Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Sucrose crystallization in caramel

Elizabeth Miller, Richard W. Hartel ⇑
Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin, 1605 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Caramel is a dairy-based confection with a continuous phase consisting of amorphous sugars and dis-
Received 13 August 2014 solved dairy solids with proteins and fat globules dispersed throughout. In some caramels, sugar crystals
Received in revised form 19 November 2014 are desirable for their contribution to texture. The crystals disrupt the continuous phase, providing what
Accepted 21 November 2014
is known as a ‘‘short’’ texture. At the extreme, fudge is known as a well-crystallized caramel. However,
Available online 16 December 2014
little is known about how crystal content influences the textural and physical properties of caramel.
By changing sucrose to corn syrup ratio, type of corn syrup and water content in caramel formulations,
Keywords:
the effects of sucrose crystal content on textural properties such as hardness, tensile strength, strain at
Caramel
Crystal content
break, and cold flow were studied. However, since crystallization is a separation process, changes in crys-
Texture tal content also resulted in variations in the viscosity of the continuous phase, which also influenced car-
Cold flow amel textural properties. Thus, the results were interpreted as a combination of two, sometimes
competing, effects. Increased crystal content decreased cold flow, with cold flow approaching zero as
crystal content increased above 25–30%. Tensile strength and strain at break also decreased as crystal
content increased, again reaching a minimum value at crystal content of about 25%. Hardness, on the
other hand, was significantly influenced by the viscosity of the continuous phase and less so by crystal
content. Knowing the effects of sucrose crystallization on textural properties allows caramel manufactur-
ers to more precisely select the ideal formulation for their final product.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction glucose, maltose or the higher order saccharides in corn syrup

Caramel is used extensively in the food industry in many differ-
ent product types with its unique flavor and texture being the larg-
est drivers of its appeal (Steiner et al., 2003). The consistency of
caramel ranges from liquid to free-standing, cut and wrap pieces
all the way to hard candy-like products (Flanyak, 1991). Several
elements play a role in influencing overall texture; most notably,
‘graining’ or the extent to which sucrose crystallizes in a caramel
(Flanyak, 1991). The level of graining dictates whether a caramel
stretches for a very long distance when pulled or has a ‘short’ tex-
ture like that of fudge (Lenz and Hartel, 2005).
The physical state of sucrose, the main bulking sweetener in
caramel, is critical to texture and shelf life (Ergun et al., 2009).
Crystallized sucrose has sharp angles that create fault points and
physically break up the continuous carbohydrate and protein
matrix, yielding a shortened texture when pulled (Lenz and
Hartel, 2005). Sucrose increases the perceived sweetness of the fin-
ished caramel due to its greater sweetness impact compared to
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 608 263 1965.
E-mail address: rwhartel@wisc.edu (R.W. Hartel).
(Hofberger, 2009).
Grain inhibitors are used to control crystallization (graining)
and to create smaller crystals overall (Tjuradi and Hartel, 1995).
In general, the ratio of sucrose to grain inhibitors, along with pro-
cessing conditions like agitation, are normally what differentiates
grained from ungrained caramels (Hofberger, 2009). Even with
appropriate grain inhibitors, improper handling could cause a car-
amel to crystallize that was intended to be ungrained. Various corn
syrups, sugar alcohols and invert sugar may be used as grain inhib-
itors, but corn syrup is the most common. The necessary level of
corn syrup depends on the level of processing the caramel sees
(Kitt, 1993). Caramels with higher levels of corn syrup can with-
stand more handling, such as pumping or transport through valves
and pipes without graining.
The most frequently used corn syrup in confections is 42DE
(dextrose equivalent) (Kitt, 1993; Hofberger, 2009). Lower DE corn
syrups lead to tougher finished caramels (Steiner et al., 2003;
Hofberger, 2009) due to increased viscosity caused by higher
amounts of large molecular weight molecules (Steiner et al.,
2003; Cakebread, 1970; McMaster et al., 1987). The lower the DE
of a corn syrup, the more viscous it is. Excessively high levels of
corn syrup lead to the defect ‘cold flow’ (Cakebread, 1971, 1972),

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.11.028
0260-8774/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 E. Miller, R.W. Hartel / Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38
defined as the tendency of a material to deform under its own
weight, over time (Warnecke, 1995). Higher levels of corn syrup
solids decrease the amount of sucrose that crystallizes out and
increase the amount of dissolved solids in the continuous phase
(Hartel, 2001).
Direct quantification of crystalline content in caramel has pro-
ven challenging. Crystal separation techniques are difficult since
all steps must be performed carefully so as not to affect the crystal
content before measurement. External measurement techniques
include X-ray diffraction and high-resolution nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR). X-ray diffraction is not very sensitive and
high-resolution NMR is expensive and time consuming; both
methods are also limited in caramel due to the crystalline contri-
bution from the fat (Lenz and Hartel, 2005). Microscopic analysis
can be done but is difficult in opaque or highly supersaturated sys-
tems and is limited by imaging constraints (Porter and Hartel,
2013). One promising, noninvasive measurement technique is
Time Domain-Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, or TD-NMR. This tech-
nique quantifies the solid fraction of a system and has been
employed with great success in determining solid fat content in
lipids. It has also been used to determine crystal content in simple
confectionery systems such as fondant where the solid fraction
consists solely of sucrose crystals (Porter and Hartel, 2013). This
technique has yet to be employed in more complex systems that
contain solids other than sucrose crystals (e.g., dairy protein and
fat in caramel).
As an alternative to direct measurement, crystal content can be
calculated based on a mass balance such as in Crystal Mass Frac-
tion, CMF (Lenz and Hartel, 2005). CMF takes into account the sol-
ubility of the supersaturated species at a given temperature, as
well as the moisture content of the finished product. Assuming
that all other molecules (i.e., water and nonsucrose saccharides)
are excluded from sucrose crystals, CMF is calculated by subtract-
ing the maximum dissolved sucrose content at a given tempera-
ture, in the presence of other formula solids, from the total
sucrose in the formula. CMF is reported as a percentage of the
whole system and is given as (Ergun et al., 2009):
ðST  SS Þ
CMF ð%Þ ¼ ð100Þ
ðW T  W W Þ
where ST is total sucrose in the finished product on a 100 g water
basis, SS is solubility of sucrose at a given temperature on a 100 g
water basis, WT is total solids in the formulation on a 100 g water
basis and WW is the weight of the water portion or, 100 g.
CMF assumes phase equilibrium and therefore would not be
able to describe candy in an amorphous state but is useful for prod-
ucts that attain phase equilibrium. The assumption of phase equi-
librium is not unreasonable given that once nuclei are formed,
crystallization will proceed until the driving force of supersatura-
tion has been exhausted (Hartel, 2001). Low molecular mobility
could result in this timeframe being very long, but if seeding or agi-
tation were employed at the proper temperature, such as in the
case of grained caramels, phase equilibrium is inevitable.
A systematic investigation into the most common caramel for-
mulation changes and their effect on extent of graining and result-
ing textural consequences has not been done. The aim of this
research is to catalog the effects of ratio of sucrose to corn syrup,
moisture content and DE of corn syrup on crystal content and their
influences on texture.
2. Materials and methods
Granulated sugar was supplied by Royal Ingredients Group
(Alkmaar, Netherlands). All corn syrups were provided by Archer
Daniels Midland (Decatur, IL). Sweetened condensed skim milk
was provided by Galloway Company (Neenah, WI). Partially
29
hydrogenated palm kernel oil, SilkoÒ 32-05, was supplied by AAK
(Port Newark, NJ). Salt was supplied by Morton Salt, Inc. (Chicago,
IL). Soy lecithin, ClearateÒ B-60, was supplied by W.A. Cleary Prod-
ucts, Inc. (Somerset, NJ). All of the batches of caramel were made
within the same lot of ingredients and the order of production
was randomized. All caramels were made in duplicate.
2.1. Caramel formulations
The formulations for the caramels were adaptations of repre-
sentative formulas used in the candy industry (Jackson, 2000;
Hofberger, 2009). The initial moisture content of the premix was
set to 30%. The formulations were standardized to 2.5% protein
and 12.5% fat in the finished caramel. The formulas were composed
using ingredient composition (e.g., water, sucrose, corn syrup sol-
ids, protein and lactose) to ensure that all other components were
held constant.
The three variables investigated in this study were ratio of
sucrose to corn syrup, DE of corn syrup, and moisture content in
the finished product (Table 1). The control formula was used as
the middle point for all three variables and was made with a ratio
of sucrose to corn syrup of 70:30 (w/w), 42DE corn syrup, and 10%
final moisture content. The ratio of sucrose to corn syrup was on a
solids basis of the added sugar. The sucrose contributed by the
sweetened condensed skim milk was accounted for in the amount
of dry sucrose added.
The range of sucrose to corn syrup ratios investigated captured
commercial products that are normally intended to be ungrained
or only slightly grained, as well as the very high ratios that are pri-
marily seen in artisanal products due to their low processing toler-
ance. The moisture contents investigated cover the typical range
seen in commercial cut and wrap caramels (Hofberger, 2009).
The types of corn syrups used in the caramels made with different
DEs spanned the full range of commonly used corn syrups. The vis-
cosity (in Poises), at 27 °C of the investigated 36DE, 42DE and 64DE
corn syrups were 1800, 1000 and 400, respectively.
2.2. Caramel cooking procedure
ð1Þ
All ingredients were weighed into 2400 g batches and stirred
until homogenous. Caramels were cooked in a 4-quart induction
saucepan (Carlisle, Oklahoma City, OK) using a SR-951T, 120V,
1400 W induction cook-top (Sunpentown, City of Industry, CA). A
scraped surface stirring apparatus was constructed out of heat
resistant spatulas (Newell Rubbermaid Inc., Atlanta, GA) to elimi-
nate burn-on. Caramels were stirred during cooking by attaching
the stirring apparatus to a Stir-Pak laboratory mixer (Model
50002-10, Cole Palmer, Vernon Hills, IL). A TraceableÒ (Control
Company, Rochester, NY) long-stem thermometer was suspended
3=
4 of the depth into the caramel and 4 cm from the bottom of the
pot.
The premix was loaded into the pot and homogenized using a
Smart StickÒ immersion blender (Cuisinart, Stamford, CT) for
1 min. The induction burner was set to 43 °C and the premix
warmed to 45 °C and held for 10 min between 45 and 55 °C. The
premix was then homogenized again with the hand blender for
1 min to emulsify the fat into smaller droplets after it had com-
pletely melted (melt point 35 °C) and to ensure the sugars were
fully dissolved. The induction burner was then turned up to
121.1 °C and the premix heated to its final cooking temperature.
All heating rates were about 3 °C/min. The entire process occurred
with continuous, 90 rpm scraped-surface stirring.
After the caramel reached its final cooking temperature, it was
immediately removed from the burner and poured into a heat jack-
eted z-blade mixer preheated to 43–46 °C for agitation to induce
nucleation. The z-blade mixer was then sealed with adhesive cling
30 E. Miller, R.W. Hartel / Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38

Table 1
Premix formulations for the caramels (35% water in premix; 12.5% fat and 2.5% protein in final cooked caramel).

Ingredient (%) Control Sucrose:corn syrup ratioa Moisture contentb Corn syrup typec
70:30, 10%, 42DE 50:50 60:40 80:20 90:10 8% 12% 36DE 62DE
Sucrose 29.71 18.87 24.31 35.17 40.58 30.14 29.31 29.76 29.72
Corn syrupd 20.16 33.59 26.89 13.45 6.73 20.29 20/04 20.24 19.87
SCSMe 19.44 19.45 19.42 19.41 19.43 19.00 19.85 19.44 19.44
Water 20.62 18.03 19.32 21.91 23.20 20.72 20.52 20.50 20.91
PKOf 9.47 9.46 9.46 9.46 9.46 9.25 9.68 9.46 9.46
Salt 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40
Lecithin 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
a
Sucrose to corn syrup (42 DE) ratios on dry, w/w basis of added sugar. Caramels made with 10% moisture.
b
Caramels made with 70:30 sucrose to 42DE corn syrup; DE – dextrose equivalents.
c
Caramels made with 10% moisture content and 70:30 sucrose to corn syrup.
d
Corn syrup at 43° Baume.
e
Sweetened condensed skim milk.
f
PKO – palm kernel oil.

film before the lid was applied to limit moisture loss. The z-blade
mixer was turned on immediately after the chamber was sealed.
The same agitation rate of about 50 rpm was applied to all cara-
mels though the agitation time differed.
Due to the effects of solute concentration on boiling point, the
caramels had to be cooked to slightly different temperatures in
order to reach their target moisture contents. Caramels made with
12% moisture were cooked to 113.3 °C, while the caramels made
with 8% moisture had to be cooked to 121.1 °C. The caramels were
formulated and scaled on a weight basis and not on a molar basis;
as a result, the caramels made with 62DE corn syrup had more low
molecular weight molecules per gram than the caramels made
with lower DE corn syrups, and therefore required a higher cooking
temperature (117.8 °C) to reach 10% moisture. All of the other car-
amels reached 10% moisture when cooked to 116.7 °C.
2.3. Agitation time experiment
Sufficient agitation was needed to ensure phase equilibration;
however, excessive agitation could lead to incorporation of air,
breaking of the emulsion or drying out of the caramel. Preliminary
agitation time experiments were carried out to determine the level
of agitation that would be required for each formulation before the
final data was collected. The required agitation was determined by
evaluating the water activity (aw) of a caramel over time. Water
activity changes throughout the crystallization process as the
sucrose crystals are removed from solution and it eventually
reaches a constant value at phase equilibrium.
Batches of caramel were agitated for different lengths of time
and aw was then measured daily for two weeks. The caramels were
considered to have reached phase equilibrium once aw did not
change significantly over time. Sufficient agitation was determined
such that the samples would be equilibrated within three days
after production.
It was determined that caramels made with a 90:10 ratio of
sucrose to corn syrup required only 15 min of agitation, caramels
made with 80:20 ratio required 30 min and the caramels with
70:30, 60:40 and 50:50 ratios all required 1 h of agitation. The car-
amels were checked using air incorporation as an indicator, micro-
scopically and by comparing the densities of the caramels before
and after agitation to ensure over-agitation did not occur.
2.4. Sample preparation for analytical testing
Immediately after agitation, the warm caramel was extracted
from the z-blade mixer and filled into the various molds for anal-
ysis. All filled molds were sealed in plastic containers with paraffin
film (Parafilm M, Bemis Company, Inc., Neenah, WI), with a water
vapor transmission rate, WVTR, of 1 g/m2 d at 38 °C and 90% RH
and stored in an incubator set to 25 °C until immediately before
each test. The tests performed on the caramels were moisture anal-
ysis, aw, color analysis, cold flow, and texture analysis including
tensile testing for tensile strength and strain at break as well as a
penetration test for hardness.
After the specially shaped molds for cold flow, tensile and com-
pression testing were filled, a 283 ml plastic container (Newell
Rubbermaid Inc., Atlanta, GA) was filled with the remaining
caramel, minimizing headspace. This caramel was used for the col-
orimetric, moisture and aw analysis.
2.5. Analytical tests
2.5.1. Colorimetry
The colorimetric test for L⁄, a⁄ and b⁄ was performed on a
Minolta Chroma Meter CR-300 (Minolta Corporation, Ramsey,
NJ), which was calibrated ever day before use. The colorimeter
was placed directly on the surface of the 283 ml container of cara-
mel and the CIE Illuminant C was used. The color test was per-
formed before samples were taken from the container for
moisture analysis or aw to ensure the surface of the caramel was
unaltered. Each caramel, made in duplicate, was tested five times
resulting in n = 10 for each caramel formulation.
2.5.2. Moisture analysis
Water content was measured on a 795 Titrino Karl Fischer titra-
tion unit (Metrohm Ltd., Herisau, Switzerland), which uses a
potentiometric endpoint and calculates the moisture content of a
sample using the volume of titer consumed and the weight of
the sample (Bruttel and Schlink, 2006). A 4:3 methanol:formamide
solution was used to dissolve the caramels prior to analysis in the
water-jacketed sample chamber which was heated to 50 °C. A sam-
ple size of 0.15–0.2 g was used (Bruttel and Schlink, 2006). To
ensure the most accurate reading, the Karl Fischer unit was cali-
brated weekly with a known quantity of deionized water to deter-
mine the strength of the titer solution. In addition, every day
before use, an adjustment factor was calculated based on the aver-
age reading given by 5 tests run on deionized water.
2.5.3. Water activity
An AquaLab 3TE aw meter (Decagon, Pullman, WA) was used
with the temperature control set to 25 °C. The sample cups were
filled with a layer over the bottom of the cup about 3 mm deep.
Due to the slow-diffusing nature of caramel, the aw meter was
set to the continuous reading mode where the chamber remains
 E. Miller, R.W. Hartel / Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38
sealed while the meter takes many, consecutive readings. The aw
meter was allowed to run until two consecutive readings agreed.
Each caramel was tested in triplicate resulting in n = 6 for each
formulation.
2.5.4. Cold flow
For the cold flow test, two-piece, Teflon molds with cylindrical
voids 19 mm in diameter and 19 mm in height were used. These
molds were oiled prior to filling to ensure the caramel came out
cleanly, without disrupting the internal microstructure that had
established in the cylinders during equilibration. Three cylinders,
19 mm in diameter and height, of caramel were removed from
the Teflon molds immediately prior to analysis and placed on a
0.05 mm acetate sheet (3 M Company, Maplewood, MN) on a flat
platform. The initial diameter of each of the three cylinders was
measured in duplicate using a digital caliper. After initial measure-
ment of the diameter, the samples were placed in a chamber set to
25 °C with a dish filled with a saturated salt solution of Mg(NO3)2
hexahydrate, resulting in a relative humidity of 55%. The samples
were held in the chamber for 24 h before measuring the diameter
again, in approximately the same locations. The six initial diameter
readings were averaged and the six readings taken after the testing
period were averaged to capture the change in diameter. Cold flow
was reported as percent change in diameter. This procedure was
carried out for both replicates of the caramel formulation.
2.5.5. Texture analysis
A TA.XT2 texture analyzer (Surrey, UK) loaded with Stable
Micro Systems Exponent Software was used for all texture analysis
tests. Dog bone-shaped molds made out of silicone were used for
tensile testing. These molds were also oiled prior to filling. The
dog bone shaped samples were loaded into the upper grip first
(TA-96B gripping rig) and the probe arm was tared to ensure any
differences in sample weights would not be read as a force on
the probe arm. The probe arm was then lowered and the caramel
clamped in the bottom grip. The probe arm ascended at a test
speed of 10 mm/s until the arm traveled its full path length of
270 mm. The peak force encountered by the probe arm was
recorded as the tensile strength. Five separate readings for tensile
strength were taken for each caramel, which was made in dupli-
cate, resulting in n = 10.
Strain at break was recorded as the distance the caramel
stretched during the tensile test before being pulled into two
pieces. Strain at break was reported as percent change in gage
length at the point of breakage. Five separate readings for strain
at break were taken for each caramel, made in duplicate, resulting
in n = 10.
For compression testing, small, aluminum pans measuring
28 mm in diameter and 10 mm in height (VWR North American,
West Chester, PA) were filled with caramel with excess allowed
to form a dome above the top lip of the pan. A 6.4 mm diameter
stainless steel, spherical probe (TA-8) and a TA-98 confectionery
holder were used during compression analysis. The samples were
prepared by taking a sharp knife and slicing the dome of excess
caramel off of the sample, leaving a piece that was 10 mm thick.
A fresh surface was exposed immediately prior to testing to ensure
no case hardening occurred on the surface, resulting in falsely high
readings. The probe descended at a pretest speed of 10 mm/s until
the trigger force of 5 g was encountered. The probe then descended
into the sample 8 mm at the test speed of 5 mm/s. After the test,
the probe arm ascended at a post-test speed of 20 mm/s. The peak
force encountered by the probe as it descended into the sample
was recorded as hardness. Between samples, the probe was
washed with water and then acetone to remove any caramel or
fat that might have adhered (Kilcast and Roberts, 1997). Five pans
of each caramel, made in duplicate, were tested resulting in n = 10.
31
2.6. Crystal content calculations
A crystal predictor was developed to calculate the amount of
crystalline sucrose in the samples once phase equilibrium was
reached. The predictor was based on Eq. (1). Ss was determined
using data from literature on the solubility of sucrose in the pres-
ence of corn syrup solids and lactose (Jonathon, 2004; Nickerson
and Moore, 1972). Statistical analysis of the data indicated that lac-
tose and corn syrup affected sucrose solubility to the same extent
and therefore, the assumption was made that their effects were
additive. Further, corn syrups with different DE have been shown
to decrease the solubility of sucrose to the same extent, so the
same sucrose solubility calculation was used in the predictor for
all caramel formulations (Jonathon, 2004; Tjuradi and Hartel,
1995).
The mass fractions for all of the significant components
(sucrose, fat, water, nonsucrose saccharides, etc.) of the caramel
were first calculated. The grams of nonsucrose saccharides present
in the caramel were converted to a 100 g water basis. Sucrose sol-
ubility in the presence of the nonsucrose saccharides was deter-
mined using the regression model from Jonathon (2004). This
was then converted back to grams dissolved sucrose, which can
be subtracted from the sucrose mass fraction to yield the percent
crystalline sucrose in the sample. From the mass balance, the com-
position of the continuous phase was also calculated.
Although it was not possible to confirm this CMF calculation
experimentally on these caramels, this was the same approach
used by Porter and Hartel (2013) on fondants made with varying
corn syrup content. Since those calculations were experimentally
confirmed by TD-NMR measurements, it was assumed that similar
calculations used here gave a reasonably accurate representation
of CMF at equilibrium.
2.7. Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed on JMP software (SAS, Cary,
NC). The first test performed was a one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA), at a 95% confidence level, comparing the results of the
test for each treatment with the results of all other treatments
for that test. One-way ANOVA results are reported as [F (degrees
of freedom (df) within groups, df between groups) = x, p = y]. The
ANOVA was used to determine if statistically significant differ-
ences existed between the means of the different treatments. If a
significant difference was detected by the ANOVA, a post hoc
Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD), at the a < 0.05 level,
was used to compare individual means for statistical significance.
3. Results and discussion
Crystallized (grained) caramel is a multi-phase system made of
sucrose crystals, emulsion droplets and protein aggregates dis-
persed homogeneously throughout an amorphous continuous
phase. This continuous phase contains all the water, corn syrup
solids, milk solids and sucrose dissolved to saturation. Since the
primary goal of this study was to quantify the relationship
between crystal mass fraction (CMF) on textural attributes of car-
amel, it was important to understand the nature of each phase of
the system. In this study, it was assumed that the protein and fat
phases were similar across all formulations and that the crystalline
sucrose content played the dominant role in governing textural
properties. Thus, the main parameters that would be expected to
influence textural properties of the caramels in this study were
considered to be CMF and the nature of the continuous phase, pri-
marily viscosity as influenced by water content, composition, and
DE of corn syrup solids.
32 E. Miller, R.W. Hartel / Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38

3.1. Final caramel component distribution
The moisture contents in all caramels were within 0.1% of their
target final moisture content. A one-way ANOVA comparing the
Karl Fisher moisture analysis results showed that no statistically
significant differences existed between the means of the caramels
with a target moisture content of 10% [F(50, 8) = 1.6943,
p = 0.1231].
To determine the crystal content and composition of the fin-
ished caramels, the formulations were input into the predictor
based on the solids of the premix along with the analyzed moisture
content of the finished product. As expected, the amount of crystal-
line sucrose in the caramels increased as the ratio of sucrose to
corn syrup increased (Fig. 1a). Since the moisture contents of the
samples were the same, the increase in crystallinity at higher ratios
of sucrose to corn syrup was due to the reduction in grain inhibit-
ing saccharides as well as an increase in the mass fraction of
sucrose. This resulted in more substrate available for crystalliza-
tion. As expected, crystal content increased with lower moisture
content as this increased the level of sucrose supersaturation
(Ergun et al., 2009) (Fig. 1b). The crystal content was effectively
the same as the control for all of the formulations using different
corn syrups. Based on the assumption that all corn syrup fractions
and DEs affect sucrose solubility to the same extent (Tjuradi and
Hartel, 1995) and since the moisture contents were not signifi-
cantly different, the calculated crystal contents were the same.
The overall distribution of caramel composition including crys-
tal content, moisture content and relative mass distribution within
the continuous phase gives insight to its viscosity. The composi-
tions were calculated on a percent of total caramel basis using
the mass balance equations.
Crystal content increased as the ratio of sucrose to corn syrup
increased (Fig. 1a). The continuous phase of the caramels made
with higher ratios of sucrose to corn syrup had a much higher
amount of water in comparison to dissolved sucrose and nonsu-
crose solids. This would lead to a less viscous continuous phase.
Fig. 1b shows the decrease in crystal content in caramels made
with increasing total moisture. The increase in mass fraction of
the continuous phase consists of increased dissolved sucrose.
Higher levels of water in the continuous phase and a lower propor-
tion of corn syrup would result in lower viscosity. Fig. 1c demon-
strates that caramels made with different types of corn syrup
were compositionally consistent. What is not captured in Fig. 1c,
however, are the differences in the characteristics of the corn syr-
ups themselves. Lower DE corn syrups are more viscous than those
with higher DE. Thus, even though the moisture content of the con-
tinuous phase was the same, its viscosity would be lower in cara-
mels made with higher DE corn syrups.
As sucrose molecules crystallize out of solution, all nonsucrose
components are concentrated in the continuous phase as the crys-
tal phase volume increases (Heathcock, 1985; Hartel, 2001). After
crystallization to equilibrium, the continuous phase includes all
of the initial lactose, corn syrup solids, the protein and ash contrib-
uted by the dairy source, as well as dissolved sucrose to the extent
governed by the effect of lactose and corn syrup solids on solubil-
ity. For this calculation, fat was not considered part of the contin-
uous phase due to it being dispersed, hydrophobic and
noninteracting. Since water was excluded from the crystals during

(a) 100 (b) 100

90 90
80 80
Composition (%)
Composition (%)

70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 8% 10% 12%
Sucrose (%) Moisture Content (%)

(c) 100
90
80
Composition (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
36 42 62
Dextrose Equivalent (%)

Fig. 1. Composition of caramels, on a total caramel basis. (a) Caramels made with different ratios of sucrose to corn syrup; (b) caramels made with different total moisture
contents; (c) caramels made with different Dextrose Equivalent (DE) of corn syrup. Black represents fat (constant at 12.5%), white represents crystalline sucrose and the gray
represents the continuous phase where the lightest gray is dissolved sucrose, the medium gray is nonsucrose solids (corn syrup solids, lactose, protein and ash) and the dark
gray is total moisture content.
 E. Miller, R.W. Hartel / Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38
graining, the continuous phase became more dilute after crystalli-
zation. The moisture content in the continuous phase has an
impact on overall texture by affecting the viscosity of the continu-
ous phase; more water leads to a less viscous continuous phase.
For caramels made with 10% moisture on a total weight basis,
moisture content in the continuous phase increased as the ratio
of sucrose to corn syrup increased due to the exclusion of water
from the sucrose crystals into a concomitantly smaller continuous
phase (Fig. 2a).
Competing factors affected moisture in the continuous phase in
caramels made with different final moisture contents (8%, 10% and
12%). Crystal content decreased with higher total moisture, which
would mean phase volume was larger for the water to occupy and
could result in lower moisture content in the continuous phase.
However, the increase in total moisture in the product more than
compensated for the smaller continuous phase volume, resulting
in a net increase in moisture in the continuous phase (Fig. 2b).
No effect of corn syrup type on moisture content in the continuous
phase was predicted since crystal content and total moisture con-
tent were the same in all of the caramels.
3.2. Colorimetry
Several competing factors influenced the color of grained cara-
mels in this study. Longer cooking times, elevated cooking temper-
atures or higher levels of reducing sugar would all lead to more
Maillard browning and thus lower L⁄-values. Conversely, forma-
tion of numerous, small crystals diffract light, leading to increased
opacity and higher L⁄-values.
L⁄-value increased as the ratio of sucrose to corn syrup
increased (Fig. 3a) [F(45, 4) = 550.9501, p < 0.0001). A post hoc
Tukey’s HSD determined that all of the means were statistically
different from each other (p < 0.0006) except for the caramels
made with 70:30 and 80:20 sucrose to corn syrup, which were
not significantly different from each other (p = 0.0822). The two
factors contributing to this trend were the increased crystallinity
in the higher sucrose ratios diffracting more light, increasing the
L⁄-value and sucrose not participating in Maillard browning while
corn syrups solids do. Replacing the reducing sugars of corn syrup
solids with the nonreducing sucrose would lighten the color. Both
factors lead to increased L⁄-values.
Competing factors affect luminosity of caramels with varying
moisture contents, resulting in a maximum in the 10% moisture
caramel (Fig. 3b). A one-way ANOVA showed that significant differ-
ences exist between the means [F(27, 2) = 50.3764, p < 0.0001]. A
Tukey’s HSD confirmed that the three means were statistically dif-
ferent (p < 0.05). The elevated cooking temperature and increased
cooking time required to make the 8% moisture caramels promoted
Fig. 2. Calculated moisture content in the continuous phase. (a) Caramels made with different sucrose to corn syrup ratios (w/w on a dry basis of the added sugar) and 10%
total moisture; (b) caramels made with different total moisture contents.
33
Maillard browning, which lead to a lower L⁄-value. The opposing
influence is that the caramels made with 8% moisture had less
water in the continuous phase and therefore greater crystallinity,
Fig. 1b, to lighten the color. These competing forces lead to a max-
imum in lightness at 10% moisture. The caramel with 8% moisture
was darker than the caramel with 10% total moisture due to
increased color development during the cooking process, while
the caramel with 12% moisture was darker because more of the
dark-toned caramel matrix could show through the lower level
of crystallization. A nonlinear trend would be anticipated due to
the competing factors affecting color as moisture content changed.
For different corn syrup types, significant differences existed
between the means [F(27, 2) = 20.6129, p < 0.0001]. A post hoc
Tukey’s HSD showed that the caramels made with 62DE corn syrup
had significantly lower luminosity (p < 0.0001) than the caramels
made with 36DE and 42DE corn syrups, which were not statisti-
cally different from one another (p = 0.8650). All three formulas
had the same crystal content; however, the extra reducing sugars,
longer cooking time and higher cooking temperature required for
the caramels made with 62DE corn syrup to reach 10% moisture
resulted in increased browning (Fig. 3c). A nonlinear trend would
be anticipated due to the higher level of reducing sugars and differ-
ences in the cooking process contributing additional color develop-
ment in the caramels made with 62DE corn syrup.
3.3. Water activity
Water activity is a colligative property, meaning it is affected by
the number of molecules interacting with water. As the amount of
dissolved solids increases, aw decreases. Therefore, on a weight
basis, smaller molecules have a larger impact on aw. Water activity
and moisture content do not correlate linearly. Although increased
moisture content generally increases aw, the interactions within
the matrix also directly influence aw.
Water activity increased as the ratio of sucrose to corn syrup
increased (Fig. 4a) [F(25, 4) = 429.6429, p < 0.0001]. A post hoc
Tukey’s HSD confirmed that all means were statistically different
from each other (p > 0.05). Forty-two DE corn syrup, with molecu-
lar weight of 435, had less impact on aw than sucrose, on a weight
basis, because its average molecular weight is larger. As a result, if
the samples were not grained, the caramels made with 90:10
sucrose to corn syrup ratio would have had the lowest aw due to
the higher impact of sucrose than corn syrup on aw. However,
the level of crystallinity in the higher ratios of sucrose to corn
syrup concentrated the water in the continuous phase and con-
comitantly decreased total dissolved solids. The total solids in
the continuous phase (as a percent of the continuous phase) was
83.5% in the caramel made with 50:50 ratio of sucrose to corn
34 E. Miller, R.W. Hartel / Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38
Fig. 3. Luminosity (L⁄) of caramels. (a) Caramels made with different sucrose to
corn syrup ratios (w/w on a dry basis of added sugar); (b) caramels made with
different moisture contents; (c) caramels made with different Dextrose Equivalent
(DE) of corn syrup. Black circles represent luminosity and gray circles represent
calculated crystal content. Means labeled with the different letters are significantly
different. Error bars represent one standard deviation.
syrup and only 76.2% in the caramel made with 90:10 ratio
(Fig. 1a). The anticipated trend line would flatten at the higher
ratios of sucrose to corn syrup due to the nonlinear relationship
between aw and moisture content, and the decreasing average
molecular weight of the solutes (Fig. 1a).
Water activity increased as the moisture content of the cara-
mels increased (Fig. 4b) [F(15, 2) = 345.2273, p < 0.0001]. A post
hoc Tukey’s HSD confirmed that all mean aws were statistically dif-
ferent from each other (p < 0.05). The caramels with 12% moisture
had the least crystals and thus the largest volume for water to
occupy as well as the most dissolved sucrose in the continuous
phase (Fig. 1b). This could lead to a lower aw; however, the high
total moisture resulted in more water overall in the system, which
had a larger effect. The total solids in the continuous phase (as a
Fig. 4. Water activity (aw) of caramels. (a) Caramels made with different ratios of
sucrose to corn syrup (w/w on a dry basis of the added sugar); (b) caramels made
with different moisture content; (c) caramels made with different Dextrose
Equivalent (DE) of corn syrup. Black circles represent aw and gray circles represent
calculated crystal content. Means labeled with different letters are significantly
different. Error bars represent one standard deviation.
percent of the continuous phase) was 82.3% in the caramel made
with 8% total moisture and only 79% in the caramel made with
12% moisture. The lower level of dissolved solids in the caramels
with higher total moisture resulted in increased aw due to
decreased number of molecular interaction with the water. A non-
linear trend would be expected due to the nonlinear relationship
between moisture content and aw (Fig. 4b).
Corn syrup type influenced aw of caramels, particularly in the
caramel made with 62 DE corn syrup [F(15, 2) = 26.6667,
p < 0.0001]. A Tukey’s HSD confirmed that aw of the caramels made
with 62DE corn syrup, with a molecular weight of 295, was signif-
icantly lower (p < 0.0001) than aw of the caramels made with 36DE
(MW = 500) or 42DE (MW = 435) corn syrup, which were not
statistically different (p = 1.000). All three formulations had the
same crystal content and moisture content in the continuous phase
 E. Miller, R.W. Hartel / Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38
(19.4–19.5% of the continuous phase); thus, the main cause for the
differences in aw had to be the average molecular weight of the
solutes. More molecules interact with water with higher DE corn
syrups lead to lower aw (Fig. 4c). A nonlinear trend would be
expected in aw as the DE of corn syrup changed due to the
increased number of dissolved molecules in the continuous phase
of caramels made with higher DE corn syrups.
3.4. Cold flow
It has been well established that graining inhibits cold flow by
providing internal structure to the product, which helps resist
spontaneous deformation of the caramel (Hofberger, 2009). How-
ever, viscosity of the continuous phase also influences the response
to the force of gravity, with lower viscosity leading to greater flow
(Damodaran, 2008).
Caramels made with higher ratios of sucrose to cold syrup
exhibited less cold flow (Fig. 5) [F(25, 4) = 14.2604, p < 0.0001]. A
post hoc Tukey’s HSD showed that caramels made with 50:50
and 60:40 sucrose to corn syrup were not significantly different
from each other (p = 0.2267) and that those made with 70:30,
80:20 or 90:10 sucrose to corn syrup ratios were not significantly
different from each other (p > 0.05). However, cold flow in the
50:50–60:40 group was significantly higher than that of the
70:30–90:10 group (p < 0.05). The caramels made with 50:50
sucrose to corn syrup more than doubled in diameter over the
course of 24 h, while the caramels made with 70:30–90:10 ratios
exhibited a negligible amount of cold flow, less than a 5% increase
in diameter. The lack of cold flow was primarily due to the higher
crystal contents in the caramels made with higher sucrose ratios,
since the decreased viscosity of the continuous phase acted in
the opposite direction. The calculated crystal contents increased
linearly as the ratio of sucrose to corn syrup increased; however,
the cold flow results did not follow the same, linear trend
(Fig. 1a). There was a sharp decrease in cold flow in the caramels
as the ratio of sucrose to corn syrup increased from 50:50 to
70:30. This indicates there could be a critical level of graining
above which cold flow is essentially inhibited and additional crys-
tals would not provide significantly more standup. The high vari-
ability seen in caramels made with 60:40 ratio of sucrose to corn
syrup makes it hard to confidently place where that level of cold
flow truly falls. The critical level of crystallinity must be between
those seen in the caramels made with 50:50 and 70:30 ratios of
sucrose to corn syrup (27–36.3%), though it is likely close to the
level seen in the caramel made with 60:40 ratio (31.8%). A nonlin-
Fig. 5. Cold flow of caramels made with different ratios of sucrose to corn syrup (w/
w on a dry basis of the added sugar). Black circles represent cold flow and gray
circles represent calculated crystal content. Means labeled with different letters are
significantly different. Error bars represent one standard deviation.
35
ear trend would be expected due to the caramels with the higher
ratios of sucrose to corn syrup having crystal contents above the
critical level.
A change in moisture content was expected to influence cold
flow in the finished caramels [F(15, 2) = 5.2317, p = 0.0189]. A post
hoc Tukey’s HSD showed that the caramels with 8% moisture had
statistically lower cold flow (p < 0.05) than the caramels made with
10% or 12% moisture, which were not statistically different from
each other (p = 0.9338) (data not shown). Though there were sta-
tistical differences in the caramels made with different moisture
contents, the samples all exhibited less than 5% cold flow. The cold
flow was nearly identical, and low, in all the caramels with levels of
crystallinity above 30%.
Although a one-way ANOVA indicated that significant differ-
ences [F(15, 2) = 29.0495, p < 0.0001] existed between the cold flow
values in the caramels made with different types of cold flow, the
samples all exhibited less than 5% cold flow (data not shown). The
level of crystallinity was the same in all of the caramels made with
different types of cold flow, around 36.3%, which would be above
the critical level of crystallinity, as discussed previously.
3.5. Tensile strength
Tensile strength would be oppositely affected by the viscosity of
the continuous phase and by crystal content. The force required to
induce necking would increase with increased continuous phase
viscosity and less force would be required if the continuous phase
was disrupted with crystals. This phenomenon contributes to the
‘‘short’’ texture of grained caramels and fudge.
Significant differences existed in tensile strength for caramels
made with different sucrose to corn syrup ratios [F(45, 4) =
32.7738, p < 0.0001]. A Tukey’s HSD showed that the caramels
made with 50:50 sucrose to corn syrup were statistically higher
than all of the other means (p < 0.0001), the caramels made with
60:40 and 80:20 ratios were not statistically different from each
other (p = 0.6470), and the caramels made with 70:30, 80:20 and
90:10 ratios of sucrose to corn syrup were not statistically different
from each other (p < 0.05). Tensile strength of caramels decreased
as the ratio of sucrose to corn syrup increased (Fig. 6a). The crystals
acted as fault points and also led to a less viscous continuous phase
which both contributed to a decrease in tensile strength. A
nonlinear trend is anticipated as the tensile strength approaches
a minimum.
Significant differences existed between the means of caramels
made with different moisture content [F(27, 2) = 93.0393,
p < 0.0001]. A post hoc Tukey’s HSD showed that the caramel with
8% moisture was statistically higher (p < 0.0001) than the others,
although the caramels made with 10% and 12% moisture were
not statistically different (p = 0.4003). Tensile strength of caramels
decreased as moisture content increased (Fig. 6b). Viscosity of the
continuous phase and crystal content were competing forces
affecting tensile strength in the caramels made with different total
moisture contents. Less moisture in the continuous phase of the
caramels made with 8% moisture (17.7% vs. 21% in the caramels
made with 12% total moisture) as well as the higher proportion
of corn syrup in the continuous phase (Fig. 1b), resulted in a more
viscous continuous phase. The higher viscosity lead to increased
force required to initiate necking. The factor opposing the higher
viscosity of the 8% moisture caramel was the increased crystallin-
ity, which would tend to lower the tensile strength. Continuous
phase viscosity had a more significant impact on tensile strength
than crystal content and compensated for the structure-breaking
nature of the crystals. A nonlinear trend is anticipated as the ten-
sile strength approaches a minimum level.
Tensile strength of caramels decreased as the DE of the corn
syrup increased (Fig. 6c) [F(27, 2) = 237.1557, p < 0,0001]. A post
36 E. Miller, R.W. Hartel / Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38

3.6. Strain at break

Graining has an effect on strain at break due to crystals

providing fault points and breaking up the continuous phase of
the caramel. Similar to tensile strength, the continuous phase
directly above and below a crystal would be physically prevented
from contributing to the cohesive nature of a caramel. This results
in less ability of the caramel to resist tearing and thus yields a
shorter texture.
The strain at break for caramels decreased with an increase in
ratio of sucrose to corn syrup (Fig. 7) [F(45, 4) = 113.5267,
p < 0.0001]. A post hoc Tukey’s HSD showed that the caramels
made with 50:50 and 60:40 sucrose to corn syrup were statistically
different from each other and the other formulas (p < 0.0001).
Caramels made with 70:30, 80:20 and 90:10 ratios were not statis-
tically different from each other (p > 0.05). The increased crystal
content (27% in the caramels made with 50:50 sucrose ratio vs.
45.2% in the 90:10 caramels) lead to shorter textures. Similar to
cold flow, the constant strain at break in the higher ratios of
sucrose to corn syrup could indicate that there is a critical crystal
content, around 30%, above which strain at break approaches a
minimum. A nonlinear trend would be expected as the crystal con-
tents approaches the critical level.
Strain at break of the caramels was not significantly affected by
changes in total moisture content. A one-way ANOVA showed that
there were no significant differences between the means of strain
at break for caramels made with different moisture content
[F(27, 2) = 0.9987, p = 0.3815] (data not shown). The caramels
made with different moisture contents all had crystal contents
above the critical level of 30%. This was likely the factor with the
largest impact on strain at break as moisture content was changed.
Strain at break also was not significantly affected by the type of
corn syrup used (data not shown). The caramels made with
different types of corn syrup had crystal contents around 36.3%
of the total caramel. Despite the change in corn syrup type, the
crystal content remained above the critical level and was likely
the predominant force dictating strain at break.

3.7. Hardness

Hardness of caramel is affected by both the viscosity of the con-

tinuous phase and level of crystallinity. A viscous sample requires
more applied force for the texture analyzer probe to displace the
Fig. 6. Tensile strength of caramels. (a) Caramels made different ratios of sucrose to caramel and reach its target depth. Crystallization has different
corn syrup; (b) caramels made with different moisture contents; (c) caramels made
with different Dextrose Equivalent (DE) of corn syrup. Black circles represent tensile
strength and gray circles represent calculated crystal content. Means labeled with
different letters are significantly different. Error bars represent one standard
deviation.

hoc Tukey’s HSD confirmed that caramels made with 36DE corn
syrup were statistically higher (p < 0.001) in tensile strength than
caramels made with either 42DE or 62DE corn syrup, which were
not statistically different from each other (p = 0.3498). Crystal
content and moisture content in the continuous phase were not
significantly different in these samples even though tensile
strengths were. The main differences in the caramels made with
different corn syrup types were the characteristics of the corn syr-
ups themselves. The higher order saccharides in the 36DE corn
syrup contributed viscosity to the continuous phase, which would
increase tensile strength. These data also reinforce that viscosity of
Fig. 7. Strain at break from the ratio of sucrose to corn syrup (w/w on a dry basis of
the continuous phase is the predominant force in determining ten- the added sugar). Black circles represent strain at break and gray circles represent
sile strength. A nonlinear trend is anticipated as the tensile calculated crystal content. Means labeled with different letters are significantly
strength approaches a minimum level. different. Error bars represent one standard deviation.
 E. Miller, R.W. Hartel / Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38 37

effects on hardness. Crystals create a more dilute and less viscous

continuous phase, resulting in lower overall hardness. Contrasting-
ly, crystals are solid particles suspended within a liquid and can
lend a more solid character to the product. At high levels of
crystallinity, the solid nature of the crystals compensates for the
less viscous continuous phase and actually increases the hardness
of a caramel.
The overall trend indicated that the higher the ratio of sucrose to
corn syrup, the lower the hardness of a caramel (Fig. 8a)
[F(45, 4) = 168.4831, p < 0.0001]. A post hoc Tukey’s HSD showed
that all of the hardness means were statistically different
(p < 0.05) except for the caramels made with 80:20 and 90:10
sucrose to corn syrup ratios, which were not statistically different
from each other (p > 0.05). There was however, a distinct minimum
at the 70:30 ratio of sucrose to corn syrup. This was due to the sev-
eral competing factors affecting hardness as the ratio of sucrose to
corn syrup was changed. The overall decrease in hardness as the
ratio increased was potentially caused by a reduction in viscosity
of the continuous phase due to higher moisture content in the con-
tinuous phase as well as a lower proportion of viscous corn syrup
(Fig. 1a). Lower viscosity of the continuous phase would result in
the probe encountering less force during its descent into the cara-
mel. However, increased crystallinity should have led to increased
hardness in the caramels made with higher ratios of sucrose to corn
syrup as the crystals contribute a more solid character to the cara-
mel (Cakebread, 1972). As a parallel, in fondant making, corn syrup
is added to formulations in order to soften the product. Though little
analytical data exists on this subject, empirical observations indi-
cate that higher sucrose to corn syrup ratios lead to harder fondants.
At low ratios of sucrose to corn syrup, and therefore low crystal
contents, viscosity of the continuous phase appeared to be the pre-
dominant factor in determining hardness (Fig. 8a). In the higher
ratios of sucrose to corn syrup, the increased crystal content
resisted compression and should therefore have potentially
increased the hardness of the caramels to a greater extent. A min-
imum hardness occurred in the caramels made with 70:30 ratio of
sucrose to corn syrup where the continuous phase was less
viscous but there were not enough crystals in the system to con-
tribute hardness. The anticipated trend would be nonlinear due
to the competing factors affecting hardness as ratio of sucrose to
corn syrup was changed.
Hardness of caramels decreased as the moisture content
increased (Fig. 8b) [F(27, 2) = 156.7063, p < 0.0001]. A post hoc
Tukey’s HSD determined that all three means were statistically
different (p < 0.0003). Increased crystallinity is a factor contribut-
ing to the hardness of the caramel made with 8% moisture. As
noted above, the dramatic increase in hardness seen in the lower
ratios of sucrose to corn syrup indicates that higher viscosity in Fig. 8. Hardness (a) caramels made with different ratios of sucrose to CS; (b)
the continuous phase also had a significant effect on hardness, caramels made with different moisture content; (c) caramels made with different
CS types. Black circles represent hardness and gray circles represent calculated
which also contributed to hardness in the 8% moisture caramel.
crystal content. Means labeled with different letters are significantly different. Error
These results agree with the literature where lower moisture con- bars represent one standard deviation.
tent yields a firmer product (Hofberger, 2009; McMaster et al.,
1987). Higher crystal content and viscosity of the continuous phase
both contributed to hardness in the caramels made with lower 4. Conclusions
total moisture contents.
Increasing DE of the corn syrup caused a decrease in hardness of The texture and performance of grained caramels is strongly
the caramel (Fig. 8c) [F(27, 2) = 131.1683, p < 0.0001]. A post hoc influenced by many different factors from processing to formula-
Tukey’s HSD confirmed that all three means were statistically dif- tion. These parameters may be manipulated to control the desired
ferent (p < 0.0001). The major difference between the caramels texture and characteristics of the final product through their
made with different corn syrup types was the viscosity of the effects on crystal content as well as component distribution and
continuous phase. These results help to elucidate some of the viscosity of the continuous phase.
competing forces highlighted by the caramels with different ratios Increasing crystallinity decreases cold flow, tensile strength and
of sucrose to corn syrup and further confirm that viscosity of the strain at break, and slightly increases hardness. Tensile strength
continuous phase is an important factor affecting the hardness of and strain at break are both decreased due to crystals acting as
a caramel. A nonlinear trend would be anticipated due to the fault points in the continuous phase. Very high crystal contents
changing viscosities of the corn syrups. lead to slightly harder caramels. Crystal content has a larger impact
38 E. Miller, R.W. Hartel / Journal of Food Engineering 153 (2015) 28–38
on strain at break than tensile strength or hardness. Crystallization
inhibits cold flow by providing internal structure. There appears to
be a critical threshold around 30% crystal content beyond which,
additional graining did not seem to have increased impact on cold
flow or strain at break. Crystals also scatter light, lending opacity
and lightening the color of a caramel.
Higher levels of water in the continuous phase, caused by
exclusion from sucrose crystals or by higher moisture content
overall result in a less viscous continuous phase, decreasing
tensile strength, strain at break and hardness. Lower viscosity
means less force is required to pull a caramel apart for the tensile
strength test or for a probe to compress the caramel, as in the
hardness test.
Knowing the causes of crystallization in caramel would aid the
confectioner in formulation to optimize texture and quality of the
final product. Fundamental knowledge of graining would alleviate
some of the pressures of production, such as rework and poor
quality product, by enabling operators to produce successful and
consistent caramel.
References
Bruttel, P., Schlink, R., 2006. Water determination by Karl Fischer titration. Metrohm
Monogr., 40 (8.026.5013).
Cakebread, S.H., 1970. Candy chemistry: grained confections Part II. Manuf. Confect.
50 (12) (pp. 38–39 and 42–44).
Cakebread, S.H., 1971. Candy chemistry: grained confections Part III. Manuf.
Confect. 51 (1), 25–29.
Cakebread, S.H., 1972. Requirements for production of grained confectionery.
Manuf. Confect. 52 (3) (pp. 39–40, 42, 44, 46).
Damodaran, S., 2008. Amino acids, peptides, and proteins. In: Damodaran, S., Parkin,
K.L., Fennema, O.R. (Eds.), Fennema’s Food Chemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp.
17–82.
Ergun, R., Hartel, R.W., Yoda, Y., 2009. Predicting crystallization in confections.
Manuf. Confect. 89 (10), 51–60.
Flanyak, J.R., 1991. Effects of sucrose in confectionery processes. Manuf. Confect. 71
(10), 61–66.
Hartel, R.W., 2001. Crystallization in Foods. Aspen Publishers Inc, Gaithersburg.
Heathcock, J.F., 1985. Characterization of milk proteins in confectionery products.
Food Microstruct. 4 (1), 17–27.
Hofberger, R., 2009. Caramel 101. Manuf. Confect. 89 (11), 31–37.
Jackson, B., 2000. Fundamentals of sugar confectionery. Manuf. Confect. 80 (8), 35–
41.
Jonathon, T., 2004. The Effect of Corn Syrup on Sucrose Crystal Nucleation from Thin
Film Solutions Master’s Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI.
Kilcast, D., Roberts, C., 1997. Perception and measurement of stickiness in sugar-
rich foods. J. Texture Stud. 29 (1), 81–100.
Kitt, J.S., 1993. Hard candy graining, causes & prevention. Manuf. Confect. 73 (11),
47–48.
Lenz, P.A., Hartel, R., 2005. Predicting sucrose crystallization in confections. Manuf.
Confect. 85 (8), 55–64.
McMaster, T.J., Smith, A.C., Richmond, P., 1987. Physical and rheological
characterisation of a confectionery product. J. Texture Stud. 18, 319–334.
Nickerson, T.A., Moore, E.E., 1972. Solubility interrelations of lactose and sucrose. J.
Food Sci. 37, 60–61.
Porter, T.P., Hartel, R.W., 2013. Quantifying sucrose crystal content in fondant.
Manuf. Confect. 93 (1), 61–64.
Steiner, A.E., Foegeding, E.A., Drake, M., 2003. Descriptive analysis of caramel
texture. J. Sens. Stud. 18, 277–289.
Tjuradi, P., Hartel, R.W., 1995. Corn syrup oligosaccharide effects on sucrose
crystallization. J. Food Sci. 60 (6), 1353–1356.
Warnecke, M., 1995. Milk – the essential ingredient in caramel. Manuf. Confect. 75
(6), 89–90.