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STATIC CHARACTERIZATION OF RESERVOIRS

Thecharacterization of a hydrocarbon reservoirIt consists of generating a

geological model of the reservoir (structures and physical properties) based on
the integration of geophysical, petrophysical, geological and engineering
information in order to calculate reserves and create an optimal development
plan for the field. Therefore, characterization is a very important stage in the
exploitation plan of an oil field.

The initial stage of a reservoir characterization process consists of the generation

of an initial static model based on previous information (Statics). This prior
information is obtained from the interpretation of 2D and 3D seismic data, well
logging, laboratory tests, analysis of cuttings (samples obtained during drilling),
core analysis (compact samples taken in the field), among others. .

Within the initial stage of the reservoir characterization process, the stages of
geological modeling, modeling of the physical properties of the rock from records,
inclusion of production analysis and of course integration of the available
information from the reservoir are generally followed. field. In geological
modeling, structural modeling is developed, based on the seismic and geological
information of the area, where systems are available for 2D and 3D seismic
interpretation and Geological modeling for the integration of the processed
information. The analysis of electrical records is based on the application of
algorithms to estimate physical properties (permeability and porosity). Geological
modeling, log analysis, and laboratory analysis information are then integrated
using an evaluation methodology. This integrates the available static information
and uses the quantitative determination of the rock lithology, texture,
composition, pore system, clays and other sensitive minerals. Finally, once the
evaluation methodology is applied, a model is obtained that classifies the rock
types and defines the deposit environments, thus generating an initial static
model that characterizes the deposit under study.

If there is no production data in the field, the Initial static model is used as input
information in the application of volumetric methods to estimate the potential of
the deposit with the objective of determining whether or not its exploitation is
profitable, evaluating the areas production potentials.

Another alternative is the application of statistical methods to generate more than

one initial model of the reservoir based on previous information (Statics). These seek
to estimate the distribution of the parameters throughout the entire reservoir.
the values in the wells are known so that they adjust to the rest of the
information available about the area where the deposit is located, such as that
obtained by seismic methods or by other types of geological studies of the area.
On the other hand, with stochastic methods (based on static information) a large
number of “equiprobable realizations” are achieved (that is, possible maps of the
parameters in the reservoir area that have the same probability of being correct
based on criteria based on in known information).

Bibliography:http://www.petroleoamerica.com/2011/03/caracterizacion-
deyacimientos.html

Parameters necessary for the static characterization of reservoirs.

The static characterization of a reservoir is carried out through the application of

different disciplines such as geology, geophysics, petrophysics, etc. in order to
know the types of rock that make up the site, as well as its size and shape. To
detect and evaluate the elements that constitute a deposit, certain tools are
available, which are illustrated in Figure 1.1., and are:

• Geophysical Data
• Geological Data
• Well Logs
• Laboratory data (cores) i.e. petrophysical data.

Geological exploration methods are very useful for making predictions, which
allow us to know the most favorable sites for drilling exploratory wells. Subsurface
geology provides greater information about the existing geological structures
with which maps are built and configured, these can be: a) Maps of peaks and
bases of the reservoir b) Maps of isopachs or isosthicknesses of the storage
geological structure. c) Cross sections (representation of the geometry, thickness
and lithology of the strata vertically).

Bibliography:http://www.ptolomeo.unam.mx:8080/jspui/bitstream/132.248.52.100

/2198/1/Tesis.pdf

The main physical parameters necessary for the evaluation of a reservoir through
a petrophysical analysis are: water and hydrocarbon saturation, porosity,
permeability, clay content and thickness of the permeable layer.

Importance of the static characterization of deposits for their correct

exploitation
The optimization of the exploitation of a field aims to maximize the economic
value of the resource through the implementation of technology from and during
primary, secondary, improved recoveries, completion of wells and artificial
pumping systems.

This optimization process must be based on the simulation of scenarios of the

behavior of the reservoir-well-surface system to select the best exploitation
option, without forgetting the economic point of view.

A reliable simulation requires knowledge of the rock properties and fluid

movement of the reservoir, both in the areal and vertical sense. Traditionally,
reservoir characterization has been based on seismic, geological, core, and well
log information. This type of process is known as “static” reservoir characterization
since the results are independent of the processes that occur during the
exploitation of a reservoir.

Bibliography:http://www.ptolomeo.unam.mx:8080/jspui/bitstream/
132.248.52.100/21 98/1/Tesis.pdf; Bobadilla García, GE, Basic Concepts of Dynamic
Reservoir Characterization (Thesis), UNAM, 2012.

The objective of Static characterization is: To qualitatively and quantitatively

determine the geological and petrophysical characteristics and properties of the
rock and rock-fluid systems, as well as the physical, chemical and thermodynamic
properties of the fluid system, as well as to define its distribution in the reservoir.
oil.

Bibliography: https://es.scribd.com/doc/211112651/Caracterizacion-Estatica-de-
Deposits .

STATIC CHARACTERIZATION OF RESERVOIRS FROM SAMPLES ANALYZED IN

THE LABORATORY.

Formation evaluation and petrophysics

Exploration to locate hydrocarbons begins with an understanding of the regional

geology, which is complemented by detailed seismic interpretation of the area to
provide the conceptual model of a potential reservoir, that is, a geological
structure in which hydrocarbons could exist. .

Exploratory wells are then drilled and the questions that immediately arise are:
• Are hydrocarbons present?
• Are hydrocarbons oil, gas or both?
• What is the volume of the hydrocarbons?
• In what percentage can they be produced?
• What are the technical and financial risks associated with field development?

• What are the real possibilities of achieving commercial success?

A basic element to be able to provide substantiated answers to these questions

consists of quantifying the relevant properties of both the rocks and the fluids
they contain, in addition to integrating and interpreting the resulting data in
terms of the technical and financial viability of the development project. .
This work is referred to in abbreviated form as“Training Evaluation ”, and the
discipline that is responsible for this is currently known generically as“
Petrophysics”.

Core recovery and analysis are just a few of the many components of thetraining
evaluation, so the term petrophysicsIt has a much broader meaning than the
conceptcore analysis, which should be limited in its use to refer exclusively to
measurements and laboratory studies carried out on rock samples. Within the
scope of training evaluation, the term is more appropriately usedrock
characterization, to refer exclusively to the science and art of obtaining data
about the physical and chemical properties of these, whether dry or totally or
partially saturated with fluids, from direct laboratory measurements carried out
on samples of various types, such as plug and full diameter samples that are
extracted from drill cores, or wall samples and drill cuttings that are obtained in
different ways.

Core analysis continues to be today the cornerstone on which the evaluation of

formations as a whole rests, since it provides relevant information, the obtaining
of which is not possible by any other means. In this way, laboratory
measurements on rock samples offer the most direct and tangible means of
determining critical reservoir parameters.

Data about rock properties obtained through core analysis are used primarily for
two applications: First, to calibrate and refine the interpretation of well logs.
A large number of parameters that are determined from these recordings, such
as total density, porosity, electrical resistivity and the speed of acoustic P and S
waves, can also be measured in the laboratory under very well controlled
conditions in samples. taken from a core, thus generating very high quality data,
with which well logs can be calibrated. Second, laboratory analyzes on drill core
samples are used to determine formation properties and parameters that cannot
be obtained by well logs, or by any other means. This group includes, for example,
permeability, capillary pressures, relative permeabilities, saturation exponent,
hydrocarbon recovery efficiency, wettability, pore volume compressibility and
various parameters related to the mechanical behavior of the formation.

The results of core analysis are extremely useful for understanding reservoir
behavior, evaluating the response of wells to different types of treatments,
calibrating well logs, establishing a robust basis for modeling the reservoir and
estimating its potential, as well as for define effective strategies for its
development.

The cores are a continuous sample of rock, which is obtained from the formation
by drilling with a special hollow drill bit, which is capable of cutting sections of
rock up to 20 m in length with a maximum diameter of 20 cm. These cylindrical
sections are brought to the surface for subsequent analysis.

One of the many advantages of cores is that they allow for continuous geological
characterization of the formation. Depending on the degree of heterogeneity of
the core, it may be decided to carry out measurements on samples whose
diameter is the same as the core (full diameter samples), or on smaller samples
that are extracted from the core using drill bits, usually with different orientations
to the axis. of this (plug samples).

The information that can be obtained from core analysis includes: areal extent of
the reservoir, definition of geological structures, storage capacity, hydraulic
transmissivity, fluid content, lithology, spatial variation of critical reservoir
parameters, definition of the degree of reservoir heterogeneity , parameters of
Archie's equations, capillary pressures, fluid distribution, data to calibrate well
logs, relative permeabilities and preferential wettability.
Fundamental objectives of core recovery and analysis

The fundamental objective of core recovery is to obtain the greatest number of

rock samples for laboratory analysis, which are representative of the reservoir
formations and preserve, according to the applications to which they are going to
be used, their native characteristics of wettability and its fluid content, at the
lowest possible cost.

The fundamental objective of core analysis is to obtain, through direct laboratory

measurements, data representative of the in-situ properties of reservoir rocks and
fluids, to assist in the optimization of reserve evaluation and recovery of reserves.
hydrocarbons.

Planning cutting operations and core analysis

The planning of a core cutting and analysis program is an interactive process in

which consensus is obtained and the details of the program itself are formulated,
always keeping in mind that the objective is to reduce uncertainty in the
evaluation of the deposits, through the contribution of data representative of
training to in-situ conditions.

The clear establishment of the program's objectives is essential to be able to

satisfy, to the greatest extent possible, all the expectations and goals set for it.

Planning a core taking and analysis program for a particular deposit will be
influenced by the potential size of the deposit, its current and possible production
mechanisms, its level of development, and the status of the comprehensive
deposit evaluation program. Generally, when planning an appropriate program
for any deposit, it is recommended to adopt the following stages: 1. Establish the
specific objectives of the program; 2. Determine the type of tests through which it
is intended to meet the objectives of the program; 3. Select the locations from
which the cores will be extracted; 4. Select the procedures for cutting and
handling the cores and 5. Review the core obtaining and analysis program to
ensure that there is compatibility with all parts of the comprehensive reservoir
evaluation program.
Broadly speaking, the objectives of a core collection and analysis program include:

1. Determination of porosity, permeability and residual fluid saturation; definition

of lithology and prediction of the possible production of gas, oil or water.

2. Definition of areal changes in porosity, permeability and lithology, which is

required to characterize the reservoir in terms of reserve estimation and reservoir
modeling.

3. Determination of irreducible water saturation.

4. To the extent feasible, recover cores in an unaltered state of wettability and

saturation, to carry out special analyzes on them such as determining the type of
preferential wettability, measuring capillary pressures, determining the saturation
exponent, obtaining relative permeabilities, etc.

5. Carry out directional permeability studies.

6. Obtaining information to calibrate well logs or to improve their interpretation.

7. Determination of the residual oil saturations of the reservoir, for the evaluation
of improved recovery projects.

8. Determination of storage environments.

9. Evaluation of damage in training and designing control strategies.

Bibliography: Contreras l., Enrique A. and García M., 2007, Importance of planning, cutting,
management and analysis activities of oil well drilling cores, Bulletin IIE, pp. 75-85.

Reservoir rock sampling techniques

After the core has been cut, the oil saturation is reduced to half its value at the
depth where it belonged before extraction. The gas associated with the remaining
oil expands, and the temperature decreases. Water saturation changes very little
during core recovery. The change is due to thermal contraction and gas evolution.
The saturation of
Formation water divided by the formation water volumetric factor can
approximate surface water saturation. For a core cut with oil-based mud, a
summary of the saturation history for an average sand could be:

So (%) Sg (%) Sw (%)

Before the cut 75 0 25

After the cut 75 0 25

Surface 40-45 Rest. 23-24

1. Conventional Cores

They are obtained in consolidated formations, in this case the core does not have
a coating. To take it, a tool is used that consists of an external tube and an internal
tube, which receives the core, a retainer and a diamond bit with a hole in its
center through which the core penetrates to lodge in the internal tube, depending
Depending on the type of formation, a specific drill bit is used as shown in Figure
1. The diameter of the cut cores can vary between 1¾” – 6”, depending on the type
of drill bit and tool used.

Wicks used during coring in formations: a) medium hard, b) hard to

very hard and c) extremely hard.

2. Conventional Cores with PVC Tube

The tool used in this case is similar to the one described above, with the difference
that the inner tube contains a Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) tube inside, within which
the core is contained, as the tool penetrates into the formation. This type of tool is
used in
fractured, brittle or friable formations, since the core is covered by the plastic tube
and can be easily handled without the risk of the samples disintegrating. The
Figure shows the bits used to extract cores in soft and moderately fractured,
clayey and well-cemented formations.

Types of drill bits used to take cores in formations: a) fractured, b) clayey and
c) well cemented.

With this type of tool it is possible to cut cores between 3” – 5 ¾” in diameter, double
retainers are generally used and the maximum length per core is 31 feet.

3. Rubber Sleeve Cores

For taking cores in semi-consolidated and unconsolidated formations that are

very soft and friable, a tool is used that consists of an external tube, an internal
tube inside which is an expansion joint, which has the ability to stretch. every 2
feet, a mechanical jack, a one-way flow valve, a rubber sleeve, a core retainer and
a diamond drill bit with a hole in its central part that allows the core to enter the
sample holder.
Types of drill bits used to take cores in formations: a) soft and b)
totally unconsolidated.

The intake is carried out in 2 feet at a time, as allowed by the expansion joint,
since this is actuated by the circulation pressure of the drilling fluid and this is the
effort that causes the tool to penetrate the formation, and not the weight on the
wick directly. Once both feet are cut, the drill string is weighted again, closing the
expansion joint and the tool is ready to cut the next two feet.

As the formation is cut, the jack pulls on the rubber sleeve, which is rolled or
folded in the internal tube of the sampler, and causes it to unroll, then the core is
wrapped by the rubber sleeve once that is cut. The rubber sleeve is elastic and has
a diameter slightly smaller than the core, allowing the core to be held firmly. It is a
tool with superior performance than the previous ones, with it it is possible to cut
a maximum of 20 feet of core with a diameter of 3 inches.

Unfortunately, the rubber sleeve tool is not satisfactory for cutting cores in hard,
fractured formations, as the sharp cuts produced break the rubber. Among its
disadvantages is

• The rubber sleeve has a temperature limit, which it can withstand without
breaking (160 – 175F).

• The presence of gas dissolved in the crude oil may be enough to make the
rubber sleeve explode when it is extracted from the sampler on the
surface.

• The core inside the rubber sleeve must be treated with great care in handling
and preservation operations, preventing it from bending so that the core does
not suffer alterations in its natural granulometric arrangement. To do this, it is
necessary to deposit the sleeve inside a rigid plastic or aluminum tube, this of
course increases the costs of the socket.

4. Pressurized Cores

To take cores that need to be kept in contact with their original fluids, a
specialized tool is used that allows cores to be recovered at reservoir pressure
with an excellent recovery percentage in consolidated formations. The reservoir
fluids remain in their original form, without undergoing alterations when the core
is extracted (Figure 4). If the drilling process is done with
Care can be taken to obtain cores with very low invasion of drilling fluids,
preventing gas expansion and fluid loss.

Core cutting with this tool is done with a technology similar to conventional core
cutting. During cutting, pressure interlock is accompanied by mechanical actions
that create a seal at the stop and base of the tool. This causes the core obtained to
be pressurized. The system can also maintain formation pressure.

Once taken, the cores are frozen to the surface using liquid nitrogen and dry ice,
maintaining reservoir pressure. The fluids in this form remain immobile within the
core. Once frozen, the cores can be removed from the tool to be transported to
the laboratory in a frozen state. Freezing is accompanied by placing the entire
core on dry ice until use.

Tool for taking pressurized cores.

Unfortunately, obtaining this type of core is very expensive (10 times the cost to
obtain a conventional core).

5. Oriented Nuclei
To obtain this type of cores, a tool very similar to the one described above is used;
it can be used to take cores of any lithology. Oriented cores are very important for
the study of fractures in Cretaceous limestone, because they allow us to know the
inclination and direction of the fractures and the geological structures that have
secondary porosity capable of storing hydrocarbons or developing a well
stimulation program. with the purpose of increasing the production of a deposit.

Tool for taking oriented cores.

Bibliography:http://www.portaldelpetroleo.com/2013/01/nucleos-tipos-seleccion-y-muestreo.html

6. Core or lateral witness (wall samples)

A core removed from the borehole wall, usually with a cable-operated tool. Lateral
cores can be extracted using percussion or mechanical drilling systems.
Percussion cores are obtained by firing hollow bullets into the formation. The
bullets are attached to the tool using clamps and are recovered, along with the
core inside, by removing the tool and the clamps. Percussion coring tools typically
contain 20 to 30 rounds, but two or three tools can be combined in a single run
down the hole. Power tools use hollow rotating augers to cut and then extract the
small nuclei. Up to 75 small cores can be recovered in a single run. With complete
recovery, cores obtained with common percussion tools are 1 inch [2.5 cm] in
diameter by 1 3/4 inches [4.4 cm] long, while those obtained with power tools are
0. 91 inch [2.3 cm] diameter by 2 inches [5 cm] long. The latter are also known as
rotating lateral cores.

Image: Schlumberger

Image: Schlumberger
Bibliography: http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/es/Terms/s/sidewall_core.aspx

DETERMINATION OF ROCK PROPERTIES AND ROCK-FLUID SYSTEM FROM

ANALYSIS OF SAMPLES IN THE LABORATORY

1.4. Procedures to measure Porosity

The porosity of a rock can be determined through laboratory measurement techniques
or through well profiles. Below is a brief summary of some measurement techniques
used to determine the porosity of a rock.

1.4.1. Porosity measurement in the laboratory

Measurement techniques in the laboratory consist of determining two of the three
basic parameters of the rock (total volume, pore volume and grain volume). For this,
rock cores are used, which are obtained during the well drilling stage.

Porosity measurement is generally performed on core plugs, which are small diameter
samples (between 25 – 40 mm) extracted from the core or crown, using special cutting
tools. In figure 1.7 you can see how a small diameter core sample is extracted from the
core or crown.

core socket

1.4.1.1. Determination of total volume

The total volume can be calculated by direct measurement of the dimensions of

the sample using a vernier caliper. This procedure is useful when the samples
have regular shapes due to its speed.

For samples of irregular volumes, the procedure usually used consists of

determining the volume of fluid displaced by the sample. Some of the methods
used to determine the volume of displaced fluid are presented below:

1.4.1.1.1. Gravimetric methods

The total volume is obtained by observing the weight loss of the sample when it is
immersed in a liquid, or by the change in weight of a pycnometer when it is filled with
mercury and when it is filled with mercury and the sample.

The most used gravimetric methods are:

- Covering the sample with paraffin and immersion in water.
- Saturation of the sample and immersion in the saturating liquid.
- Immersion of the dry sample in mercury.

1.4.1.1.2. Volumetric methods

The methods used are the mercury pycnometer and the immersion of a saturated
sample.

The mercury pycnometer method consists of determining the volume of a

pycnometer filled with mercury up to a signal. Then the sample is placed and mercury
is injected until the signal. The difference between the two volumes of mercury
represents the total volume of the sample.

The immersion method of a saturated sample consists of determining the

volumetric displacement that occurs when the sample is immersed in a container
containing the same liquid used for saturation.

The mercury displacement method is practical to determine the total volume of

samples when they are well cemented, otherwise the immersion method of a
saturated sample should be used.

1.4.1.2. Determination of grain volume

In these methods, consolidated samples are used and the fluids are extracted
with a solvent that is subsequently evaporated. The main methods used are:

- Melcher – Nuting method.

- Stevens porosimeter method.
- Average density of the grains.

The Melcher – Nuting method consists of determining the total volume of the sample and
subsequently crushing it to eliminate the volume of empty spaces and determine the
volume of the grains.

The Stevens method is a meter of the effective volume of grains. The porosimeter
consists of a sample chamber that can be isolated from atmospheric pressure and
whose volume is precisely known. The core is placed in the
chamber, a partial vacuum is created by manipulating the mercury container, with
this the air leaves the sample and is expanded in the system and measured at
atmospheric pressure. The difference between the volume of the chamber and the
extracted air is the effective volume of the grains.

Taking the density of quartz (2.65 gr/cc) as the average value of the grain density,
the volume of the grains can be determined with the weight of the sample as
observed in equation 1.19. This method is used in jobs that do not require great
accuracy.

1.4.1.3. Determination of effective pore volume

All methods used to determine pore volume measure the effective pore volume,
and are based on the extraction or introduction of fluids into the pore space.

Below is a summary of some methods used to determine effective pore volume.

1.4.1.3.1. Mercury injection method

It consists of injecting mercury at high pressure into the pores of the sample. The volume
of mercury injected represents the effective pore volume of the sample.

1.4.1.3.2. Helium porosimeter method

Its operation is based on Boyle's Law, where a known volume of helium
(contained in a reference cell) is slowly pressurized and then isothermally
expanded into an unknown empty volume. After expansion, the resulting
equilibrium pressure will be given by the magnitude of the unknown volume; this
pressure is measured. Using this value and Boyle's Law, the unknown volume is
calculated, which represents the pore volume of the sample.

1.4.1.3.3. Barnes Saturation Method

This method consists of saturating a clean, dry sample with a fluid of known
density and determining the pore volume by weight gain of the sample.

Bibliography: http://www.lacomunidadpetrolera.com/cursos/propiedades-de-la-roca-yacimiento/
procedures-to-measure-porosity.php