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Day 36 Lecture 1
Physics

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PHYSICS
Physics is the study of nature and its laws. Theword physics has
been derived from a Greek word physis which means nature.
Physics is one of the academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest
through its inclusion of astronomy

Units
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with
a certain basic arbitrarily chosen and widely accepted
reference standard called unit.

SI SYSTEM
It is based on the following seven basic units and two
supplementary units

Important Derived Units Greatest Units

1 light year =9.46 ´ 1015 m

1 parsec = 3.086 ´ 1016 m =
3.26 ly
1 AU = 1.5 ´ 1011m
1 metric tonne = 103 kg
1 quintal = 102 kg

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Dimensions of Physical Quantities

Dimensions of a physical quantity are the

powers, to which the fundamental quantities
must be raised to represent that quantity
completely. There fore, the dimensional formula
of a quantity is expressed in terms of
fundamental Quantities, commonly Mass M,
Length L, and TimeT.Any physical quantity is
either a scaler or a vector.

Eg. Force = [MLT-2], Density =[ML-3]

• Scaler Quantity
Physical quantities which have magnitude only and no direction are called
scalar quantities. .
Eg. mass, speed, volume, work, time, power, energy etc

• Vector Quantity
Physical Quantities which have both magnitude and direction and also obey
triangle law of vector addition are called vector quantities.

Eg. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque etc.

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KINEMATICS
It is the branch of mechanics, which deals with the motion of object.

Distance
◆The length of the actual path covered by a body in a
particular time interval is called distance. It is always positive.
◆ It is a scalar quantity.
◆ Its unit is metre.

Displacement
◆The difference between the final and the initial position of an
object is called displacement. It may be positive, negative or zero.
◆ It is a vector quantity. Its unit is metre.
◆ The magnitude of displacement may or may not be equal to
the path length traversed by an object.

Speed

◆Speed is the distance covered by a moving body in per unit of time

interval.
◆It is a scalar quantity. It is always equal to or greater than
magnitude of the velocity.
◆The average speed of a particle for a given interval of time is
defined as the ratio of total distance travelled to the total time taken.

Average speed = Total distance travelled

Total time taken

◆If the body covers first half distance with speed v1 and next
half with speed v2, then

Average speed = 2v1v2

v1 + v2

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Velocity
The rate of change of displacement of a ◆If a body travels with uniform
body is called velocity. velocity v1 for time t1 and with
Velocity = Distance uniform velocity v2 for time t2, then
Time
◆ Velocity is a vector quantity.
Average velocity = v1t1 + v2t2
◆ It may be positive or negative. t1 + t2

Average velocity = Totaldisplacement ◆If a body is moving on a circular

Total time path, then after completing one
◆If the body covers first half distance with complete cycle, its average velocity is
velocity v1 and next half with velocity v2, zero.
then

Average velocity =
2v1v2
v1 + v2

Uniform Velocity
An object is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it undergoes
equal displacements in equal intervals of time.

Non-Uniform Velocity
An object is said to be moving with non- uniform or variable velocity if
it undergoes unequal displacements in equal intervals of time.

Relative Velocity
When two bodies are moving in the straight line, the speed (or
velocity) of one with respect to another is known as its relative speed
(or velocity).

v = velocity of A with respect toB

AB

= v A- v B

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Acceleration

◆It is the rate of change of velocity. Its SI unit is m/ s2. It is a

vector quantity.
◆When the velocity of a body increases with time then its
acceleration is positive and if velocity decreases with time then its
acceleration is negative and is called retardation or deceleration.

Acceleration of an object is zero, if it is at rest or moving with

uniform velocity.

Circular Motion

◆When an object moves along a circular path, then its motion is

called circular motion e.g. motion of top etc. If an object moves
along a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called
uniform circular motion. It is accelerated even if the speed of the
body is constant. The motion of a satellite is an accelerated motion.

◆ The acceleration is directed towards the centre and is given

by

where v is the speed and r is the radius. This is called

centripetal acceleration.

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FORCE
Force is a push or pull which can change the position or direction of a body.

Centripetal Force Centrifugal Force

A body performing circular motion is acted upon by a force Pseudo Force When we in a non-
which is always directed towards the centre of the circle. This inertial frame of reference to apply
force is called centripetal force. Any of the forces found in Newton’s laws, we have to apply a
nature (suchas frictional force, gravitational force, electrical force on the object equal to mass
force, magnetic force etc) may act as a centripetal force. times in opposite direction of
acceleration or retardation of the
◆Cyclist bends his body towards the centre on a turn while frame. Centrifugal force is sucha
turning to obtain the required centripetal force. Pseudo force. It is always equal and
◆Generally, in rain the scooter slips at the turning of a road opposite to centripetal force.
because the friction between tyre and road is reduced. Due to
this, necessary centripetal force is not provided. Roads are Cream separator, centrifugal drier etc
banked at turns to provide the required centripetal force for work on the principle of centrifugal
taking a turn. force.

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

◆A person sitting in a moving car falls forward,
First Law when the car stops suddenly. Thisis because the feet
of the passenger comesto the rest along with the
◆“Every body retains its state of rest or state of car, but the upper part of his body, tends to remain
uniform motion, until an external force is applied on in motion due to inertia of motion.
it.” Thislaw is also known as law of inertia or law of
Galileo. ◆Thedust particle come out from a carpet, when it is
beaten with a stick due to their inertia of rest.
◆First law gives the definition of inertia. Inertia is the
virtue of a body due to which it tries to retain its ◆Inertial Frame Whenever the frame of
state. reference is moving with uniform velocity or is at
rest.
Inertia is of three types:
I. Inertia of rest ◆Non-Inertial Frame Whenever the frame of
II. Inertia of motion reference is accelerating or retarding or rotating is
III. Inertia of direction called non- inertial frame of reference.

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Second Law
‘‘The force applied on a body is equal to the product of massof the body
and the acceleration produced in it e.g. F= ma.’’

◆ The second law of motion gives the definition of force.

◆A force is any influence that causes an object to undergo a certain change,
either concerning its movement, direction and geometrical structure.
◆ SI unit of force is Newton (N).

Linear Momentum

◆The product of the massand the velocity of a body is called the linear
momentumof the body.
◆ It is a vector quantity. Its unit is kg-m/s.
Linear momentum= Mass xVelocity
◆A heavier body has a larger linear momentumthan a lighter body
moving with the same velocity.
◆In the absence of external forces, the total linear momentumof the
system remainsconserved.

Application of Conservation of
Linear Momentum
◆When a man jumps from a boat to the
shore, the boat slightly movesaway from
the shore. Rocket works on the principle of
conservation of momentum.
◆When a bullet is fired from a gun, the
gun recoils or gives a sharp pull in
backward direction.
Impulse
◆If a force acts on a body for a very short
time ∆t, then the product of force and time
is called the impulse.
◆ Impulse = Change inmomentum
= Force x Timeinterval
◆ Its SI unit is N-s or kg-m/s.
Concept of Impulse
• A cricketer moves his hands backwards while catching
a ball.
• A person jumping from a height on a ‘concrete’ floor
receives more injury than when jumping on a spongy
floor.
• Vehicles like cars, buses and scooters are provided
with shockers.
• Bogies of the trains are provided with buffers to
avoid severe jerks during shunting of trains. Buffers
increase the time-duration of jerks during shunting.
Thisreduces the force with which bogies push or pull
each other and thus severe jerks are avoided.

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Third Law
Static equilibrium is of the following
• “Every action have equal and opposite reaction.” Action and two types :
reaction always act on the different bodies.
• On firing the bullet, the gunner is pushed in backward (i) Stable Equilibrium: If on slight
direction. displacement from equilibrium position
• When the boatman is jumped from the boat, the boat is a body has tendency to regain its
pushed back. original position, it is said to be in
• In a rocket, gases are ejected with a great speed from the stable equilibrium.
rocket backwards and rocket is pushed forwards.
• While swimming, a person pushes the water backwards (ii) Unstable Equilibrium: If on a slight
(action). The water pushes the swimmer forward with the displacement from equilibrium position,
sameforce (reaction). a body movesin the direction of
displacement and does not regain its
Equilibrium original position, the equilibrium is said
• If the resultant of all the forces acting on a body is zero, then to be unstable equilibrium. In this
the body is said to be in equilibrium. If a body is in equilibrium, the centre of gravity of
equilibrium, it will be either at rest or in uniform motion. If it is the body is at the highest position.
at rest, the equilibrium is called static, otherwise dynamic.

Neutral Equilibrium
If on slight displacement from equilibrium position a Centre of Mass : Centre of massof a
body has no tendency to come back to its original body (system of particles) is a point
position or to move in the direction of displacement, it is where the entire massof the body is
said to be in neutral equilibrium. supposed to be concentrated. We can
define position of centre of massr by
• In neutral equilibrium, the centre of gravity always
remains at the sameheight.

Condition for Stable Equilibrium

For stable equilibrium of a body, the following two where, r 1, r 2 ,…….rn are position
conditions should be fulfilled vectors of constituent particles.

(i) Thecentre of gravity of the body should be at the

minimum height.
(ii) Thevertical line passing through the centre of
gravity of the body should pass through the base
of the body.

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FRICTION
• If we slide or try to slide a body over a surface, the
motion is resisted by a bonding between the body
and the surface. This resistance is called frictional
force.
• The opposite force that comesinto play when one
body tends to move over the surface of another
body but actually motion has yet not started is
called static friction.
• The maximum value of the static frictional force
which comesinto play when a body just begins to
slide over the surface of another body is called
limiting frictional force.
• When two bodies actually roll on each other (as in
case of ball bearing), the rolling friction comesinto
play.
• When two bodies actually slide over each other,
sliding friction comesinto play.
• When a body moves over the other body, then the
force of friction acting between two surfaces in
contact in relative motion is called Kinetic Friction.
Work, Energy and Power
WORK
When a body is displaced by applying a force on it, then work is said to be done. If a body is displaced by a
distance son applying a force Fon it, then work done W = F. s= FscosØ, where ‘Ø’ is the angle between the
force and the direction of displacement. It is a scalar quantity. Its unit is joule (J).
Positive Work Done
Positive work means that force is applied along the direction
of displacement. e.g. when a horse pulls a cart on a level
road, when a body falls freely under gravitational pull.
Negative Work Done
Negative work means that force is opposite to displacement.
e.g. when a positive charge is moved towards another positive
charge, when a body is made to slide over a rough surface.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of
Friction
• Walking is possible due to friction.
• The transfer of motion from one part of a
machine to other part through belts is
possible by friction.
• Brake works on the basis of friction.
• Friction causes wear and tear of the parts of
machinery in contact. Thus, their lifetime gets
reduced.
Methods of Reducing Friction
• By polishing, by lubrication, by proper
selection of material and by using ball
bearing friction can be reduced to some
extent.
Zero Work Done
If the force is perpendicular to the
displacement and if either the force or the
displacement is zero, work done is zero. e.g.
when a body is moved along a circular path
with the help of a string, when a coolie travels
on a platform with a load on his head and
when a person does not move from his position
but he may be holding any amount of heavy
load.
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ENERGY
• It is defined as capacity of doing work. Its unit is joule in SI and erg in CGS system.
• Mechanical energy is in two forms; kinetic energy and potential energy.

Kinetic Energy
• It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.
• If a body of massmis moving with velocity v, then kinetic energy

• where, p is the linear momentum.

• When momentum is doubled, kinetic energy becomes four times.
• Kinetic energy of air is used to run wind mills.
• Kinetic energy of running water is used to run the water mills.
• A bullet fired from a gun can pierce a target due to its kinetic energy.
• If a body is moving in horizontal circle then its kinetic energy is same at all points, but if it is moving in
vertical circle, then the kinetic energy is different at different points.

Potential Energy

• It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position.

• Suppose a body is raised to a height habove the surface of the earth, then
potential energy of the body = mgh.
• When a body is falling downwards, then its potential energy goes on changing
to kinetic energy.
• Thepotential energy of the wound spring of a clock is used to drive the hands of
the clock.
• Thepotential energy of water in dams is used to run turbines in order to produce
electric energy using the generators.

Conservative and
Non-conservative Forces

A non-dissipative force is known as conservative force e.g. gravitational force,

electrostatic force. Non-conservative forces are dissipative forces e.g. frictional
forces, viscous force.

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Law of Conservation of Energy

According to the law of conservation of energy, ‘‘Energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed but it can only be transformed from one form to another.”
Thesumof all kinds of energies in an isolated system remains constant at all times.

Transformation of Energy
• In a heat engine, heat energy changes into mechanical energy.
• In the electric bulb, the electric energy is converted into light energy.
• In burning coil, oil etc., the chemical energy changes into heat energy.
• In solar cell, solar energy changes into electrical energy.
• In playing sitar, mechanical energy changes into soundenergy.
• In microphone, sound energy changes into electricalenergy.
• In loud speaker, electrical energy changes into sound energy.
• In battery, chemical energy changes into mechanical energy.
• In electric motor, electrical energy changes into mechanical energy.
• In candle, chemical energy changes into light and heat energy.

GRAVITATION
In 1686, Newton stated that in the universe each
particle of matter attracts every other particle.
Thisuniversal attractive force is called gravitation.
Gravitational Force
• It is always attractive in nature.
• It is the weakest force but is a long range
force.
• Mathematically it is representedas
FG=GMm
r the radius of Earth.
• Where FGis a gravitational force, G is particle,
mis the massof second particle and r is the
distance between them
• Thisis called Newton’s universal law of
gravitation.
Gravity
• It is the force by which the Earth attracts a
body towards its centre.
• Theacceleration due to gravity is the rate
of increase of velocity of a body falling
freely towards the Earth. It is represented
by
• where, Me is the massof the Earth and Reis
• Thevalue of g at the surface of Earth is
9.8 m/ s2.
• TheEarth is surrounded by an atmosphere
of gases due to gravity. The value of g on
the Moon is 1/6th of that on the Earth
surface.

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Variation in the Value of g
• When we go above the surface of the Earth,
the acceleration due to gravity goes on
decreasing.
• When we go below the surface of the Earth, the
acceleration due to gravity goes on decreasing
and becomeszero at the centre of the Earth.
• Decreasing the rotational motion of Earth, the
value of g increases.
• When we go from the equator towards the
poles, the value of g goes on increasing.
• If Earth stops its rotation about its own axis, then
at the equator the value of g increases and
consequently the weight of body lying there
increases.
• Thevalue of g is maximum on the surface of the
Earth.
Mass
• Themassof a body is the quantity of matter
contained in it.It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit
is kg.
• Mass is measured by an ordinary equal arm
balance.
• Mass of body does not change from place-to-
place and remains constant.
Weight
• Theweight of a body is the force with, which it is
attracted towards the centre of the Earth. It is a
vector quantity and its SI unit is Newton (N).
• It is measured by a spring balance.
• It is not constant and it changes from place to
place.
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Centre of Gravity
• The centre of gravity of a body is that
point at which the whole weight of the
body appears to act.
• It can be inside the material of the body
or outside it.
• For regularly shaped body, the centre
of gravity lies at its geometrical
centre.
Weight of a Body in a Lift
• If lift is stationary or moving with uniform speed
(either upward or downward), the apparent
weight of a body is equal to its true weight.
• If lift is going up with an acceleration, the
apparent weight of a body is more than the
true weight. If lift is going down with an
acceleration, the apparent weight of a body is
less than the true weight.
• If the cord of the lift is broken, then it falls
freely. In this situation, the weight of a body in
the lift becomes zero. Thisis the situation of
weightlessness.
• While going down, if the acceleration of lift is
more than acceleration due to gravity, a body
in the lift goes in contact of the ceiling of lift.
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SATELLITE
• Theheavenly body which revolves around the planets is called satellite. Moon is a
natural satellite of Earth.
• Thespeed of a satellite does not depend upon the massof the satellite.
• A satellite revolving very close to Earth’s surface has a period of revolution
about 84 min and its speed is nearly 8 km/s.
• Every body inside the satellite is in a state of weightlessness. Total energy of the
satellite is negative.
• Artificial satellites are of two types

Geostationary and Polar satellites

(i)The satellite whose time period is 24 h, is called geostationary satellite. It is used to reflect
TV signals and telecast TV programs from one part of the world to another. This satellite
revolves around the Earth at a height of 36000 km. INSAT-2B and INSAT-2C are
geostationary satellites of India.
(ii)Polar satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits at a height of approximately 800
km. The time period of these satellites is approximately 84 minute. These satellites are used in
weather forecasting, in studying upper region of the atmosphere, in mapping etc. PSLVSeries
Satellites are Polar Satellites of India.

Escape Velocity
◆Theminimum velocity that should be given to the Kepler’s Laws
body to enable it to escape away from Earth’s
gravitational field is called escape velocity. It is given
by ◆All planets move around the Sunin
elliptical orbits having the Sunat one
foci of the orbit.
◆Theareal speed of a planet around
the Sunis constant.
Its value onthe Earth’s surface is 11.2 km/s. ◆Thesquare of the period of
◆The value of the escape velocity of a body does not revolution (T) of any planet around the
depend on its mass. Its value on the moon surface is Sunis directly proportional to the cube
2.38 km/s. So, there is no atmosphere around the of its mean distance from the Sun
moon.
◆ Escapevelocity is velocity.
◆Satellites are launched with the escape velocity as
needed.

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General Properties of Matter

Matter It is the substance that occupies definite space and mass which is
perceptible to sense.
ELASTICI Strain
• It is that property of the material body by virtue of which
TY
the body opposes any change in its shape or size when
deforming forces are applied to it, and recovers its
original state as soon as the deforming forces are
removed.
• Steel is more elastic than rubber.
• Elastic Limit The maximum limit of the external force
upto which elasticity of the body is maintained.
Plasticity
• The property of a body by virtue of which it does not
regain its original configuration even after the removal of
deforming force is called plasticity.
• Putty, paraffin wax are nearly perfectly plastic bodies.
The change in length, volume, shape of the body per unit
of the original value under the application of the
deforming force is called strain. Strain is unit less
quantity.
Hooke's law and Modulus of Elasticity The ratio of
stress to strain is a constant for the material and is
called modulus of elasticity.
E = Stress
Strain
It is also called Hooke’s law, which states that within the
limit of elasticity the strain produced in a body is directly
proportional to the stress applied to it.

Stress
• The internal restoring force acting per unit area of
cross- section of the deformed body is called stress. Its
unit is N/ m2 or pascal.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

PRESSURE
• It is defined as force acting normally on unit area of the surface.
• Pressure= Normal force
Area
• Its unit is N/m also called pascal. It is a scalar quantity.
• Pressure in a liquid is given by p = hpg where, h is the height, (p) is density
of the liquid and g is acceleration due to gravity.
• Atmospheric pressure of 1 atm
=1.01 x 105 N/ m2 = 760 torr
• Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. Thisis why (i) it is difficult to
cook on the mountain, (ii) the fountain pen of a passenger leaks in
aeroplane at height.
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by barometer. Theslow rise in the
barometric reading is the indication of clear weather.
• Sudden fall in barometric reading is the indication of storm.
• Slow fall in barometric reading is the indication of rain.

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DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY

The density of a substance (r) is defined as the ratio of its mass (M) to its
volume (V).

• Density of water is maximum at 4°C.

• The relative density is defined as the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water at 4° C
i.e.
• Relative density = Density of substance
Density of water at 4° C
• Relative density has no unit.
• Relative density is measured by hydrometer.
• Ice floats on water surface as its density (0.92 g/cm 3) is lesser than the density of water (1 g/cm 3).
• The density of human body is less than the density of water but the density of head is greater than the
density of water.
• Therefore, during swimming a person displaces the water with hands and legs and thus total weight of
displaced water becomes equal to the weight of the body.
• If ice floating in water in a vessel melts, the level of water in the vessel does not change.
• The density of sea water is more than that of normal water. This explains why it is easier to swim in sea
water.

Pascal’s Law Archimedes’ Principle

• When a solid body is immersed wholly or partially in a liquid,
• Thepressure exerted anywhere at a point of
then there is someapparent loss in its weight. Thisloss in weight
confined fluid is transmitted equally and
is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the
undiminished in all directions throughout the
body.
liquid.
• Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press, hydraulic brake
work on the basis of Pascal’s law.

BUOYANCY
• Theupward force exerted by a fluid on the
immersed body is called buoyant force or
upthrust. Theupthrust acts at the centre of
gravity of the liquid displaced by the
submerged part of the body that is called the
centre of buoyancy.
• Buoyant force depends on the density of the
fluid and not on the density of body and acts
on centre of gravity of displaced fluid.

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Bernoulli’s Theorem

• When an incompressible and non-viscous

liquid (or gas) flows in streamlined motion
from one place to another, then at every
point of its path the total energy per unit
volume (pressure energy + kinetic energy +
potential energy) remainsconstant.

• where, p = pressure, r = density of fluid, v

= velocity of flow, h= height of the tube of
flow
• Venturimeter, Pitot tube, Bunsen’sburner,
atomizer, filter pump and magnus effect are
based upon the Bernoulli’s theorem.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

If a body moves to and fro on a straight line about a fixed
position, then its motion is called simple harmonic motion.
When a particle executing SHM passes through the mean
position, then
• no force acts on the particle.
• velocity is maximum.
• acceleration is zero.
• kinetic energy is maximum.
• potential energy is zero.
When a particle executing SHM is at the extreme end, then
• velocity of particle is zero.
• acceleration of the particle is maximum.
• kinetic energy of particle is zero.
• potential energy is maximum.
• restoring force acting on the particle is maximum.
Note
• In case of spring block system the restoring force F = - kx
• where, x is displacement of the block from mean position
and k is spring constant.
• In case of spring block system, time period of oscillation is
given by

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Wave Motion
Wave
A wave is a disturbance which propagates energy from one place to the other without the transport of matter.
These are of two types
• Mechanicalwaves
• Electromagnetic waves
Mechanical Waves
Thewaves which require material medium(solid, liquid or gas) for their propagation are called mechanical waves or
elastic waves.
These are of two types
• Longitudinal waves
• Transverse waves
Longitudinal Waves
If the particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of propagation of wave motion, the wave is called longitudinal
wave. Waves on springs or sound waves in air are examples of longitudinalwaves.
Transverse Waves
If the particles of the medium vibrates perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave, the wave is called
transverse wave. Waves on strings under tension, waves on the surface of water are examples of transverse waves.

Electromagnetic Waves
• Thewave which do not require medium for their propagation i.e.
which can propagate eventhough the vacuumare called
electromagnetic wave. Theypropagate as transversewave.
• Thewavelength range of electromagnetic wave is 10-4 mto 104m .
• Cathode rays, canal rays, a-rays, b-rays are not electromagnetic
waves. Light and heat waves are examples of electromagnetic
waves.

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SOUND WAVE

• It is longitudinal mechanical waves.

• Thelongitudinal mechanical waves which lie in the range 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz are called
audible or sound waves.
• Theseare sensitive to human ear.
• Thelongitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies lessthan 20 Hz, called
infrasonic.
• Theseare produced by earthquakes, volcanic eruption, ocean waves and elephants
and whales.
• Thelongitudinal mechanical waves having frequencies greater than 20000 Hz are
called ultrasonic waves.
• Human ear cannot detect the ultrasonic waves. But certain creatures like dog, cat, bat,
mosquito can detect these waves. Bat produce ultransonicwaves.
• Ultrasonic waves are usedfor sending signals, measuring the depth of sea, cleaning
clothes and machinery parts of clocks, removing lamp shoot from chimney of factories
and in ultrasonography.

Speed of Sound
• Speed of sound is maximum in solids and minimum in gases.
• Speed of sound in air is 332 m/s, in water is 1483 m/s and in iron is
5130 m/s. Speed of sound basically depends upon elasticity and
density of medium.
• When sound enters from one medium to another medium, its speed
and wavelength changesbut frequency remains unchanged.
• Speed of sound remains unchanged by the increase or decrease of
pressure.
• The speed of sound increases with the increase in temperature of the
medium. The speed of sound in air increases by 0.61 m/s when the
temperature is increased by 1°C.
• The speed of sound is more in humid air than in dry air because the
density of humidair is lessthan the density of dry air.
• Thespeed of sound in air is very slower as compared to the speed
of light in air. Therefore, in rainy season, the flash of lightning is seen
first and the sound of thunder is heard a little later.

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Characteristics of Sound Waves Intensity

• Intensity of sound at any point in space is defined as amount of energy passing
normally per unit area held around that point per unit time. SI unit of intensity is
W/m 2.
• Intensity of sound at a point is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of
point from the source and directly proportional to square of amplitude of vibration,
square of frequency and density of the medium.
• Theloudness depends on intensity as well as upon the sensitivity of the ear.

Pitch
• It is that characteristic of sound which distinguishes a sharp sound from a grave
sound.
• Pitch depends upon frequency of sound waves.
• Thepitch of female voice is higher than the pitch of male voice.
• Thepitch of sound produced by roaring of lion is lower, whereas the pitch of sound
produced by mosquito whisper is high.

Quality
• It is that characteristic of sound which enables usto distinguish between sounds
produced by two source having the sameintensity and pitch.

Shock Waves
• A body moving with supersonic speed in air leaves behind it a conical region of disturbance which
spreads continuously. Sucha disturbance is called shockwave.
• Thesewaves carry huge energy and may evenmake cracks in window panes or evendamage a
building.
• Thespeed of supersonic wave is measured in mach number. One Mach number is the ratio of speed of
source to the speed of sound.

• If Mach number > 1, body is called supersonic.

• If Mach number > 5, body is called hypersonic.
• If Mach number < 1, body is said to be moving with subsonic speed.

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DOPPLER’S EFFECT
• If there is a relative motion between source of sound and observer, the apparent frequency of
sound heard by the observer is different from the actual frequency of sound emitted by the
source. Thisphenomenon is called Doppler’seffect.
• When the distance between the source and observer decreases, the apparent frequency
increases andvice-versa.
• Uses
• By police to check over speeding of vehicles.
• At airport to guide the aircraft.
• Tostudy heart beats and blood flow in different parts of the body.
HEAT
• It is a form of energy which flows from hotter to colder body by virtue of temperature
difference.
• It is due to the kinetic energy of the molecules constituting the body.
• Its units are calorie (cal), kilocalorie (kcal) or joule (J).
• 1 cal = 4.18 J, 1 kcal = 1000 cal
TEMPERATURE
• It is the measurement of hotnessor coldness of abody.
• An instrument used to measure the temperature of a body is called athermometer.
• Thenormal temperature of a human body is 37 ° Cor 98.4°F.
• - 40° is the temperature at which Celsius and Fahrenheit thermometers readsame.

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