ARTICLE IN PRESS

Tribology International 42 (2009) 738–744

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Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

Identification of a friction model—Application to the context of dry cutting of

an AISI 1045 annealed steel with a TiN-coated carbide tool
J. Rech a,, C. Claudin a, E. D’Eramo b
a
Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Saint Etienne, Laboratoire de Tribologie et Dynamique des Systèmes, UMR CNRS 5513, 58 rue Jean Parot, 42023 Saint-Etienne, France
b
ASCOMETAL CREAS, Avenue de France, BP70045, 57301 Hagondange, France

a r t i c l e in f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The characterization of friction coefficients at the tool-chip-workpiece interface remains an issue. This
Received 12 April 2008 paper aims to identify a friction model able to describe the friction coefficient at this interface during
Received in revised form the dry cutting of an AISI1045 with TiN coated carbide tools. A new tribometer has been designed in
11 September 2008
order to reach relevant values of pressures and sliding velocities. This set-up is based on a modified pin-
Accepted 12 October 2008
on-ring system. Additionally a numerical model simulating the frictional test has been associated in
Available online 22 October 2008
order to quantify average friction coefficients around the spherical pin, from the standard macroscopic
Keywords: data provided by the experimental system. A range of cutting speeds has been investigated. It has been
Friction shown that the friction coefficient is very much dependant on the sliding velocity. A new friction model
Numerical modelling
has been identified based on the average local sliding velocity.
Cutting
& 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In the context of a global competition, companies are
compelled to improve their productivities. As a consequence,
they have to optimize their production processes including
cutting processes. In order to achieve this aim, industry adopts
very high cutting levels (high cutting speeds and feed rates).
Under severe conditions, caused by a high cutting levels, the
mechanical stresses and temperatures at tool-chip interface and
around the cutting edge can be critically high, resulting in an
excessive tool wear or even a premature tool failure. Therefore, it
is necessary to develop an accurate cutting process simulation to
identify optimum cutting conditions in terms of tool material, tool
geometry and coating method in order to sustain the productivity
improvement of machining operations. Nevertheless, the ‘cutting’
scientific community regrets an important lack of fundamental
understanding of the defects occurring at the tool-chip interface
(‘secondary shear zone’ in Fig. 1) and at the tool-workpiece
interface (‘rubbing zone’ in Fig. 1) in order to achieve an accurate
modelling by means of finite element methods [1]. So far, the
Coulomb model with a constant coefficient, irrespective of
temperature and pressure, is usually used to simulate the friction
phenomena at these interfaces. However, in metal cutting, a wide
range of cutting speed is used. The temperature at interfaces is
directly influenced by the friction velocity. Moreover the sliding
 Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 677098123; fax: +33 477437539.
E-mail address: joel.rech@enise.fr (J. Rech).
velocities in the rubbing zone and in the secondary shear zone are
very much different as shown in Fig. 1. As a consequence, the
range of temperature is very large as shown by infrared
measurements at the tool-chip-workpiece interface [2]. The
pressure along the interface is also very much different as
reported by Trent [3]. Both temperature and pressure are well
known as having a great influence on frictional behaviour, so the
assumption of a constant coefficient along the interface is not
consistent.
Moreover the value of the Coulomb model is never predeter-
mined by any frictional investigations, but is used as a variable
parameter allowing the adjustment of the numerical results in
order to fit the experimental data, especially the cutting force.
However, it is now generally accepted that a constant Coulomb
friction coefficient cannot represent the contact at the tool-chip-
workpiece interfaces during the cutting operation because of
exceptional mechanical and thermal loadings. In the case of steel
machining, usual cutting conditions lead to severe tribological
conditions: high velocities (60–600 m/min), high temperatures
(up to 1000 1C), high pressures (up to 2 GPa) since Trent [3].
In order to investigate the tribological phenomena at these
interfaces, scientists use two approaches. The first approach
consists in using the cutting process itself [4–11]. The second one
consists in using frictional laboratory tests.
The first approach has been used by several researchers. The
investigations are usually based on turning tests of a tube made of
the investigated material, with a cutting tool made of the relevant
substrate and coating. During tests, cutting forces and tempera-
tures are measured. After tests, scientists analyze the geometry

0301-679X/$ - see front matter & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.triboint.2008.10.007
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J. Rech et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 738–744
Workmaterial
Rubbing
zone
Fig. 1. Illustration of various strategic zones in cutting.
and the microstructure of chips, in parallel to the traces left by the
tool/chip/workpiece interfaces remained on the cutting tools. Of
course, this kind of tests is the best way to provide the relevant
friction conditions for cutting applications. However, it is
impossible to have detailed information about the local contact
pressure or temperature since it varies very significantly along the
tool-chip-workpiece contact as shown by [2]. Moreover it is very
difficult to discriminate information about friction from the
macroscopic data (cutting, force, feed force, etc.) since the chip
formation plays the major role. In deed, as shown by [6], the
influence of friction on the macroscopic measurements plays a
secondary role. As a consequence the macroscopic parameters
analyzed are inadequate to provide local information about
friction. In order to overcome this problem, authors introduce
analytical models based on a lot of assumptions about the
variation of the frictional behaviour along the contact and about
chip formation, which does not ensure the reliability of the
results.
On the contrary, laboratory tribological tests enable to master
much more accurately the contact conditions. The modification of
these conditions is rather easy. Several frictional set-ups already
exist or have been developed. The most widely known set-up
is the pin-on-disc system, which is unfortunately not able to
simulate the contact conditions in cutting, since the conditions
(temperature, pressure) are not relevant to those observed in
cutting as shown by [13]. The contact pressures allowed using
these systems hardly reach 1 GPa due to a lack of rigidity.
Moreover, during a cutting operation, the chip flows on the rake
face and never comes back. In parallel, the cut surface rubs the
flank face and is never more in contact with the tool (Fig. 1).
Specialists in tribology use the terminology ‘‘open tribo-system’’
since [14]. On the contrary, in pin-on-disc systems, the pin always
rubs on the same track. This configuration is a so-called ‘‘closed
tribo-system’’. Both configurations lead to fully different tribolo-
gical results. So it does not make sense to use ‘closed tribo-system’
in order to investigate the tribological phenomena at tool/chip/
workpiece interfaces as shown by [15,16].
Based on this statement, a new tribometer, based on
Hedenqvist’s work [17], has been developed in order to reach
relevant contact conditions in pressure and temperature. Its
design is presented in [18]. The principle of this experimental
set-up is illustrated in Fig. 2. A cylindrical bar, made of AISI 1045
annealed steel (180HB), is fixed onto a lathe’s chuck. A pin, having
a spherical geometry is pressed onto the cylindrical surface by
means of a jack. An axial movement combined with the rotation of
the bar leads to a helical movement. The kinematic of a lathe
739
f
Vc : Cutting speed
f : feed
Vc
Primary shear zone
h Chip
Vc Vchip ~ Vc.f
h
Cutting tool
provides a very wide range of sliding velocities. However sliding
velocities must be chosen in accordance with the frictional
velocity of the workmaterial around the cutting tool (along the
rake face and along the flank face) as shown in Fig. 1.
After each friction test, a cutting tool refreshes the surface
ploughed by the pin. A belt finishing operation is also performed
in order to obtain a very low surface roughness Ra0.1 mm. After
this regeneration, the surface remains in the same condition
irrespective of the testing conditions.
The pin is a cylinder having a spherical geometry at its
extremity + 9 mm. It is made of cemented carbide with a similar
grade to the one used for cutting tools. Pins have been polished in
order to reach a low surface roughness Rao0.3 mm. Then pins
have been coated with a TiN layer obtained by physical vapour
deposition (PVD). This sphere-plane contact configuration has
been chosen in order to reach relevant contact pressures.
The pin is maintained by an instrumented pin-holder able
to provide data about the instantaneous heat flux entering into
the pin. This equipment enables to evaluate the percentage of
frictional heat transmitted to pins.
The pin-holder is fixed onto a dynamometer in order to provide
the apparent normal and tangential force (macroscopic forces).
So the first objective of this paper is to characterize the
influence of the sliding velocity on the friction coefficient at
the tool-chip-workpiece interface during the dry cutting of an
AISI1045 in its annealed state (180 HB) with a TiN coated carbide.
The new experimental set-up, previously described, has been
applied in order to bring these original data.
The second objective of the paper is to apply a numerical
scratching model simulating the same conditions as the experi-
mental tests. Based on the experimental data recorded during
friction tests and based on the local data provided by the
numerical scratching model, it becomes possible to identify an
analytical friction model describing the frictional behaviour of
these two materials for a large range of sliding velocities.
2. Testing conditions
Testing conditions have to be chosen in accordance with the
frictional conditions estimated along the tool/chip/workpiece
interfaces. For instance, the machining of a AISI 1045 annealed
steel (180 HB) with a TiN coated carbide tool in dry cutting
conditions is commonly performed at a cutting speed around
Vc150 m/min in the concerned industrial application. Based on
Fig. 1, it is of evidence that the macroscopic sliding velocity at the
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740 J. Rech et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 738–744

Fig. 2. Description of the tribometer.

tool-workpiece interface (rubbing zone) is almost equal to the

cutting speed Vc. On the contrary, it is well known that the
macroscopic sliding velocity on the tool-chip interface (secondary
shear zone) is much smaller, since the chip section is much larger
than the input section ( ¼ the feed, in the case of orthogonal
cutting). The ratio between the chip thickness and the feed is
usually called the chip compression ratio b. In the case of such
steels, the chip compression ratio b is usually around 2. These
values have been confirmed by experimental measurements of
chips after standard turning operation in the same configuration
(same couple of materials) [19]. So, from a macroscopic point of
view, the average sliding velocity on the tool rake face should be 2
times lower than the cutting speed i.e., 75 m/min.
Concerning the choice of contact pressures, it makes sense to
consider the specific pressure kc available in any catalogue of any
cutting tool manufacturer. Depending on the data base considered
and on the undeformed chip thickness, this value is included in
Fig. 3. Evolution of the apparent friction coefficient with the sliding velocity.
the range 2300–6000 N/mm2. This value is usually obtained by
the ratio between the cutting force divided by the undeformed
section (f.ap). It should be considered that this pressure is not
realistic since the real area of contact is not f.ap, but is at least 2–3
times larger as stated by [3]. So it is possible to estimate
approximately an average contact pressure. Its value should be
also 2–3 times smaller (1000–3000 N/mm2).
As a consequence, the characterization of the frictional
properties at the tool/chip/workpiece interface necessitates
performing friction tests in the following conditions: sliding
velocity: 75–150 m/min, pressure: 1–3 GPa.

3. Experimental results

The influence of sliding velocity has been investigated in this

work. A normal force equal to 1000 N has been applied onto pins
having a 9 mm diameter, which leads to an average pressure in the
range 1–2 GPa. The estimation of the contact pressure has been
performed with a numerical scratching model, which will be
explained later in the paper. Fig. 4. Evolution of the heat flux transmitted to pins with the sliding velocity.
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J. Rech et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 738–744
The first output data provided by this set-up is the ratio
between the tangential and the normal force. This coefficient can
be defined as an apparent friction coefficient mapp:
Ft
mapp ¼ (1)
Fn
The evolution of mapp versus sliding velocity Vs is plotted in
Fig. 3. Experiments have been conducted on a larger range of
sliding velocities Vs in order to explore frictional phenomena at
higher and lower values than the ones necessary during the present
industrial application. Each test configuration has been replicated
2 times. The maximum deviation observed in the whole range
of testing conditions is lower than 5%. Fig. 3 shows that friction is
strongly influenced by sliding velocity Vs. This confirms that it is
not relevant to consider the friction coefficient as independent
from sliding velocity. It is also clear that over 200 m/min, the slope
becomes horizontal which reveals a modification of the frictional
behavior. The reason for this different behavior is not understood
for the time being and necessitates further investigations.
The second output data provided by the set-up is the heat flux
transmitted to the pin jpin. The evolution of heat flux jpin versus
sliding velocity Vs is plotted in Fig. 4. It appears that heat flux
Fig. 5. Example of results obtained with the numerical friction model.
741
increases with the velocity, which is coherent with the fact that
more energy is produced and has to be dissipated.
As summary, this section has shown the large influence of the
sliding velocity on the apparent friction coefficient and on the
heat flux transmitted to pins. However it is not possible to identify
friction models based on macroscopic parameters such as the
macroscopic sliding velocity, since it is not usable in any
numerical cutting models. In deed numerical models only
consider friction models depending on local parameters such as
temperature, pressure, stress, local sliding velocity, etcy So it is
now necessary to develop a methodology in order to identify a
friction model based on local parameters at the interface.
4. Numerical post-treatment methods
The results provided by the experimental set-up are macro-
scopic data: apparent friction coefficient and heat flux jpin. The
characterization of the frictional phenomena at the tool/chip/
workpiece interface necessitates focusing the analysis on the
phenomena occurring at the pin/workpiece interface. Macroscopic
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742 J. Rech et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 738–744

data are the result of two phenomena: Table 2

Thermo-physical properties of the AISI 1045 workmaterial.

 the ploughing effect (plastic deformation) induced by the pin Parameter Temperature (1C) Value
under such high pressures: mplast
 the adhesive phenomena: madh Specific heat (J kg1 1C1) 20 423
Thermal conductivity (W m1 1C1) 20 47
Density (kg m3) 20 7800
It is assumed since Bowden and Tabor [20] that Coef. thermal expansion (mm/m 1C) 20 11
Poisson’s ratio 20 0.3
mapp ¼ mplast þ madh (2) Young’s modulus (GPa) 20 200

The aim of this work is to characterize the adhesive friction

coefficient madh in order to introduce these values in future finite
element models simulating the whole chip removal process. So
the current objective is to get an adhesive friction model in the
Table 3
range of sliding velocity (75–150 m/min). As a consequence, it is
Johnson-Cook’s parameters of the AISI1045.
necessary to discriminate the proportion of each phenomenon. In
order to reach this objective, a finite element model simulating A B C n m _ 0 (s1) TF (1C) T0 (1C)
this friction test has been developed. A spherical pin made of
553 600 0.0134 0.234 1 0.001 1460 20
carbide is pressed and translated on a surface with the same
conditions as the experimental conditions (same normal force and A: yield strength (MPa); B: hardening modulus (MPa); C: strain rate sensitivity
sliding velocity). The principle of this thermo-mechanical model, coefficient (viscosity); n: hardening coefficient; m: thermal softening coefficient;
developed with ABAQUS Explicit is shown in Fig. 5. The details _ p : plastic strain rate (s1); _ 0 : reference plastic strain rate (s1); TF: melting
about the design of this FEM model have already been published temperature of the work material (1C); T: temperature of the work material (1C);
T0: room temperature (1C).
in the paper [18] and cannot be presented since it would make the
present paper very long.
However the key idea of this numerical model is to perform
several simulations until the macroscopic experimental data
become equal to the same macroscopic data provided by ABAQUS:
mappðnumericalÞ ¼ mappðexperimentalÞ (3)

jpinðnumericalÞ ¼ jpinðexperimentalÞ (4)

Of course the input data have to be adapted for the case of an

AISI1045 annealed steel.
The thermo-mechanical properties of carbide pins are reported
in Table 1, whereas, the AISI1045s thermo-dependent properties
used are reported in the Table 2. Finally a Johnson-Cook flow-
stress model has been used to model the AISI 1045 mechanical
behaviour. The parameters used have been chosen thanks to the
works of Jaspers et al. [21] and are reported in Table 3:
" !#    
_¯ T  T0 m
seq ¼ ½A þ Bð¯p Þn : 1 þ C: ln p : 1  (5)
_¯ 0 TF  T0 Fig. 6. Evolution of contact pressure with the sliding velocity.

The post-treatment has been performed for sliding velocities

between 75 and 150 m/min. It becomes now possible to obtain
local information about the average temperature and the average 4.1. Pressure
pressure in the semi-spherical contact. Based on these data, it
would be possible to make a link between adhesive friction The contact between the pin and the workpiece is a semi-
coefficient and local parameters. spherical contact during friction tests. Fig. 5 illustrates an example
of pressure map supported by the workpiece. In this work, authors
have only considered the average contact pressure, which will be
called ‘contact pressure’. For example, Fig. 5 shows that the
Table 1 average pressure is around 1.3 GPa, whereas its maximum
Thermo-physical properties of the carbide substrate.
pressure is around 2.4 GPa.
Parameter Temperature (1C) Value It should be noticed that the contact pressure reached in this
application is in accordance with the specification requested in
Specific heat (J kg1 1C1) 20 226 Section 2 in order to get relevant adhesive friction coefficient for
320 296
cutting applications.
520 326
820 342 Fig. 6 presents the contact pressure versus sliding velocity
Vs. This figure reveals that sliding velocity does not affect
significantly the contact pressure. The pressure can be influenced
Thermal conductivity (W m1 1C1) 20 44.6
600 59
if the viscosity of the workmaterial is very high (Table 3
800 51.2 reports the viscosity term of the flow-stress model). In
the case of steels, the proportion of this property is usually
Density (kg m3) 20 12800
rather limited when modifying the velocity in a small range
(75–150 m/min).
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J. Rech et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 738–744 743

4.2. Temperature pressure and/or temperature. So a friction model depending on

the average local sliding velocity has been identified (Fig. 10). This
The ‘contact temperature’ has been defined as the average model provides the possibility to consider that the friction
temperature in the contact. Fig. 7 shows the evolution of the coefficient can evolve on one side between the cutting edge and
contact pressure depending on the sliding velocity Vs. It appears the end of the tool-chip contact length (low sliding velocities),
that the contact temperature increases with the sliding velocity, and on the other side between the cutting edge and the tool-
which was expected. Indeed, when increasing the sliding velocity, workpiece contact length (high sliding velocities) as stated in
more heat is generated at the interface. However the slope of the Fig. 1. Moreover the local sliding velocity in the contact is
curve is rather limited due to the decrease of the friction
coefficient in the range 75–150 m/min (Fig. 3).
NB: It is remarkable to observe that the contact temperature is
in the range 500–600 1C which is relevant with the contact
temperature in cutting of an AISI1045 as reported in the literature
by [4,2].

4.3. Friction model depending on average local sliding velocity

The average local sliding velocity Vls is defined as the average

value of the sliding velocity at each point of the pin-work material
interface as shown in Fig. 8. The numerical model enables to
quantify all the local values and to calculate the average value.
This average local sliding velocity is very different from the
macroscopic sliding velocity induced on the pin because of the
friction along the contact. Fig. 9 plots the evolution of the average
local sliding velocity Vls versus the macroscopic sliding velocity Vs.
This figure reveals that the average local sliding velocity Vls is
reduced by 22–34% depending on the testing conditions and on
the corresponding adhesive friction coefficient.
Ref. [18] has revealed that this parameter is more relevant to
describe the evolution of the adhesive friction coefficient than Fig. 9. Evolution of local sliding velocity versus macroscopic sliding velocity.

Fig. 7. Evolution of contact temperature with the sliding velocity. Fig. 10. Evolution of adhesive friction coefficient versus local sliding velocity.

Fig. 8. Example of reparation of the local sliding velocity and calculation of its average value.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
744 J. Rech et al. / Tribology International 42 (2009) 738–744
responsible (with the adhesive coefficient) of the heat generation.
This heat is responsible for the temperature. As a consequence, it
becomes clear that a model connecting the adhesive friction
coefficient with the local sliding velocity is meaningful to be
introduced in a FEM cutting model. This work has already been
performed in [12], but cannot be presented in detail in the present
paper since it addresses another workmaterial.
Eq. (6) presents the model linking the adhesive friction
coefficient madh and the average local sliding velocity Vls in the
range 50 and 103 m/min, corresponding to macroscopic friction
velocities Vs between 75 and 150 m/min. Such a range of friction
velocities is relevant with a cutting velocity around 150 m/min.
madh ¼ 0:002  V ls þ 0:498
Since [12], additional tests have to be performed at lower local
sliding velocities since the local sliding velocity is close to 0 m/
min around the cutting edge. Moreover the influence of the
pressure has to be considered in a future work, even if [13] has
shown that pressure is a secondary important parameter
compared to sliding velocity. However the present paper provides
a first approach of a friction model for this application, which
corresponds to a significant progress compared to the current
state of the art considering constant friction coefficient along the
tool-chip-workpiece contact.
5. Conclusions
This paper has presented the application of a new tribometer
dedicated to the characterization of friction coefficients along the
tool/chip/workpiece contact in cutting. This system enables to
reach temperature, pressure and velocities relevant with cutting
application. This system has been applied to the case of the
machining of an AISI1045 annealed steel with a TiN coated
carbide tool in dry conditions. The set-up has shown that the
friction coefficient is very sensitive to the sliding velocity.
A numerical model, simulating the friction test, enables to
extract local information from the contact area, which cannot be
obtained experimentally: average contact temperature, average
contact pressure, local sliding velocity below the pin, etc.
A friction model depending on the average local sliding
velocity has been identified.
This friction model can be introduced in a FEM of the cutting
process in order to improve the understanding of the material
flow around cutting tools during dry machining of AISI1045
annealed steel.
Acknowledgement
Authors would like to express their gratitude to the ASCOME-
TAL CREAS Company for providing steel and for the financial
support to this investigation.
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