolaridad, nueve
clases de cada grado. Se observaron 596 respuestas de los estudiantes ante la
instrucción realizada por los docentes en episodios que representaron 1,604
unidades de información.
230 N. Januário et al.
Variables
En este estudio se consideró como variable dependiente la retención de la
información, medida por la consistencia de la información reportada por el estudiante
(coherencia = número de ideas transmitidas/ número de ideas retenidas x 100).
Como variables independientes, la extensa información transmitida por el
docente (con respecto al número de palabras utilizadas por el docente en la
misma información), el número de ideas presentadas (el número de información
diferente presente en esta misma información) y la naturaleza de la información
(la forma, el objetivo, la dirección y la carga emocional).
Instrumentos
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Entrevista
Durante la lección observada e inmediatamente después de que los estudiantes
recibieran un episodio de instrucción por parte del docente, se le solicitó al
estudiante que acompañara al investigador que estuvo presente en el salón de
clases y mediante una breve entrevista se le pidió al estudiante que repitiera lo que
el docente le había dicho.
Análisis de datos
La información se dividió en unidades de información (las ideas). Se utilizó una
técnica de análisis de contenido, el método lógico-semántico, apoyado por el
programa de MAXQDA, que presentaba en su parte de aplicación previa, las
fases de capacitación, observación y codificación. La división de los episodios de
instrucción en unidades de información ha servido para el estudio de su fiabilidad.
Al analizar la amplitud de la información, se consideró el número de palabras que
fueron utilizadas en la instrucción.
Los datos se han descrito mediante el cálculo de frecuencias de respuestas, de las
medias, de la desviación estándar y de los valores mínimos y máximos. Se utilizó la
prueba estadística ANOVA oneway, completada con la prueba de Scheffe para las
comparaciones múltiples (post hoc). Se utilizó la correlación de Spearman para
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Resultados
En el apartado de los resultados se comenzó llevando a cabo un análisis descriptivo
de la información proporcionada en relación con la extensión y el número de las
ideas transmitidas, así como una descripción de los niveles de retención de
información por parte de los estudiantes. Entonces se trató de verificar como variaba
la retención de la información teniendo en cuenta la cantidad de información
transmitida por el docente (extensión y número de ideas de la información transmi-
tida). Por último se trató de verificar si la retención de información por parte de los
estudiantes, se vio afectada teniendo en cuenta la naturaleza de la información
transmitida (el objetivo, la forma, la dirección y la carga emocional).
La retención de la información
El porcentaje de estudiantes que reportaron todas las ideas transmitidas por el
docente, fue del 40.30%. Por lo tanto, los episodios de transmisión de la
información, donde los estudiantes tenían dificultades para reproducir las ideas
del docente (en parte o en su totalidad) representan el 59.70% y cuando el
alumnado no conserva ninguna de las informaciones transmitidas por docente
representan el 4.70%. La Figura 3 ilustra la variación de la retención de la
información por los estudiantes en los episodios de instrucción estudiados.
Estos valores significan una pérdida en la retención de la información por los
estudiantes, siendo el valor medio de la retención del 68.83%, con una desviación
estándar del 30%.
11.661, p ≤ .001, η2p = .073, (π) = 1.000) y la forma de información (F(1, 590) =
15.203, p ≤ .001, η2p = .025; (π) = .973). Además, la retención de la información
por los estudiantes, no varía significativamente considerando la dirección de la
información (F(2, 596) = 1.113, p = .329) y la carga afectiva de la información (F
(1, 594) = 1.869, p = .172).
El nivel de retención de la información en función de la naturaleza de la
información (objetivo, forma, dirección y carga afectiva) se puede ver en la
Tabla 1, en la cual se puede observar que, considerando el objetivo de la
información, la información del objetivo evaluativo reveló mayor retención (M
= 85.19), seguido del objetivo descriptivo (M = 76.77), y la información con
objetivo mixto presentó niveles de retención medios (M = 61.31).
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Discusión
El resultado de la retención de la información encontrada en este estudio fue de
68.83%, cifra similar a la encontrada por Marques da Costa (1991), Januário et al.
(2006) y Mesquita et al. (2008), pero ligeramente superior a los valores encon-
trados por Rosado et al. (2008) y Januário et al. (2009) en los que los valores
medios fueron de alrededor del 60%.
La investigación realizada sobre este tema ha permitido concluir que hay una
pérdida en la retención de la información según los datos aportados por los
profesionales, y que la retención porcentual media en los estudios de referencia
osciló entre el 37.8% (Lima et al., 2007) y el 71% (Marques da Costa, 1991).
La divergencia de los resultados se puede explicar por el hecho de ser estudios
muy diferentes, con respecto a contextos, el contenido y las estrategias de
enseñanza planteadas, pudiendo influir en la capacidad de retención de
información por parte de los estudiantes y atletas. Sin embargo, aunque el con-
texto de estudio sea muy diferente, en realidad se trata de casos de transmisión de
información a estudiantes y atletas. Por lo que, al menos en parte, algunos de los
mecanismos involucrados en la retención de la información pueden presentar
aspectos similares. Teniendo en cuenta lo anterior, parece que el foco de esta
discusión, no debe hacerse con base en una comparación estricta de los resultados,
sino más bien una evaluación comparativa de regularidades importantes.
Students’ retention of information / Retención de la información 237
68.83%.
Los resultados también sugieren que la retención de información varía en
función de la naturaleza de los mensajes, en particular de acuerdo con el objetivo
y la forma de transmitir la información. Por lo tanto, en este estudio, la
información transmitida de forma auditiva tenía mayores niveles de retención de
la información que la información auditivo-visual.
Con respecto al objetivo de la información transmitida, se ha comprobado que
la información con el objetivo evaluativo y descriptivo mostraron niveles más
altos que la información prescriptiva y la información mixta.
La retención de la información mostró estar inversamente relacionada con el
número de ideas presentadas, lo que refuerza la importancia de que la información
sea breve, concisa y centrada en el contenido del aprendizaje.
El uso combinado de estrategias es beneficioso si no se convierte en una
sobrecarga de información, pero una mayor cantidad de información puede con-
llevar problemas adicionales a su retención por los estudiantes.
El presente estudio, contribuye a identificar algunas de las variables que
influyen la retención de información por parte de los estudiantes, teniendo en
cuenta sus características de naturaleza descriptiva y comparativa. Sin embargo,
presenta como limitaciones el hecho de no permitir identificar el efecto de la
interacción entre las diferentes variables.
Nuevos estudios de naturaleza cualitativa deberían complementar los estudios
cuantitativos, para permitir una comprensión más profunda del proceso de
retención, en particular, mediante la introducción de otras variables que puedan
explicar la retención de información, por ejemplo, las variables relacionadas con
las características de los estudiantes, las características del contexto, la aceptación
y la importancia atribuida a la información transmitida por el alumnado, etc.
Hacer hincapié en la necesidad de estudiar la retención de la información por
los estudiantes, facilitando el camino para la identificación de las variables
mediadoras de la eficacia de la instrucción. Desde el punto de vista de la
intervención profesional, estos temas parecen especialmente importantes, pueden
ayudar al docente a la reflexión sobre los procesos de enseñanza utilizados,
optimizar las estrategias de enseñanza, y potenciar la retención por parte de los
estudiantes.
240 N. Januário et al.
Acknowledgements / Agradecimientos
To the Foundation for Science and Technology of the government of Portugal — FCT
(SFRH/BD/39578/2007) and the Ministry of Economy, Innovation and Science of the
Government of Andalusia, Spain, for funding this study through the ‘FPDU 2008’
Programme. Co-financed by the European Union: European Regional Development
Fund Programme. / A la Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia del gobierno
portugués — FCT (SFRH/BD/39578/2007) y a la Consejería de Economía, Innovación
y Ciencia de la Junta de Andalucía, España, por financiar este trabajo a través del
Programa ‘FPDU 2008’. Cofinanciado por la Unión Europea: Programa European
Regional Development Fund.
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