Option A: Optimising Physiological Performance

A.1 Training

A1.1 Distinguish between training, overtraining and overreaching

Training is performing exercise in an organized manner on a regular basis with a specific goal in mind.
1. Overtraining is when an athlete attempts to do more training than he or she is able to physically and/or
mentally tolerate.
• Overtraining results in a number of symptoms that are highly individualized such as changes to:
resting heart rate; chronic muscle soreness; reduced immune function and frequent upper-
respiratory tract infections (coughs and colds); sleep disturbance; fatigue; decreased
appetite; sudden and unexplained decrease in performance.
• Recovery can take months/ years in some cases.

2. Overreaching is transient overtraining and generally results from excessive and protracted overload
with inadequate recovery and rest.
• An increase in performance above the baseline can occur while being followed by an immediate
return to normal training.
• A taper following normal training can results in additional performance increase, this is also
known as functional over-reaching where the athlete comes back stronger and fitter after the
recovery period.
• A period of full recovery usually takes several days to several weeks.

A1.2 Describe various methods of training

Limit to:
3. Flexibility Training
4. Strength and Resistance Training
5. Circuit Training
6. Interval Training
7. Plyometrics
8. Continuous Training
9. Fartlek Training/ Speed Play
10. Cross- Training

1. Flexibility:

Flexibility: Range of motion that one is able to make around a joint

Types of stretching to improve flexibility:

• Slow static stretching; muscle stretched and held in position

• Ballistic stretching; repeated bouncing motion at point of peak stretch
• Dynamic stretching; stretch and moving e.g. full circles with arms
 • Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF); hold stretch for 10 secs, relax, then stretch again to
extend range

2. Strength and Resistance Training

“Applying resistance against muscle contractions to increase power and strength of muscles”

Describe Resistance Training to improve strength (3)

• Purposeful use of resistance equipment in order to reach a desired goal
• Resistance can be encountered from a number of sources including gravity/inertia/friction
• Increased duration of training and/or sets and/or repetitions and/or percent repetition max during
training
• Decrease rest time between training tasks
• Can be specific to individual muscles and muscle groups

3. Circuit training

“Combination of strength and resistance training with aerobic exercises to achieve an overall increase in
conditioning”

• Adaptable to isolate particular muscles and /or muscle groups to focus on

• Adaptable to target skills from sport
• Can target strength or muscular endurance
• Structured in an easy to follow sequence
• A number of stations are set up
• Stations may be body weight or free weight exercises
• Each exercise completed for a set amount of time or number of repetitions before moving onto next
station
• Circuits can be repeated more than once.

4. Interval training:

“System of training that alternates short to moderate bouts of reasonably intense activity with short to
moderate a bouts of lower intensity activity/ rest”
• Popular for tennis players, runners, and swimmers or any other relevant example
• Can be used to develop aerobic capacity
• Spacing of work periods and low intensity periods can enable an individual to achieve a greater amount
of total work overall in comparison to continuous training
• Easily adapted as individual adapts their fitness level

5. Plyometrics

• Muscles undergo rapid lengthening/stretching

• <followed by> immediate shortening
• Eccentric to concentric contraction
• Utilizing elastic energy stored <during lengthening and stretching phase>
• Eccentric phase/ lengthening/stretching phase activates stretch-reflex
 • E.g. exercises should focus on legs for a long jumper
- E.g. box jumps, tuck jumps, medicine ball chest press throw

6. Continuous Training

“involves a period of exercise completed without rest”

• Can be completed at a range of intensities from low to near maximal

• Continuous exercise at lower intensities may continue for several hours.
• Continuous exercise at high or near maximal intensities may be completed only for a few minutes.
• Must be completed at a minimum threshold intensity to ensure aerobic adaptations.
• In non-athletes, it represents a relatively comfortable, accessible form of exercise, particularly for
individuals with health issues.
• For athletes, the requirement for, and duration and intensity of, continuous training will depend on the
individual athlete and their sporting goals and requirements.
• Believed to be the most effective form of exercise for burning fat stores and improving aerobic
endurance and VO2 max.

7. Fartlek Training

Swedish: “speed play”

Describe fartlek training (3)
• It is a combination of interval and continuous training
• It does not employ regimented exercise intensities, durations or rest periods
• It is regulated by how the athlete feels
• It uses all energy systems, provides good conditioning and is varied and enjoyable
• It is difficult to quantify its efficacy or replicate sessions due to its spontaneous nature
• It is an effective training method for games players

8. Cross Training

“An exercise regimen that uses several modes of training to develop a specific component of fitness”
Describe Cross training (3)

• Training using different techniques with the goal of making general improvements in overall
performance.
• Makes use of all the training methods.
• The goal is to use the strengths of one training method to attenuate the weaknesses of another
• E.g. a marathon running uses interval training to improve speed but also use continuous to develop
mental strength

A1.3 Discuss possible indicators of overtraining

• Changes to resting heart rate
• Chronic sore muscles
• Reduced immune function and frequent upper-respiratory tract infections (coughs and colds)
• Sleep disturbance
• Fatigue
 • Decreased appetite
• Sudden and unexplained decrease in performance

A1.4 Discuss how periodization should be organized to optimize performance

and avoid overtraining and injury

• Preparation phase (Pre-season)

• Competition phase
• Transition phase (post season)
• Mesocycle, Macrocycle, Microcycle

The goal of periodizing an exercise program is to optimize training during short ‹for example weeks, months› as
well as long periods of time ‹for example a four-year Olympic cycle›/to prevent staleness/boredom while peaking
physiologically for competition/avoiding overtraining:

• variation in training volume and intensity over a specified time period

OR
• the number of sets per exercise/repetitions per set
OR
• the types of exercises, number of exercises per training session/rest periods between sets and exercises
OR
• resistance used for a set, type and tempo of muscle action ‹for example eccentric, concentric, isometric›
OR
• number of training sessions per day and per week

Phase 1: Preparation phase

• «pre-season» used for developing and improving aerobic fitness «where the load will be quite high and the
training will start broad and become more specific»
• progressively increase volume, intensity and exercise selection specific for football
• macrocycles are divided into mesocycles
• length of preparation phase would be a meso cycle «2–8weeks»
• meso cycle/preparation phase would be broken down into microcycles «7–14 days»
• preparation phase/meso cycle would be used for national team training specific for the goals of the team

Phase 2: Competition
• Athletes competitive season
• No large gains in fitness/ technique during this phase
• Phase is maintain general physical condition, continue improving sport specific skills and technique,
perfect tactical approach
• Training volume is reduced

Phase 3: Transition
• transition phase is a period of allowing the body to recover from the type of impacts and training experienced
in the athletes’ competitive training phase;
• minimal high intensity work / intensity of training is substantially reduced;
• active rest / there are more rest days;
• progression of exercise is not a priority;
 • limited volume;

Macrocycle
❖ annual plan
❖ peaking for the goal competition of the year
❖ three phases in the macrocycle: preparation, competitive, and transition

Mesocycle
❖ phase of training with a duration of between 2–6 weeks
❖ preparatory phase will usually consist of 4–6 micro-cycles
OR
❖ competitive phase will usually consist of 2–4 micro-cycles
❖ specific block of training that is designed to accomplish a particular goal
OR
❖ to help workload planning for the macrocycle

Microcycle

❖ Weekly training programme

❖ Weekly programme will include specific sessions
❖ Each session has a specific goal
A.2 Environmental Factors and Physical Performance

A2.1 Explain the relationship between cellular metabolism and the production
of heat in the human body
• Light comes from the sun
• Light is then transferred to plants where photosynthesis takes place
• Light energy is converted into chemical energy
• Humans either eat the plant or eat an animal that has consumed the plant
• This energy is transferred as ATP for respiration
• ATP is used to move muscles
• Heat is produced as a by-product of respiration
• The more cellular respiration = more heat produced
• More exercise leads to more ATP hydrolysis and therefore more heat
• This energy can be in the form of glucose/fats/proteins
• 20% of energy is used for muscle contraction
• 80% of energy is lost as heat via sweating

A2.2 State the normal physiological range for core body temperature
• 37C ( 0.6) is the core body temperature
• Internal core organs tend to maintain this temperature however, muscles, skin and blood flow can
change temperature.

A2.3 Outline how the body thermoregulates in hot and cold environments

Thermoregulation: Process that allows your body to maintain its core internal temperature.

HEAT:
• Vasodilation – Increased skin blood supply in order to release heat.

PPQ: Outline how the body thermoregulates in hot environments [2 marks]

✓ Conduction: Transfer of heat through direct contact. (2%)
✓ Convection: Removing heat by the motion of a gas/liquid/air passing over the skin. (10-15%)
✓ Radiation: Transfer of heat through the electromagnetic waves. (65%)
✓ Evaporation: Heat loss through the conversion of water/sweat to vapour. (85%)
✓ It is the primary avenue for heat loss during exercise.

COLD:
• Peripheral Vasoconstriction – Reduced skin blood supply in order to retain heat and the blood flow
diverts to core body.
 • Shivering – Muscle contractions to produce heat. Shivering is more effective than exercise at producing
heat because the human remains still, meaning that less heat is lost to the environment
through convection.
• Hairs stand on end, acting as an insulating layer, trapping heat.

A2.4 Discuss the significance of humidity and wind in relation to body heat loss
EXAM Q: Outline the significance of high wind conditions during marathon race (3)

• Wind increases the speed of evaporation as it carries sweat particles away.

• The wind increases the thermal gradient.
• If air movement is low, evaporation rates are low and body cooling is low.
• Wind also increases heat loss through convection.
• Warmer insulating air layer surrounding the body continually exchanges with cooler, ambient air.
• Evaporation accounts for 80% of heat loss.

EXAM Q: Outline how humidity influences body heat loss during exercise? (2 marks)
- High humidity decreases capacity to accept more water molecules
- High humidity limits sweat evaporation
- Sweat must evaporate to provide cooling
- Relative humidity/water content of ambient air impacts the efficiency of the sweating
mechanism/response in temperature regulation
-
EXAM Q: Outline the significance of humidity when playing soccer in a hot environment? (3 marks)
- Relative humidity/ water content of ambient air impacts the efficiency of the sweating
mechanism/response in temperature regulation
- Sweat evaporation from the skin depends on temperature and relative humidity of ambient air
- With high humidity, evaporation decreases
- Playing soccer in a hot, humid environment poses a thermoregulatory challenge because the large sweat
loss in high humidity contributes little to evaporative cooling
- The duration of a soccer match player in a hot, humid environment means that there is likely to be a high
sweat loss and a thermoregulatory challenge for the players heat stroke
- Importance of maintaining hydration

A2.5 Describe the formation of sweat and the sweat response

Definition: Sweat is a perspiration and it is made of water, ammonia, urea, salts and sugar.
Locations where sweat is formed:
• Secreted from sweat glands
• Eccrine glands and apocrine glands
• Within the skin
Steps:
1. The hypothalamus detects an increase in body temperature due to it exceeding ambient temperature.
2. Causing the sweat glands to become more active which triggers the sweat glands to release sweat
through the pores of the skin.
3. Once on the skin sweat evaporates removing the heat to cool the body.
 4. Also, heat stored in the blood is sent to the skin by vasoconstriction directing it so the heat can be
evaporated away from the body, down a concentration gradient.
How much heat loss does sweat account for?
• 85%

How much sweat if produced?

• The greater the number of sweat glands the larger the amount of sweat. Meaning larger people tend to
sweat more due to having a larger number of sweat glands and pores.

Environment for formation:

• Sweating is more common in hot environments as the body, in use of homeostasis, wishes to keep its
temperature at the optimal temperature.
• Sweating is more persistent in humid climates as the rate of evaporation is less due to the density of
water in the air surrounding the performer.

PPQ: Describe the formation of sweat during exercise in hot, dry environments? (2 marks)
• sweating is the body’s major way of getting rid of excess body heat, which is produced by metabolism
and working muscles;
• the amount of sweat produced depends upon air temperature and the level of physical activity;
• the thermoregulatory centre is sensitive to the temperature of the blood OR elevated blood temperature
results in nerve signals being sent to the sweat glands;
• sweat is formed by the secretory portion of the sweat glands OR sweating is an active secretory process
from sweat glands;
• sweat secretion over a given region of skin is dependent on the density of the sweat glands ‹that is,
number/cm2›/on the amount of sweat secreted per gland;
• sweating provides moisture which evaporates from the skin surface to try to maintain homeostasis;
• sweat is formed through the filtration of plasma;
• sweat is mostly water with some sodium and chloride and a low concentration of potassium during
exercise in hot, dry environment.

A2.6 Discuss the physiological responses that occur during prolonged exercise
in the heat

The reduced muscle blood flow in high temperatures results in:

1. Increased glycogen breakdown in the muscle
2. Higher levels of muscle and blood lactate in comparison to same exercise performed in a cooler
environment

A2.7 Discuss the health risks associated with exercising in the heat

Heat Cramps: Muscle spasms caused by heavy sweating caused by involuntary contractions of motor units
 • Occur in abdominal muscles and large muscles of arms and legs
• Differs from exertion-induced cramps as whole muscle isn't involved
• Doesn’t result in permanent damage
• Observed more in unacclimatised individuals
Symptoms- Excessive sweat, pain throughout the limbs, spasms of the muscles in the arms and legs
Treatment- Lower the victim's body temperature, and restore fluids (water) and electrolytes
Heat Exhaustion: Extreme tiredness due to the body's inability to regulate its temperature, as a cause of
dehydration. Associated with high core temperature/reduce sweating and dehydration
Symptoms: muscle cramps, pale moist skin, high fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, fatigue,
weakness, anxiety and faint feeling
Treatment: Alert emergency services, have the victim lie down in a cool place, elevate legs, restore fluids
observe for signs of heat stroke.
Heat Stroke: life threatening overheating of the body. Sweating ceases, the body can no longer regulate its
internal temperature.
Symptoms: High body temperature, rapid pulse/respiration rate, hot and dry skin, victim feels weak/dizzy, has a
headache. The victim may be unconscious.
Treatment: Alert emergency services, have the victim rest in a cool place, remove heavy clothing, wrap the
victim in cool/wet towels or sheets, place ice/cold packs near the neck/armpits/groin, continue cooling the
victim until their body temperature reaches 102°, treat immediate life-threatening emergencies.

A2.8 Outline what steps should be taken to prevent and to subsequently treat
heat related disorders

• Perform in cooler parts of the day to reduce solar radiation/ coverage of area of skin to protect from the
sun
• Use ice vests/ cooling aids before to delay heat accumulation
• Ensure appropriate hydration before/during/after exercise
• Ensure appropriate consumption of salts/electrolytes to maintain muscle function
• Increase intake of fluids and electrolytes
• Wear appropriate fabrics to draw moisture away from skin
• Wear light colored clothes to reduce heat absorption
• Acclimization 14 days prior to event
• Apply ice if the individual collapses or you can place them in an ice bath

A2.9 Describe how an athlete should acclimatize to heat stress

• Acclimatization: The human body's adaptation to heat stress (over the course of days)
• Performing training sessions in similar environmental conditions (heat and humidity) for 5 to 14 days
results in almost total heat acclimatization.
• The intensity of training should be progressively increased to avoid heat-related problems in these
conditions.
• The total daily exercise-time in the heat should reach 90-100 minutes.
 • Example = National representative teams/sportspeople choosing to acclimatize to the conditions of a
host country during a major international sporting competition
• Acclimatization could be done in a heat chamber

A2.10 Discuss the physiological and metabolic adaptations that occur with heat
acclimatization
• Increased plasma volume.
• Increased sweat response
• Reduced rate of muscle glycogen utilization
• Decreased psychological perception of effort
• Earlier onset of sweating
• Increased temperature gradient
• Increased skin blood flow
• Increased salt concentration of sweat

A2.11 Outline the principl means by which the body maintains core
temperature in cold conditions
When doing sport or exercise in a cold environment the core body temperature is reduced.
In order to keep core body temperature between 36-38 degrees Celsius the body does the following –
• Shivering – repeated and rhythmic muscle contractions using energy from metabolism to generate heat.
Shivering uses up about 1 litre of oxygen per minute
• Vasoconstriction – the blood vessels near the surface get smaller which reduces heat loss via
convection
• Blood flow is reduced
• Non-shivering thermogenesis – heat production by brown adipose tissue through thermogenesis (the
burning of calories).

A2.12 Explain why the body surface area to body mass is important for heat
preservation
Hypothermia = low core body temperature. It can be mild, moderate, severe or profound
1. As the amount of fat increases, the amount of heat loss decreases because fat is a poor conductor of heat
and a good insulator.
2. A larger body surface are to body mass ratio makes heat loss easier
3. Children have a larger body surface are to body mass ratio which makes them more susceptible to
hypothermia
4. Taller, heavier adults have a lower body surface area to body mass ratio compared to children
5. Females generally have more fat than males

A2.13 Outline the importance of wind chill in relation to body heat loss
Heat loss is not only affected by the temperature but the amount of wind. A greater amount of wind will
increase heat loss via convection and conduction.
Windproof clothing can reduce the effects of wind chill
A2.14 Explain why swimming in cold water represents a particular challenge
to the bodys ability to thermoregulate
Swimming in cold water results in –
• Significant drop in skin temperature
• Significant redistribution of blood to the core
• Peripheral vasoconstriction
• Reduced muscle blood flow
• Sudden immersion can result in a muscle reflex action
• Conduction and convection occur at a much greater rate through water than through air
• Body heat loss occurs at a rate proportional to the thermal gradient and the duration of exposure

A2.15 Discuss the physiological responses to exercise in the cold

• Peripheral vasoconstriction
• Decreased blood flow
• Shivering
• Non-shivering thermogenesis
• Redistribution of blood to the core

A2.16 Describe the health risks of exercising in the cold , including cold water
• Hypothermia – low core body temperature
• Frostnip – initial freezing of the superficial skin tissue
• Frostbite – continued cooling and freezing of cells. This can lead to destruction of cells with the area
becoming insensitive to touch. There is a risk of infection and gangrene so frostbite treatment should
occur in a medical setting

A2.17 Discuss the precautions that should be taken when exercising in the cold
The main precaution is clothing which has an insulating effect and reduces the amount of heat loss via
evaporation.
The insulating effect of clothing is measured by a unit called clo
1 clo = 0.155 m2 KW-1
This means that 1 clo unit is defined as maintaining a sedentary person at 1 MET (energy expenditure at rest)
indefinitely in an environment of 21 degrees Celsius and 50% relative humidity.
A.3 Non- Nutritional Ergogenic Aids

A3.1 Define the term ergogenic aid

An ergogenic aid is any substance or phenomenon that improves an athlete’s performance

A3.2 Describe, with reference to an appropriate example, the placebo effect

Placebo effect is a positive outcome / from the belief that a beneficial treatment/intervention has been
received (physiological, behavioural, emotional and/or cognitive);
Suitable Example:
a relevant sporting example: an endurance triathlete ingesting a sports drink containing carbohydrate/artificial sweetener

1. placebo treatment/intervention in sports research often serves as a control for the experimental treatment
under investigation/method of controlling for (internal) validity;
2. use of blind/double blind design;
3. a placebo can have negative/undesirable effects (physiological, behavioural, emotional and/or
cognitive);

Describe why the placebo effect needs to be considered when designing an exercise science experiment

• control group limitation

• expectation
• blinding participants
• double-blind design
• placebo treatment/intervention in sports research often serves as a control
• for the experimental treatment under investigation/method of controlling for
• (internal) validity

A3.3 List 5 classes of non-ergogenic aids that are currently banned by rhw
International Committee (IOC) and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)
1. Anabolic Steroids
2. Hormones and Related Substances
3. Diuretics and Masking Agents
4. Beta Blockers
5. Stimulants
A3.4 Discuss why pharmacoloigcal substances appear on the list of banned
substances

Reasons why they are banned:

• Against the Olympic oath/ moral obligation to complete fairly
• Harm/injury to athlete (Example: cause athlete to lose weight too quickly
• Affect safety of the athlete
• Unfair to fellow competitors
• Competition transferred from sporting fields to laboratories (Meaning the competition is between drug
labs and not athletes)
• Affects society’s trust in athletes
• Discredit to the image of sport
• Against the spirit of sport/ idea of hard work to gain success/ May be seen as a way of succeeding with
less effort.
• Sport for education of social values/ what is true
• Make athletes more aggressive/ competitive.
 A3.5 Discuss the proposed and actual benefits that some athletes would hope to
gain by using anabolic steroids, erthropoietin (EPO), beta blockers, caffeine
and diuretics
A3.6 Outline the possible harmful effects of long-term use of anabolic steroids,
EPO, beta blockers, caffeine and diuretics
Ergogenic Aid Description
Anabolic Steroids are a general class of
Steroids chemical substances that can be
found in the body and can also
be synthesized.
Therefore, anabolic steroids are a •
class of substances that initiate
or assist the process of building •
up the amount and/or size of
certain substances/tissues in the •
body
EPO EPO is a drug that can improve
performance in sports and is
used illegally by some
sportspeople. EPO is short for
Erythropoietin.
A natural hormone that can be
artificially produced in order to
promote the formation of red
blood cells in the bone marrow
and an increase hemoglobin
which increases the work that
can be performed. Endurance
athletes and cyclists are likely to
use these.
Beta Blockers Beta blocker is the collective
term for a class of drugs that are
termed “beta adrenergic
antagonists”.
Essentially this means that beta
blockers reduce, or “block”, the
influence of adrenaline on
various tissues of the body.
A3.5 Proposed and actual benefits
• stimulates and promotes bone maturation
and protein synthesis to help strengthen
bone and increase muscle growth
• an increase in muscle growth leads to an
increase in muscle mass
greater increase in muscle mass when
combined with a high protein diet
«hypertrophy» leads to an increase in
muscular strength/power
protein synthesis aids the repair of
muscle tissue during recovery from
exercise/allows athletes to train more
frequently
• «proposed» aggressive and competitive
effects allows performer to train for
longer
• stimulates production of red blood cells
• increases hemoglobin concentration
• increases oxygen-carrying capacity
• increase amount of work able to be done
(muscular endurance)
Proposed:
• the psychological response of feeling
calmer OWTTE
• decrease heart rate
• decrease/slows CNS OWTTE (1 mark)
• lowers anxiety/psychological benefit
OWTTE (1 mark)
• reduce hand tremors
• can improve performance in sports that
require accuracy/calm behaviour/
• steadiness ‹eg archery›
Actual:
A3.6 Harmful effects of long term
use
• Personality change/ aggressive
behaviour
• Early closure of epiphyses of long
bone
• Testicular atrophy/ reduced sperm
count
• Prostate gland enlargement
• Disrupts ovulation/ menstruation
• Breast regression/ enlarged
clitoris/ deepening of voice/ facial
hair
• Liver damage
• Decreased heart rate
• Depressed HDL/ atherosclerosis
• Dehydration (short term)
• increased viscosity of the blood
• increased risk of blood clotting
• risk of heart failure
• high blood pressure which may
lead to risk of heart attacks/
strokes
• decline in performance
• Feelings of fatigue
• Decreased appetite/ body weight
loss
• Muscle Soreness
• Head colds/ allergic reactions
• Nausea
• Elevated resting heart rate
• Elevated blood pressure
• Amenorrhea in female athletes
 • actual benefits are consistent with the
proposed benefits
• for sports that require high levels of
intensity or endurance activities, beta
• blockers are unlikely to improve
performance ‹as a consequence of
limiting
• the physiological capacity the heart in
particular to work›
Caffeine Stimulant- sourced mainly from - Stimulant of the gall bladder • Insomnia
natural plants, coffee and tea. - Reduce risk of gallstones • Nervousness
Used as a stimulant of the central - Cheap • Muscle tremors
nervous system. - Decreases heart rhythm disturbance • Increased heart rate
- Enhances weight loss • May lead to breast tissue cysts
• Reduce fertility

Diuretics Diuretics, sometimes called • Reduce blood pressure • Low sodium in your blood
water pills, help rid your body of • Cheap (hyponatremia)
salt (sodium) and water. Usually • Relax blood vessels. • Dizziness
needed for quick weight loss EG • Prevent liver failure • Headaches
meet weight categories in • Cure kidney disorders such as • Dehydration
boxing. kidney stones • Muscle cramps
• Joint disorders (gout)
• Impotence