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Biology 2
Biology 2
Characteristics of life
Nutrition
-> Plants
·
Make their own food by photosynthesis
->
Human / Animals
Eat plants / other animals
·
Respiration
-> To make energy for body activities
#
xcretion (FEEF #S
-> Remove waste
-> Animals
·
Excrete wastes in the form of exhaled gas, sweat & urine
->
Plants
·
Tree excrete waste as resin (EFIE)
·
Store waste in leaves
Waste are removed when leaves are shed
Sensitivity Cirriability)
->
Detect changes in surroundings & respond to them
Movement
->
Animals
·
Move around to search for food, find mates & escape from danger
->
plants
·Shoots growing towards light
Growth
-> Increase in body size & complexity
Reproduction
->
Produce offspring, ensures continuity of life
Organic substances—Biomolecules
Inorganic substances
Water
Inorganic substance
Water takes away heat when it evaporate
→
Evaporating water absorb heat from surroundings
→ Acts as a
cooling agent
→ Human body
•
When sweat evaporates , it takes away some heat from skin to help cool the body
→
Plants
•
→ Water is a
good lubricant in organisms
•
Moveable joints in human body are filled with water to reduce friction between
Monosaccharide
-> "One sugar"
-> Solube in water, taste sweet
-> Olucose (TE). Fructose (***). Galactose (**L**(
->
Reducing sugar
One substance loses electrons/hydrogen, another substance gain electron/hydrogen
·
1) isaccharides
-> "Double sugar"
-> Soluble in water, taste sweet
->
Reducing sugar
·
Except sucrose
->
Glycogen (A)
·
storage form of carbohydrates in animals & human
·
In muscles
·
Can be broken down to glucose when cells needs energy
->
Starch (iTAS
·
Plants store starch for energy reserve
·
Can be broken down to glucose when cells need energy.
->
Cellulose (***)
·
Main component of cell walls in plant
·
Structural carbohydrate
->
Combining two monosaccharides
·
Condensation
Removal of water molecule
->
Can be break down to monosaccharides
Hydrolysis
·
·
Observe any colour change
#glucose is present, it causes the strip to change colour
Benedict's test
-> For testing reducing sugar
·
Reducing
·
sugar
brick-red precipitate is formed
·
Non reducing sugar
No observable change
Iodine test
-> For testing starch
->
Procedure
·
Starch
colour of iodine solution changes from brown to blue-black
·
Without starch
Colour of iodine solution remains brown
Lipids
Insoluble in water ,
soluble in organic solvent
/
•
Acts as insulating layer to reduce heat loss
→
Plants
•
Produce oil and store in seeds
Phospolipids
→
Condensation of 1- glycerol molecule ,
2 fatty acid molecules and 1 phosphate
group
→ Main component of cell membrane
cholesterol
→
complex molecule consisting of carbon rings
→ For making cell membranes lipid hormones and .
vitamin D
→ Put the filter paper on a watch glass and leave it there for 10 mins
→
Cooking oil leaves a persistent translucent spot
→ Water spot disappear after drying
Proteins
Made up of carbon , hydrogen oxygen nitrogen
, ,
& Sometimes sulphur
Basic unit of protein is called amino acids
Amino acids
→
Form by
•
A central carbon atom
•
An amino group C- NHZ )
A
carboxyl group C- COOH )
•
•
A side chain C- R group )
→ 20 types of amino acids
•
Differs inside chain ( side chain defines the type of amino acid )
→ Joined by condensation
Amino group of 1 amino acid bonds to the carboxyl group of another
•
R2
IN AÉ
H ° " °
-
- c' + in d- c-
-
/ '
it
'
* OH It OH
¥ :
=§¥
peptide
bond
H R P ) R2
,
d-
,
N -
C -
C -
N - + H2O
/
H it A ti '
OH
→
Amino acid sequence determines the shape of a protein molecules ,
Polypeptide
->
Formed by many amino acids >2
->
Protein molecule may possess one or more polypeptide chain
Functions
->
Forming haemoglobin, enzymes, antibodies & certain hormones
->
Component of various cellular structures
cytoplasm
*
·
->
source of energy when body is short of carbohydrates & lipids
→
Play important roles in heredity & protein synthesis
Nucleotide
→ Basic unit of nucleic acids
→
3 component
•
5- carbon sugar
Deoxyribose → DNA
Ribose → RNA
•
A nitrogenous base
Thymine → DNA
Guanine → DNA / RNA
mitochondrion \
) Nucleus membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Nucleolus
Ribosomes Vacuole
Rough
endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
cell membrane
→ Made up of lipids & proteins
→
Differently permeable
•
can control the movement of substances to enter & leave the cell
cytoplasm
→
Jelly like substance that is mainly made up of water , proteins sugars
, , fatty acids
→
Holds all organelles in a cell
Nucleus
→
Surrounded by nucleus membrane ( double membrane )
Ribosomes
→ Site of protein synthesis
Rough endoplasmic reticulum ( Rough ER )
→ With ribosomes attached on the surface
→
Transport proteins produced at ribosomes
→ Without ribosomes
→ Involved in synthesis and transport of lipids within the cytoplasm
Mitochondrion
→
Surrounded by double membrane
•
Outer membrane :
smooth
•
Inner membrane :
highly folded to form finger like
-
projections
→ Main sites of aerobic respiration
Organic food substances are broken down to release energy in the form
•
of ATP
→
Number of mitochrodria in a particular cell depends on it 's
energy need
Vacuole
→
Enclosed by a membrane
→
Only a few small vacuoles in animals
Plant cells
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm
-vacuole
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Chiroplast
Cell Wall
Nuclear
Mitochrodrion Cell membrane
Cell membrane
-> Made up of lipids & proteins
->
Differently permeable
·
can control the movement of substances into & out of the cell
Cytoplasm
like substance that up of water, proteins, sugars, fatty acids
->
jelly is mainly made
->
Holds all organelles in a cell
Nucleus
->
surrounded by nucleus membrane (double membrane (
Nuclear poles exist nuclear membrane to allow exchange between
·
on
Ribosomes
-> site of protein synthesis
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (Rough ERC
-> with ribosomes attached on the surface
->
Transport proteins produced at ribosomes
Mitochondrion
->
surrounded by double membrane
·
Outer membrane: smooth
·
Inner membrane: highly folded to form finger-like projections
-> Main sites of aerobic respiration
Organic food substances are broken down to release energy in the form
·
of ATP
->
Number of mitochrodria in a particular cell depends on it's energy need
vacuole
->
Enclosed by a membrane
·
Fluid inside vacuole = Cell Sap
->
Plant cell become turgid when vacuole is fully filled which provides
support to plants
Cell Wal
->
Made up of cellulose
->
Thick, rigid layer covering cell membrane
->
Fully permeable to water & dissolved substances
-> Protects and give shape to plant cells
Internal
membranesac Outer membrane
Chloroplast
->
Found in green plants Inner membrane
->
Contain green pigment (Chlorophyll for photosynthesis)
Comparisons
Animal cells & plant cells
1
Animal cells Plant cells
CELL
WALL
X
vacuole None / few small large Central
vacuoles vacuole
Chloroplast
X
Position At the centre At one side
of nucleus
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells (Animals, plants ... (
->
Animal cells, plant cells ...
surrounded
->
Eukaryote
·
Chlorophyl
->
DWA,
Unicellular organism
Organelle
->
Nucleus, chloroplasts
Cell
-> Heart muscle cell, mesophyll cell
Tissue
->
Heart muscle tissue. Mesophyll tissue
System
->
Circulatory system. Root system
Organism
->
Human, plant
Microscope
Light microscope
-> use lenses to refract and focus light from specimen to form magnified image
-> Examines living cells & preserved cells, used to look at biological processes
in living cells
->
Magnification not high enough to see all structures in cells
·
can only be magnified to 1000 times
#lectron microscope
Body Tube
Arm
Nosepiece
→ Holds the objective of different magnifications ,
can be turned to switch
between different objectives
←
Eyepiece
Objective coarse +merit
lens closest to the specimen Nosepiece actus knob
→
Magnifying ✓ Fine
stage dip
bᵈeY→ >
✓ adjustment
knob
→
Hold the slides in position on the stage Objectives → ← Arm
-
stage stage
stage I dip
denser
→ Slide is put here for observation Mirrors
Iris
condenser
[ Base diaphragm
→ concentrate the light reflected from the mirror onto the specimen
Iris diaphragm
→
Regulates the amount of light passing through the condenser
Mirror
→ Reflects light to shine through specimen