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Elements of topology

Mathematical analysis 2
Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial functions

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Part 1: Elements of topology

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es R. KECHKAR
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2023/2024
R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function
 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Plan

n
1 Elements of topology
Metrics and Norms

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Metrics
Norms
Equivalence of norms
Link between metric and norm
Topology of Rn
Open balls, closed balls, spheres
es
Bounded sets, open and closed sets
Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry
Clusure, accumulation point
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Plan

n
1 Elements of topology
Metrics and Norms

te
Metrics
Norms
Equivalence of norms
Link between metric and norm
Topology of Rn
Open balls, closed balls, spheres
es
Bounded sets, open and closed sets
Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry
Clusure, accumulation point
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Metric

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Definition
Let E be a non empty vectorial space on R.

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1 A metric (distance) on E is a mapping d : E × E → R+ satisfying

• ∀x, y ∈ E: d(x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = y.
• ∀x, y ∈ E: d(x, y) = d(y, x). (symmetrically)
• ∀x, y, z ∈ E: d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y). (triangle inequality).
2
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A metric space is a pair (E, d), where d is a metric on E.
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R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Metric example

Example.
We can define the following metrics on Rn

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1 The taxicab or Manhattan distance defined by
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X
d1 (X , Y ) = |Xi − Yi |

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i=1
2 The euclidian distance defined by s
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X
d2 (X , Y ) = |Xi − Yi |2
i=1
3
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The Minikowski distance definedsby
Ã
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X
!1/p
dp (X , Y ) = |Xi − Yi |p
i=1
4 The uniform or Chebyshev distance defined by
d∞ (X , Y ) = max |Xi − Yi |
1≤i≤n
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R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Plan

n
1 Elements of topology
Metrics and Norms

te
Metrics
Norms
Equivalence of norms
Link between metric and norm
Topology of Rn
Open balls, closed balls, spheres
es
Bounded sets, open and closed sets
Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry
Clusure, accumulation point
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Norm

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Definition
Let E be a non empty vercorial space on R.

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1 A norm on E is a mapping ||.|| : E → R+ satisfing

• ∀X ∈ E: ||X || = 0 ⇐⇒ X = 0 (definiteness).
• ∀X ∈ E, ∀λ ∈ R: ||λX || = |λ|||X ||. (homogeneity).
• ∀X , Y ∈ E: ||X + Y || ≤ ||X || + ||Y ||. (triangle inequality).
2
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A normed space is a pair (E, ||.||), where ||.|| is a norm on E.
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R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Norm example

Example.
We can define the following metrics on Rn

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1 The Manhattan norm defined by
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X
||X ||1 = |Xi |.

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i=1
2 The euclidian norm defined by s
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X
||X ||2 = |Xi |2 .
i=1
3
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The Minikowski norm defined bys
à !1/p
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X
||X ||p = | Xi |p .
i=1
4 The uniform or Chebyshev norm defined by
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||X ||∞ = max |Xi |.
1≤i≤n

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Plan

n
1 Elements of topology
Metrics and Norms

te
Metrics
Norms
Equivalence of norms
Link between metric and norm
Topology of Rn
Open balls, closed balls, spheres
es
Bounded sets, open and closed sets
Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry
Clusure, accumulation point
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Equivalence of norms

Definition
Tow norms ||.||, ||.||0 on a vectorial space E said to be equivalent if there

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exists tow positive constant C1 , C2 such that
∀X ∈ E : C1 ||X || ≤ ||X ||0 ≤ C2 ||X ||.

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Proposition
All norms on a finite dimensional space E are equivalent.
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Proposition
The usual norms on Rn are equivalent and for all X in Rn and we have
||X ||∞ ≤ ||X ||1 ≤ n||X ||∞ .
p
||X ||∞ ≤ ||X ||2 ≤ n||X ||∞ .
1
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p ||X ||2 ≤ ||X ||1 ≤ n||X ||2 .
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R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Plan

n
1 Elements of topology
Metrics and Norms

te
Metrics
Norms
Equivalence of norms
Link between metric and norm
Topology of Rn
Open balls, closed balls, spheres
es
Bounded sets, open and closed sets
Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry
Clusure, accumulation point
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Link between metric and norm

Proposition

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Let ||.|| be a norm on Rn . The mapping d defined on Rn × Rn by
(X , Y ) 7−→ d(X , Y ) = ||X − Y || is a distance on Rn .

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Proof.
It remains to show that the mapping d satisfies the conditions of
norms.
1
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d(X , Y ) = 0 ⇔ ||X − Y || = 0 ⇔ X − Y = 0 ⇔ X = Y .
2 d(X , Y ) = ||X − Y || = || − 1(Y − X )|| = | − 1|||Y − X || = ||Y − X || = d(Y , X ).
3 d(X , Y ) = ||X − Y || = ||X − Z + Z − Y || ≤ ||X − Z || + ||Z − Y || = d(X , Z ) + d(Z , Y ).
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Plan

n
1 Elements of topology
Metrics and Norms

te
Metrics
Norms
Equivalence of norms
Link between metric and norm
Topology of Rn
Open balls, closed balls, spheres
es
Bounded sets, open and closed sets
Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry
Clusure, accumulation point
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Plan

n
1 Elements of topology
Metrics and Norms

te
Metrics
Norms
Equivalence of norms
Link between metric and norm
Topology of Rn
Open balls, closed balls, spheres
es
Bounded sets, open and closed sets
Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry
Clusure, accumulation point
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Open balls, closed balls, spheres

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Definition
Let ||.|| be a norm on Rn , a ∈ Rn and r ∈ R∗+ .

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• B(a, r) = {X ∈ Rn : ||X − a|| < r} is called the open ball of radius r
and center a.
• B̄(a, r) = {X ∈ Rn : ||X − a|| ≤ r} is called the closed ball of radius r
and center a.
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• S(a, r) = {X ∈ Rn : ||X − a|| = r} is called the sphere ball of radius r
and center a.
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R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Open balls, closed balls, spheres

Example.

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Let us determine B(a, 1) of R2 for the usual norms.
With the norm k · k1 :

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B1 0R2 , 1 = (x, y) ∈ R2 /k(x, y) − (0, 0)k1 < 1
¡ ¢

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= (x, y) ∈ R2 /|x| + |y| < 1 .
• If x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 : |x| + |y| < 1 ⇐⇒ x + y < 1 ⇐⇒ y < 1 − x.
•
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If x ≤ 0, y ≥ 0 : |x| + |y| < 1 ⇐⇒ −x + y < 1 ⇐⇒ y < 1 + x.
• If x ≥ 0, y ≤ 0 : |x| + |y| < 1 ⇐⇒ x − y < 1 ⇐⇒ y > x − 1.
• If x ≤ 0, y ≤ 0 : |x| + |y| < 1 ⇐⇒ −x − y < 1 ⇐⇒ y > −1 − x.
¡ ¢
B1 0R2 , 1 is the interior of diamond centered at the origin.
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R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Open balls, closed balls, spheres

Example.
With the norm k · k2 :

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n o ½ q ¾
B2 0R2 , 1 = (x, y) ∈ R2 /k(x, y) − (0, 0)k2 < 1 = (x, y) ∈ R2 /
¡ ¢
x2 + y2 < 1

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= (x, y) ∈ R2 /x2 + y2 < 1 .
¡ ¢
B2 0R2 , 1 is the interior of circle centred at the origin and radius 1 .
With the norm k · k∞ :
es ¢ n
B∞ 0R2 , 1 = (x, y) ∈ R2 /k(x, y) − (0, 0)k∞ < 1
¡ o

n o
= (x, y) ∈ R2 / max{|x|, |y|} < 1
¢ n o i
B∞ 0R2 , 1 = (x, y) ∈ R2 /|x| < 1 et |y| < 1 = − 1, 1[×] − 1, 1[.
¡
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¡ ¢
B∞ 0R2 , 1 is the interior of square centered at the origin and side 2.

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Plan

n
1 Elements of topology
Metrics and Norms

te
Metrics
Norms
Equivalence of norms
Link between metric and norm
Topology of Rn
Open balls, closed balls, spheres
es
Bounded sets, open and closed sets
Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry
Clusure, accumulation point
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Bounded sets, open and closed sets

Definition
Let ||.|| be a norm on Rn and E a non empty subset of Rn . We say that

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E is bounded set if
∃a ∈ Rn , ∃r > 0 : E ⊂ B(a, r) (or E ⊂ B̄(a, r)).

Definition

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Let ||.|| be a norm on Rn
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• A non empty subset E of Rn is said to be an open of Rn if
∀X ∈ E, ∃r > 0 : B(X , r) ⊆ E.

• A non empty subset E of Rn is said to be a closed of Rn if Ec is

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open.

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Bounded sets, open and closed sets

Example.
• A singleton {X }, X ∈ Rn is closed.

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• An open ball in Rn is open.
• A closed ball in Rn is closed.

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• ; and Rn are opens and closed in the same time.
• The set {(X , Y ) ∈ R2 : 0 ≤ X < 1} is neither open nor closed.

Proposition
We have
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• An arbitrary union of open sets is open.
• A finite intersection of open sets is open.
• An arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed.
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• A finite union of closed sets is closed.

Remark R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Plan

n
1 Elements of topology
Metrics and Norms

te
Metrics
Norms
Equivalence of norms
Link between metric and norm
Topology of Rn
Open balls, closed balls, spheres
es
Bounded sets, open and closed sets
Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry
Clusure, accumulation point
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry

Definition

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Let ||.|| be a morm on Rn , E a subset of Rn and X0 ∈ Rn .

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• E is neighborhood of X0 if: ∃r > 0, B(X0 , r) ⊆ E.
• X0 is an interior point of E if: ∃r > 0, B(X0 , r) ⊆ E.
• The set of all interior points of is denoted by Int E
• The exterior of E is the interior of Ec and is denoted by Ext(E).
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• X0 is said to be boundary point or frontier point of E if each
open set containing X0 intersects both E and Ec .
• The set of all boundary points of E is denoted by ∂E.
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R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry

Example.

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Let us consider the subset of Rn defined by

E = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1}

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Then for the euclidean norm
• The points (−1/2, −1) and (1/3, 5) are interior points. but the
point (2, 1) is an exterior point.
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• Int E = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : −1 < x < 1}.
• Ext E = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x < −1 or x > 1}.
• ∂ E = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x = −1 or x = 1}.
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R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry

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Proposition

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Let E be a non empty subset of Rn .
• Int E is the larget open subset of E.
• E is open if and only if Int E = E.
• If E is closed then E = Int E ∪ ∂E.
es
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Plan

n
1 Elements of topology
Metrics and Norms

te
Metrics
Norms
Equivalence of norms
Link between metric and norm
Topology of Rn
Open balls, closed balls, spheres
es
Bounded sets, open and closed sets
Neighborhood, interior, exterior, boundry
Clusure, accumulation point
il

R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function

 Metrics and Norms

co
Elements of topology
Topology of Rn

Clusure, accumulation point

Definition
Let ||.|| be a norm on Rn and E a subset of Rn .

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• A point X ∈ E is an adherent point for E if every open set
containing X contains at least one point of E:

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∀r > 0 : B(X , r) ∩ E , ;.

• The set of all adherent points of E is called closure of E and is

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denoted by E.
• A point X is an accumulation point if

∀r > 0 : B(X , r)\{X } ∩ E , ;.

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R. KECHKAR Mathematical analysis 2 Chapter 1: Multivariable and vectorial function