IHR-302

Renewable Energy Sources

Development Technology

IHR-302, Sonal K. Thengane, HRED, IIT Roorkee

 Course Outline
❖ Energy scenario, introduction

❖ Solar Mon 8:00 – 8:55 am

Wed 8:00 – 8:55 am
Fri 8:00 – 8:55 am
❖ Biomass

Internal assessment (25%)

Mid-semester (25%)
End-semester (50%)

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 Is the world running out of energy?

NO
Is the world running out of fossil fuels?

YES
IHR-302, Sonal K. Thengane, HRED, IIT Roorkee 3
 How many humans can the Earth support?
It took 127 years for the world population to double
from 1 billion to 2. But, it took only 47 years, from 1927
to 1974, to double from 2 billion to 4.
Since 1960, world population has grown by about 1
billion every 13 years.

Earth has 1.9 hectares of land per person for growing food
and textiles for clothing, supplying wood and absorbing
waste.

The average individual in the world uses 2.3 ha and the USA uses about 9.7 ha.

Earth can support at most one-fifth of the present population, 1.5 billion people, at an American standard of living.
Earth surface area: 510.1 million km²
4
1 ha = 0.01 km2
 *https://www.downtoearth.org.in/

Despite rising consumption in the developing world, developed countries remain responsible for the bulk of the world's
resource consumption as well as emissions 5
 Electrical energy, Electrical power, Electricity
• Electrical energy: the amount of work done that causes electric current to flow through a circuit (energy
generated due to the movement of charge carriers in a conductor)
Energy (E) = Power (P) x time (t) = VIt = I2Rt (V= IR) Unit: J ; kWh

• Electrical power: the rate at which work (basically movement of charges) is done in an electrical circuit (the
rate of consumption of electrical energy by a device)
Power (P) = Potential difference (V) x Current (I) Unit: watt; kW

• Electricity: is the presence and flow of electric charge. Using electricity as a medium we can transfer
energy. Static electricity (e.g. rub a balloon or pen through your hair); Current electricity is what flows through
the lines and cables to your electric devices.
Charges (Coulomb) of electricity are not energy (Joule), and a flow of charges (C/s) is not a flow of energy (J/s)

Commercially, 1 unit of electrical energy (referred to as electricity in bills) = 1 kWh and average tariff in India is Rs. 6/unit
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Example: For a 220 V, 1 A electric lamp to provide light for 30 minutes, how much energy (in
kJ and kWh) is required? If we use it for 1 month (June) non-stop, how much will it add to
the electricity bill (assume Rs.6/unit)?

Solution :
Electric power (P) :
P = V I = (220 Volt)(1 Ampere) = 220 Volt Ampere = 220 Watt = 220 Joule/second

Electric energy = Electric power x time = (220 Joule/second)(1800 second)

Electric energy = 3,96,000 Joule = 396 kJ
Electric energy = 0.22 (kW) x 0.5 (h) = 0.11 kWh = 0.11 x 3600 kJ = 396 kJ

Units for month of June = (30 x 24) h x 0.22 kW = 158.4 Added cost = Rs. 6 x 158.4 = Rs. 950.4

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Typical electrical energy usage for appliances per hour

8
 Activity for the week

Validate your electric bill

IHR-302, Sonal K. Thengane, HRED, IIT Roorkee 9
 Energy densities of different fuels and energy storage sources
Nuclear fuels MJ/kg
Uranium 80,620,000
Thorium 79,420,000
Plutonium-238 2,239,000
Volumetric energy density

Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given fuel

per unit volume. For energy per unit mass, a more accurate
term is specific energy (or gravimetric energy density)

Wood

Gravimetric energy density

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Sun – Main source of energy

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Sun – ultimate source of energy
Solar energy is energy that comes from within the sun itself. Like other stars, the sun is a big gas ball made up mostly of
hydrogen and helium. The sun generates energy in its core in a process called nuclear fusion. During nuclear fusion, the
sun's extremely high pressure and hot temperature cause hydrogen atoms to come apart and their nuclei (the central cores
of the atoms) to fuse or combine. Four hydrogen nuclei fuse to become one helium atom. But the helium atom weighs less
than the four nuclei that combined to form it. Some matter is lost during nuclear fusion. The lost matter is emitted into
space as radiant energy.

Every day the sun radiates, or sends out, an enormous amount of energy. The sun radiates more energy in one second than
people have used since the beginning of time.

It takes millions of years for the energy in the sun's core to make its way to the solar surface, and then just a little over 8
minutes to travel the 93 million miles to earth. The solar energy travels to the earth at a speed of 186,000 miles per second,
the speed of light.

Only a small portion of the energy radiated by the sun into space strikes the earth, one part in two billion. Yet this amount of
energy is enormous.

All other renewable sources of energy come from sun directly or indirectly.

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 Classification of energy sources
Primary Secondary
Those that are either found or stored in Mostly industrial utilities and energy
nature; Some can be directly used sources produced from primary sources
E.g. coal, oil, natural gas, biomass, E.g. steam, electricity, heat, chemicals
geothermal, hydro, nuclear

Renewable Non-renewable

Continuously produced in the nature and Accumulated in nature for a long time
are not exhaustible and can’t be replaced timely if exhausted
E.g. solar, biomass, geo thermal, wind, E.g. coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear
tidal, hydro
 Why renewable energy is important?
• solution to issues of climate change, emissions, and energy security
• clean and ecofriendly with long-term certainty
Renewables

Global investment (billion USD)

• investment in the field (R&D and implementation)
has been increasing
• cost of technologies has been declining
• efficiency continues to rise Fossil fuels

• heavily encouraged by policy measures, banks, and

environmental legislations

*IEA, 2019
IHR-302, Sonal K. Thengane, HRED, IIT Roorkee 14
*BloombergNEF 2023
16
 Global Warming and Climate Change
• Global warming: the rise in global temperatures mainly due to the
increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. It is
the long-term heating of Earth’s surface observed since the pre-
industrial period (1850 - 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil
fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in
Earth’s atmosphere.

• Climate change: the increasing changes in the measures of climate over

a long period of time – including precipitation, temperature, and wind
patterns. Climate data records provide evidence of climate change key
indicators, such as global land and ocean temperature increases; rising
sea levels; ice loss at Earth’s poles and in mountain glaciers; frequency
and severity changes in extreme weather such as hurricanes, heatwaves,
wildfires, droughts, floods, and precipitation; and cloud and vegetation
cover changes. 17
 Global surface temperature
• Global surface temperature (GST) or
global mean surface temperature:
calculated by averaging
the temperature at the surface of the
sea and air temperature over land
• Long-term changes in GST
indicate global cooling
or global warming

• Baseline: 14℃ (20th century average

value 1880- present)

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Greenhouse effect

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Greenhouse effect
• Greenhouse effect: the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a
temperature above what it would be without this atmosphere
• John Tyndall recognized the Earth's natural greenhouse effect (1860s)
• Svante Arrhenius predicted that changes in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere could substantially alter the surface
temperature through the greenhouse effect (1896)

• Primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3).

• Natural greenhouse effect warms the planet to its comfortable average of 15℃ and keeps life on earth, well, livable.
Without it the world would be a frozen, uninhabitable place, more like Mars (-18 ℃).
• Human activities (burning of fossil fuels and clearcutting of forests) accelerated the greenhouse effect and caused global
warming

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What are the main reasons for global
warming ?

Deforestation Excess use of fossil fuels

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Global Warming
Potential (GWP)
CO2: 1
CH4: 28–36
N2O: 265–298

CFC, PFC, SF6: 1000-

25000

Source: Emission
Database for Global
Atmospheric Research
version 3.2

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23
24
Barnett et al. 2005

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Simple Solutions

• Tree plantation
(Bastin et al. 2019,
Science)

• Reduce use
• Conserve (reduce
wastage)

Policies ????

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 International Initiatives for Climate Change
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental
treaty adopted on 9 May 1992 (197 member countries)
Objective: stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system

1995: Conferences of the Parties (COP) to assess progress in dealing with climate change
1997: the Kyoto Protocol (established legal obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions in the period 2008–2012)
2015: the Paris Agreement (governing emission reductions from 2020 on. commitments of Nationally
Determined Contributions (NDCs) members, to lower the target to 1.5 °C)
• United Nations Development Program (UNDP): Sustainable development goals (7: Affordable and Clean
Energy; 13: Climate Action)
2021: COP 26 Or Glasgow Climate Change Conference (reduce deforestation, methane emissions, coal use) 27
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Global Energy
Scenario

IHR-302, Sonal K. Thengane, HRED, IIT Roorkee 29

Global primary energy consumption
Consumption increased by 2.9% in 2018, strongest since 2010
and almost double the 10-year average. Growth was
particularly strong in the case of gas and renewables.

Million tonnes oil equivalent

30
Years (1993 – 2018) *BP Report 2019
Global primary energy consumption (Percentage)

Oil remains the most used fuel, and the gap

between coal and gas has narrowed

Percentage
Hydro and nuclear remained relatively flat in
2018 at 7% and 4%, respectively

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Years (1993 – 2018)
 Renewables
consumption

Million tonnes oil equivalent

• China accounted for 45% of
global growth and its
consumption has increased 20-
fold in the last 10 years.

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Years (1993 – 2018)
 Renewable energy
generation by source

• Wind has accounted for around

50% of renewables generation in
the last few years

TWh
• Solar has constantly increased its
share and now represents 24%

Power generation
efficiencies:
Solar: 15-25%
Wind: 40-50%
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Years (1998 – 2018)
Biofuels production (million tonnes oil eq.)

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Cumulative power capacity by technology, 2010-2027

• Current (main-case) forecast expects renewables to become the primary energy source for electricity generation
globally in the next three years, overtaking coal.
• Renewables account for almost 40% of global electricity output in 2027, making up for declining shares of coal, natural
gas and nuclear. 35
 Installed Capacity and Actual Electricity Generation
• Installed capacity: the maximum output of electricity that a generator can produce
under ideal conditions. Unit: kW, MW

• Electricity generation: the amount of electricity that is produced over a specific period
of time. Unit: kWh, MWh

• Capacity factor of a power plant: ratio of actual output over a period of time, to its
potential output if it operates at full installed capacity indefinitely.

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 Average capacity factors for typical power plants (UK, 2012)

Reasons for reduced capacity factor:

plant is out of service (maintenance, operational issues, absence of labor, etc.); electricity is not needed / price of
electricity is too low to make production economical; adding more generating units; unavailability of fuel
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Example: A nuclear plant with a capacity of 1,000 megawatts (MW) produces
648,000 megawatt-hours (MW·h) in a month, say April; whereas a wind farm
with 10 turbines @ 2 MW nameplate capacity of each turbine, produces
43,416 MW·h of electricity in a year, say 2020. Which one has the higher
capacity factor?
Nuclear

Wind

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Indian Energy
Scenario

IHR-302, Sonal K. Thengane, HRED, IIT Roorkee 39

Per capita energy consumption in India

2018-19: 7000 kWh (India)

2018-19: 90000 kWh (USA)
2018-19: 30000 kWh (China)

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 Trends in the growth of the economy, population and energy indicators

TPES: Total primary energy supply

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TFC: Total fuel consumption
2023 Power Sector
Sector GW % of Total Fuel GW % of Total
Central Sector 100 24.0% Total Thermal 237 56.8%
State Sector 105 25.3% Coal 205 49.1%
Private Sector 212 50.7% Lignite 6.6 1.6%
Total installed 417 Gas 24.8 6.0%
capacity Diesel 0.59 0.1%
RES (MNRE) 173.6 41.4%
Hydro 46.8 11.2%
Wind, Solar, Others 125.6 30.2%
Nuclear 6.7 1.6%
Total 417.6 100%
Source: https://powermin.gov.in/

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 Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)
• Nodal Ministry of the Government of India for all matters related to new and renewable energy. The broad
aim of the Ministry is to develop and deploy new and renewable energy aspects to supplement the energy
requirements of the country.

History:

• Commission for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE) in 1981.

• Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES) in 1982.

• Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) in 1992.

• Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) renamed as Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

(MNRE) in 2006.
The mission of the Ministry is to ensure
• Energy Security
• Increase in the share of clean power
• Renewables to supplement fossil fuel-based electricity generation
• Energy Availability and Access
• Energy Affordability and
• Energy Equity.

Renewable Energy: Under the Electricity Act 2003 and the National Tariff Policy 2006, the central and the state
electricity regulatory commissions must purchase a certain percentage of grid-based power from renewable
sources.

Energy Efficiency: Under the Energy Conservation Act 2001, large energy-consuming industries are required to
undertake energy audits and an energy labeling program for appliances has been introduced.
 Sankey Diagram
• A Sankey diagram is a specific type of flow diagram used for visualization of material, cost or energy flows on
a system or regional level.
• Sankey diagrams emphasize the major transfers or flows within a system. They help identify the important
contributions to a flow, and show conserved quantities within defined system boundaries.
• The width of the arrows is proportional to the flow quantity.
• It has directed arrows (between at least two nodes) featuring flows in a process, production system or supply
chain.
• They are suitable for a wide range of applications: energy, material flow & supply chain management or
business & marketing analysis.

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Examples

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Example

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Case Studies

IHR-302, Sonal K. Thengane, HRED, IIT Roorkee

1) Indira Nagar, a small hamlet in Tonk district, Rajasthan, consists of 13 houses with a population of 190, mainly
farmers. Most of them have their own lands that they use to cultivate a single rain fed crop of pulses and
groundnut every year; whereas others are laborers.

Intervention: Minda NexGenTech Ltd along with the support of local sarpanch set up a 240 W solar power-based
micro grid, capital investment being made by the company. The solar power plant works on BOM (built, operate,
and maintain) model where each household pays monthly charge of Rs. 150 for usage.

Objectives: Providing basic lighting and charging of mobile phones • Better standard of living by providing
opportunity for generating income • Kerosene free lighting • Improvement in health, safer environment and
education opportunities

Pre Implementation: Kerosene lamps used for lighting emitted harmful fumes with a characteristic smell.

Post Implementation: Basic lighting achieved to all houses in Indira Nagar. This also developed entrepreneurial
spirit among women. Activities such as grinding pulses and stitching to supplement family incomes have now
become part of their activity during evening hours where they make use of energy efficient LED bulbs. e.g.
grinding of pulses at Rs5/kg which has resulted in a monthly additional income of about Rs 547 per household.
Other activities initiated are sewing centre, education centres etc. In all the efforts have been to come up with
sustainable development for the villagers.
 Technical specifications of the solar power plant
Component Specifications
PV module 1 × 240 W
LED bulbs 1.5 W × 2 (LED bulbs)
Mobile charging 5.5–6 V (Single point)
point
Battery 2 nos, 12 V-150 Ah (ampere
hour), tubular lead–acid battery

Other Transmission distribution box,

components household distribution box
interconnecting wires/cables,
separate switches, battery box
and electrical
accessories
2) Udmaroo, Ladakh (Micro Hydro & SPV):

Location Details: Due to the snow and cold for almost 3-4 months in Ladakh region most of the remote villages
remain inaccessible. Udmaroo is on the bank of River Shayok in Nubra valley and is located at about 150 km
from Leh. The village has 90 households with a total population of about 540.

Intervention: Micro Hydro installed with a capacity of 32 kW which presently generates 20–25 kW electricity
using glacier stream above the village. LEDeG – in collaboration with several national and international partners.
User cash of approximately Rs 1000 per household contributed towards capital cost whereas user in-kind
contributed unpaid labor for installation. The unit is looked after and managed by the village electricity
committee.

Objectives: To make the region self-reliant making use of renewable resources mainly sun and water, both of
which are available in abundance in the region.
Pre-implementation: Due to its remoteness, topography, and location has been an energy-deficient region and
so a centralized electricity distribution model is not feasible for the region. During prolonged winter season, the
extreme weather conditions and scarcity of natural resources makes life difficult.

Post-implementation: The villagers in addition have

taken initiatives to install carpentry and saw machine, a
flour machine, and an oil expeller machine. These have
resulted in added income to the community and
provided livelihood to many families along with
reduction in drudgery.

Co-Benefits:
LEDeG along with SCATEC Solar (India) have installed four
small SPV (solar photovoltaic) power plants during 2011
in four other remote villages of Ladakh.
 Assignment 1 (6 Marks)
Tasks (A team of 2; Limit: 500 words or 2-3 pages):
• Propose a case study on the implementation of renewable energy source in your hostel room, house,
building, locality, or town. Explain the intervention, and expected post-intervention situation or outcomes.
• Prepare a Sankey diagram for energy flow. Make suitable assumptions for capital and operating costs, and
find the payback period (time required to recover capital investment) for the proposed intervention.
• Identify any 3 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), directly satisfied by the intervention. Explain how the
identified SDGs are satisfied.

Submission Due Date: Oct 20, 2023 (write your names on assignment), Submit a hand-written hard copy only

IHR-302, Sonal K. Thengane, HRED, IIT Roorkee

Modes of heat transfer

Sonal K. Thengane, IAH 302, IIT Roorkee 1

 Solar Energy

The Sun is the largest object in the Solar System, accounting for 99.86% of the mass. Solar energy is the radiation from
the sun capable of producing heat, causing chemical reactions, or generating electricity.

Characteristics of the sun:

Mass: 1.98892 x 1030 kg
Diameter: 1,391,000 kilometers
Surface gravity of the Sun: 274 m/s2
Volume of the Sun: 1.412 x 1018 km3
Density of the Sun: 1.622 x 105 kg/m3
Surface temperature, pressure: 5778 K, 0.0008 bar
Sun core temperature, pressure: 15 million K, 265 billion bar

2
Availability of solar energy
51% of the total incoming energy
from the sun’s radiation
penetrates the atmosphere and
reaches the earth. Of the 49%
that does not reach the earth,
30% is reflected back into space
and 19% is absorbed by the
atmosphere and clouds. So total
70% energy is absorbed by earth
which is further reradiated to the
space.

Total solar energy absorbed by

Earth's atmosphere, oceans and
land masses ~ 3,850,000 EJ per
year.

Earth's energy use by mankind ~

500 EJ per year. This is about
0.01% of the total yearly energy
coming from the sun.

1 EJ = 1018 J
3
Solar Radiation, Irradiance, and Insolation
• Radiation is usually short term for electromagnetic radiation and radiance is an instantaneous measurement at a distinct point in time.
Solar radiation "emits" from the sun equally in all directions at frequencies that are visible (wavelength 380 - 740 nm) and non-visible.

• Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation as measured in the
wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Unit: W/m2
• Solar irradiance is often integrated over a given time period in order to report the radiant energy emitted into the surrounding
environment (Wh/m2 or J/m2) during that time period. This integrated solar irradiance is called solar irradiation, solar exposure, solar
insolation, or insolation.

4
• “Insolation" is the amount of radiation "received" on a given surface (usually a square meter) on a plane perpendicular to
the sun in a given amount of time (usually a day). The name comes from a combination of the words "incident solar
radiation".

• Of the total solar radiation

that reaches Earth’s surface,
infrared radiation makes up
49-50%, visible light makes
up 42-43%, and ultraviolet
radiation makes up 7-8%.
• Infrared radiation is readily
absorbed by water and
carbon dioxide molecules
and converted to heat energy
• Absorbed solar radiation,
mainly infrared radiation is
responsible for warming
Earth’s surface

5
• Peak Sun Hours is the number of hours in a day when the
Sun is at its maximum radiation. Average radiation from the
sun measured on the surface of the earth during a clear
day or noon is about 1000W/m2. (This value is standard for
all PV tests & measurements).

• 1 Sun Hour is equivalent to 1000 W/m2 of the sun’s

radiation collected in 1 hour.

Q. Solar power incident on a solar PV array averages 600 W/m2 for 12 hours. Calculate the total solar energy received.
For the same region, if average peak sun hours is 5, find the energy produced from a solar PV system of 2 kW AC
output at peak sun.

Ans. 600 x 12 = 7200 Wh/m2

Ans. 5 x 2 = 10 kWh 6
 Peak Sun Hours for Gujarat Peak Sun Hours for Rajasthan

India comes in the Northern hemisphere with around 300 clear sunny days and solar insolation level ranges from 4 to 7
KWh/m2/day. India is rich in solar energy resource and is densely populated, which provides the right opportunity for solar
energy sector to proliferate. Top 5 states with highest solar insolation are Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.

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The amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:

• the rotation of earth on its axis

• the angle of inclination of the sun’s rays (latitude)
• the length of the day
• the transparency of the atmosphere
• the configuration of land in terms of its aspect

Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0° (just above the horizon) to 90°
(directly overhead). When the sun's rays are vertical, the Earth's surface gets all the energy possible. The more slanted the
sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Solar irradiation may
reach a value of as much as 1100 W/m2 at noon on a clear day and may go down to 100 W/m2 or less during heavy cloud
cover. Sun-Earth distance is not fixed due to elliptical orbit of the Earth’s motion around sun. Hence, solar intensity in the
extraterrestrial region has been measured by NASA with the help of satellite.

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Solar Constant
• Solar constant is the total energy received from the sun, per unit time, on a
surface of unit area kept perpendicular to the radiation, in space, just outside the
earth’s atmosphere when the earth is at its mean distance from the sun.
R
r
Let the earth be moving in a circular path of radius r taking sun (Radius R) as its
centre. Sun Earth
Assuming sun as perfectly black body, the energy radiated per unit time from the
surface of the sun is given by

𝐻 = 𝐴𝜎𝑇 4 where A is the surface area of the sun and T is its absolute temperature

𝐻 = (4𝜋𝑅2 )𝜎𝑇 4 where R is radius of the sun

Energy received by earth’s unit area per second

R = 6.963 x 108 m
(4𝜋𝑅2 )𝜎𝑇 4 𝑅 2 r = 1.496 x 1011 m
𝑆= = 𝜎𝑇 4
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟
T = 5777 K or 5778 K
σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4 (Stefan-Boltzmann
Constant)
Sonal K. Thengane, IAH 302, IIT Roorkee 9
• The current accepted value for this “solar constant” (now referred to as the total sky irradiance, TSI) is 1366 or
1367 W/m2. The solar constant actually varies by +/-3% because of the planet Earth's slightly elliptical orbit around the
star Sun.

• Solar radiation incident outside the earth's atmosphere is called extraterrestrial radiation. It is the solar radiation
striking the surface of the earth if there is no atmosphere present. On average the extraterrestrial irradiance is 1366
W/m2. For the nth day of the year the solar intensity on a
plane perpendicular to the direction of solar
radiation is calculated by
Iext = Isc [1 + 0.033 cos(360n/365)] (use radians unit in excel)

Iext = extraterrestrial radiation measured on the plane normal to the

radiation on the nth day of the year (W/m2).
Isc = solar constant (W/m2)

For June 22, n=173 Iext= 1322 W/m2 for normal year
For December 21, n=355 Iext= 1411 W/m2 for normal year
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Air Mass (Am)

• A parameter that determines the solar irradiance under clear sky conditions is
the distance that the sunlight has to travel through the atmosphere.
• The distance is shortest when the sun is at the zenith, i.e. directly overhead.
• The ratio of an actual path length of the sunlight to this minimal distance is
known as the optical air mass or air mass.
• The air mass or atmospheric mass represents the proportion of atmosphere
z
that the light must pass through before striking the earth relative to its
overhead path length, and is equal to Y/X.
• When the Sun is at its zenith the optical air mass is unity, and the spectrum is 1
𝐴𝑀 =
called the air mass 1 (AM1) spectrum. cos 𝑧

• AM is commonly used to characterize the performance of solar cells under

where z is the angle from the
standardized conditions. vertical (zenith angle)

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• An easy method to determine the air mass is from the shadow of a vertical pole.
Air mass is the length of the hypotenuse divided by the object height h, and from
Pythagoras's theorem we get:

𝑠 2
𝐴𝑀 = 1+
ℎ

• Above expressions assume that the atmosphere is a flat horizontal layer, but because
of the curvature of the atmosphere, the air mass is not quite equal to the
atmospheric path length when the sun is close to the horizon.

• An equation (Kasten and Young, 1989) which incorporates the curvature of the earth is

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Latitude and longitude
Coordinate system by means of which the position or location of any place on Earth’s surface can be determined and
described. The horizontal lines are latitude and the vertical lines are longitude.

Gps coordinates of Roorkee region: 29° 51' 15.3'' N and 77° 53' 16.8'' E

Latitude is a measurement on a globe or map of location north or south of the Equator. Longitude is a measurement of
location east or west of the prime meridian at Greenwich, the specially designated imaginary north-south line that
passes through both geographic poles and Greenwich, London.
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Declination angle (𝛿)

The declination angle is the angle made by the line joining the centres of the Sun and the Earth with the projection of
this line on the equatorial plane. The declination angle, denoted by δ, varies seasonally due to the tilt of the Earth on its
axis of rotation and the revolution of the Earth around the sun. The Earth is tilted by 23.45° and the declination angle
varies within plus or minus this amount. Only at the spring and fall equinoxes, the declination angle is equal to 0°.

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 Spring or

360
𝛿 = −23.45° × cos ( × 𝑛 + 10 )
365
where n is the number of day with Jan 1 being n =1
360
𝛿 = 23.45° × sin ( × 𝑛 + 284 ) Find the declination angle for today?
365
15
Altitude angle (α)
The altitude angle or elevation angle is the angular height of the sun in the sky
measured from the horizontal. It is 0° at sunrise / sunset and 90° when the sun
is directly overhead.

Zenith angle (z)

The zenith angle is the angle between the sun and the vertical. It is similar to the
altitude angle but it is measured from the vertical rather than from the
horizontal, thus making z = 90° - α

Hour angle (HRA or ω)

Until the late 19th century most people used local solar time so that noon was when the sun was directly overhead, and
each town had its own definition. The Hour Angle converts the local solar time (LST) into the number of degrees which the
sun moves across the sky. By definition, the Hour Angle is 0° at solar noon. Since the Earth rotates 15° per hour, each hour
away from solar noon corresponds to an angular motion of the sun in the sky of 15°. In the morning the hour angle is
negative, in the afternoon the hour angle is positive.

ω = 15o (LST – 12)

16
Solar azimuth angle (γ)

Solar azimuth angle is the azimuth (horizontal angle with respect to north)
of the Sun's position.

Most commonly accepted convention for analyzing solar irradiation, e.g. for
solar energy applications, is clockwise from due north, so east is 90°, south
is 180°, and west is 270°.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑cos ω
γ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

where α is the altitude angle, φ is the latitude, δ is the declination angle, and ω is the hour angle.

The above equation only gives the correct azimuth in the solar morning so that:
Azimuth = γ , for LST < 12 or ω < 0
Azimuth = 360° - γ , for LST > 12 or ω > 0
17
Sun path diagram

• Obtain the chart of the correct Latitude.

• Select the date/month line.
• Select the hour line and mark its intersection
with the date line.
• Read off from the concentric circles the
altitude angle (0 – 90o).
• Lay a straight edge from the center of the
chart through the marked time point to the
perimeter scale and read off the azimuth
18
angle (0 – 360o) from the North clockwise.
19
Sun path diagram

Find azimuth and altitude

angles at 5 pm in December

255 deg and 10 deg 20

Types of solar radiation

21
Types of solar radiation

• Direct radiation (beam radiation): describes solar radiation traveling in a straight line from the sun down to the surface
of the earth. These radiations are received from the sun without change of direction

• Diffuse radiation: describes the sunlight that has been scattered by molecules and particles in the atmosphere but that
has still made it down to the surface of the earth.

• Reflected radiation: describes sunlight that has been reflected off of non-atmospheric things such as the ground and
clouds. Negligible for a horizontal surface. Asphalt reflects about 4% of the light that strikes it and a lawn about 25%.

• Total solar radiation or global solar radiation is all solar radiation incident on a surface, including scattered, reflected and
direct.

• For a horizontal surface on earth, total solar radiation is mostly considered as addition of beam and diffuse radiations as
the reflected portion is relatively much lower.

22
Solar radiation on clear day

▪ Hourly global, beam and diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface

𝜃 - angle of incidence

𝐼𝑔 = 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑
𝐼𝑏𝑇
𝜃𝑧 𝐼𝑏
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝑏𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑧

𝐼𝑔 = 𝐼𝑏𝑛 cos𝜃𝑧 + 𝐼𝑑

Tilt Angle (β) is the angle between the horizontal plane and the solar panel which can be set or adjusted to maximize
seasonal or annual energy collection.

Note: The optimum tilt angle is calculated by adding 15 degrees to your latitude during winter, and subtracting 15
degrees from your latitude during summer. For instance, if your latitude is 34°, the optimum tilt angle for your solar
panels during winter will be 34 + 15 = 49°. The summer optimum tilt angle on the other hand will be 34 – 15 = 19°.

23
Solar radiation on tilted surfaces
• Ratio of beam radiation flux falling on a tilted surface to that falling on
a horizontal surface is called the tilt factor for the beam radiation

𝐼𝑏𝑇 cos 𝜃 sin 𝛿 sin( 𝜑 − 𝛽) + cos 𝛿 cos 𝜛 cos( 𝜑 − 𝛽)

𝑟𝑏 = = =
𝐼𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑧 sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜛

• Ratio of diffuse radiation flux falling on a tilted surface to that falling

on a horizontal surface is called the tilt factor for the diffuse
radiation
1 + cos 𝛽
𝑟𝑑 =
2
• If the surroundings have a diffuse reflectance of ρg for the
total solar radiation, the reflected radiation from the
surroundings on the surface will be 𝐼𝜌𝑔
1 − cos 𝛽
𝑟𝑟 =
2
• Flux on tilted surface:

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑏 × 𝑟𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 × 𝑟𝑑 + (𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 ) 𝜌𝑔 × 𝑟𝑟
24
Steps to find solar radiation on a given day (n) for a given latitude (φ) and LST/hour angle (ω)
360
Step I- Find the declination 𝛿 = 23.45 sin (284 + 𝑛)
365

sin( 𝜑 − 𝛽) sin 𝛿 + cos( 𝜑 − 𝛽) cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔

Step II- Average beam radiation tilt factor 𝑅𝑏 =
sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔

1 + cos 𝛽
Step III- Tilt factor for diffuse radiation 𝑅𝑑 =
2

1 − cos 𝛽
Step IV- Tilt factor for reflected radiation 𝑅𝑟 =
2

I – instantaneous / hourly
Step V- Total solar radiation intensity falling on surface 𝐻𝑡 = 𝐻𝑏 𝑅𝑏 + 𝐻𝑑 𝑅𝑑 + 𝐻𝜌𝑔 𝑅𝑟
H – daily radiation
𝐻 - daily average radiation
1 + cos 𝛽 1 − cos 𝛽 β = 0 for horizontal surface
𝐻𝑡 = 𝐻𝑏 𝑅𝑏 + 𝐻𝑑 + 𝐻𝜌𝑔 ρg : diffuse reflectance of
2 2
surroundings for the total
solar radiation 25
Solar radiation measuring instruments

Sonal K. Thengane, IAH 302, IIT Roorkee 26

Pyranometer (a) measures global solar radiation and works on thermoelectric detection principle. The radiation from the surrounding
atmosphere passes through the glass dome and falls onto the blackbody situated at the center of the instrument. This raises the
temperature of the module with one side of the module getting hot and another cold because of the heat sink. As temperature difference is
related to radiation absorbed by the black body, we can say the output voltage is linearly proportional to the radiation. The value of total
radiation can be easily obtained from this voltage value. Also by using the shade (shading ring) and following the same procedure, we can
also obtain the diffuse radiation. PV pyranometer works on photoelectric effect principle (current).

Pyrheliometer (b) measures direct solar irradiance and is used with a tracking mechanism to follow the sun continuously. Its outer structure
looks like a long tube projecting the image of a telescope and we have to point the lens to the sun to measure the radiance. The black body
absorbs the radiation falling from the lens causing temperature rise and difference between two thermocouples at two points. Deviation
because of galvanometer is proportional to current, which in turn is proportional to temperature difference at junctions. Keep adjusting the
rheostat until the galvanometer deviation becomes completely void. Once this happens we can obtain voltage and current readings from
the meters and do a simple calculation to determine the heat absorbed by the black body.

27
28
A sunshine recorder is a device that records the amount of sunshine at a given
location or region at any time. Most common is Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder,
the original instrument was invented by Campbell in 1858 but the later card-
holding version was a development by Stokes in 1879. A Campbell-Stokes sunshine
recorder concentrates sunlight through a glass sphere onto a recording card placed
at its focal point. The length of the burn trace left on the card represents the
sunshine duration. Card is replaced on a daily basis.

29
Month-wise hourly and daily average global radiation (kWh/m2) for Goa
Monthly average global
radiation (kWh/m2)

Annual average global radiation (kWh/m2) = ?

30
The availability of solar energy varies with geographical location of site and is the highest in regions closest to the equator.
Average annual global radiation impinging on a horizontal surface which amounts to approx. 1000 kWh/m2 in Central
Europe, Central Asia, and Canada reach approx. 1700 kWh/m2 in the Mediterranian and to approx. 2200 kWh/m2 in most
equatorial regions in African, Oriental, and Australian desert areas. 31
Routes of Solar Energy Utilization

• By converting solar energy to thermal energy through solar thermal conversion

• By converting solar energy directly to electricity through photovoltaic approach

32
Solar Thermal

33
The Rankine cycle is the fundamental operating cycle of all power Process 0-1: Isentropic compression in Pump.
plants where an operating fluid is continuously evaporated and Process 1-2: Constant pressure heat addition in the Boiler.
condensed. Efficiency is the ratio of net work done by the steam Process 2-3: Isentropic expansion in Turbine.
turbine power plant Wnet and heat supplied to the boiler Qs. Process 3-4: Constant pressure heat rejection in Condenser.

34
Central receiver solar thermal power plant with storage

Solar thermal power plants are ideal for locations that offer high direct normal irradiance (DNI), preferably in the range of
35
2000 kWh/m2 to 2500 kWh/m2.
A central receiver solar thermal power plant mainly includes Design parameters of the central receiver plant

three sub systems: Heliostat field, the central receiver, and

power conversion system. Central receiver plants use point
focus technology where a heliostat field consisting of a
number of flat movable mirrors focuses the sunlight on to a
receiver mounted on top of a tower. The heat transfer fluid
(HTF) circulated in the central receiver absorbs the heat
from the solar rays reflected by the heliostats. By using
appropriate HTFs, a working temperature of even 1000°C
can be achieved by solar tower-based technology, improving
power cycle efficiency. A power conversion system
employing the Rankine cycle then converts the thermal
Ref.: Praveen RP. Sustainability 2020, 12(1), 127
energy absorbed by HTF into electrical energy.

36
35 acres land

37
Components of Solar Thermal Power Plant
Although there are several different concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies, they all essentially involve reflecting
sunlight to a focal point where a heat-transfer material absorbs the sun's concentrated energy which is used to create steam
that powers conventional generators.

Main components
A CSP plant has the following major solar systems components:
- Solar Field and Collector/Mirror System
- HTF (Heat transfer fluid) System
- Heat Exchanger
- Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
- Controls System
In addition to the solar components listed above, CSP plants have other elements that represent standard technology for
generating electricity. These include natural gas boilers, steam turbine, steam generator, condenser, cooling tower, pump,
and auxiliary systems.
38
Solar collectors
Solar thermal energy is utilized by capturing the heat of the sun in devices, generally known as solar collectors, designed to
maximize the heat absorption through their surfaces exposed to the sun. The heat that is absorbed on the surfaces of such
solar collectors is then transferred through a heat transfer media, generally liquid in nature, which takes the collected heat
to the point of use. In most of the concentrating solar power plants, sun’s heat is captured by a receiver, transferred to a
thermo fluid – also known as heat transfer fluid; and this heat from the thermo fluid is then used in a heat exchanger to
convert water to steam.

Based on the temperatures range, solar thermal collectors are classified as Low-, Medium- or High-temperature
collectors. Low temperature collectors (60°C - 100°C) are flat-plates generally used to heat swimming pools. Medium-
temperature collectors (100°C - 300°C) are also usually flat-plates but are used for heating water or air for residential and
commercial use. High-temperature collectors (>300℃) concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses, are focusing type, and
are generally used for electric power production.

Based on the design, solar collectors can be classified into two general categories: (i) non-concentrating and (ii)
concentrating

39
Sonal K. Thengane, IAH 302, IIT Roorkee 40
In the non-concentrating type, the collector area (the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is the same as the absorber
area (the area that absorbs the radiation). Aperture area is the area over which the solar radiation enters the collector.
For flat plate collectors the aperture area and the absorber area are the same. Flat plate collectors (FPC) and evacuated
tube collectors (ETC) are non-concentrating type collectors. These collectors are mainly designed for solar hot water and
industrial process heat applications which require energy delivery at temperatures in the range of 60-250℃. These
collectors use both diffuse and beam solar radiation and do not require tracking of the sun. They are mechanically
simpler than concentrating collectors and require less maintenance.

In the concentrating type solar collector, various types of mirrors, reflectors or concentrators are used to concentrate the
solar energy and they provide higher temperatures (i.e., 250–2000℃) than non-concentrating type collectors.
Compound parabolic concentrator (CPC), central receiver or solar tower, parabolic trough collector and parabolic dish
collectors are concentrating type collectors and are known as concentrated solar power (CSP) systems. The concentration
ratio CR (i.e., the ratio of solar radiation entering the collector to solar radiation received by the receiver, or ratio of the
area of aperture to the area of the receiver (geometrical interpretation) ) varies from less than unity to high values of the
order of 105. CR represents the system's ability to concentrate solar energy.

Most common types of collectors:

• Flat plate
• Focusing type 41
Flat plate collector

A flat plate collector has area of interception equal to the

area of absorption for solar radiations.

Components:
1. Absorber
2. Transparent cover
3. Heat Transfer Medium
4. Insulation
5. Housing / Collector box

• has low initial and maintenance cost

• uses both beam and diffuse radiations
• does not require continuous orientation 42
Focusing type solar collector

It is constructed by introducing a reflecting surface between the solar

radiation and receiving surface. Maximum temperature of the order of
few thousands can be obtained though this collector. Various components
of a focusing type solar collector are show in the figure.

The combinations of the receivers and the reflectors are representatives

of the concentration ratio (the ratio of solar radiation entering the
collector to solar radiation received by the receiver) of the system which
in turn indicates the quality of output energy that could be achieved with
a certain system.

43
44
Absorptivity, Reflectivity, Transmissivity
Radiation impinging on the surface of a body may be partly absorbed, partly
transmitted and partly reflected. The fraction of the incident radiation absorbed is
called the absorptivity α. Similarly, the fraction of the incident radiation reflected is
called as the reflectivity, ρ and the fraction transmitted is called as transmissivity, τ.

If I denotes the total incident radiation per unit time per unit area of surface, and Iα,
Iρ and Iτ, represent respectively the amount of radiation absorbed, reflected and
transmitted then,

Iα + Iρ + Iτ = I α+ρ+τ=1

The equation hold for surfaces or for layers of finite thickness. The following points are to be noted:
• Values of α, ρ, τ are always positive and lie between the limits 0 and 1
• ρ =0 (i.e. α+τ =1) represents a non-reflecting surface, ρ =1 (i.e τ = α =0) represents perfect reflector.
• τ =0 (i.e. ρ+α =1) represents an opaque surface, τ =1 (i.e. ρ = α =0) represents a perfectly transparent surface.
• α =0 (i.e. ρ+τ =1) represents non absorbing surface, α =1 (i.e ρ = τ =0) represents perfectly absorbing surface.

45
Absorption of solar radiation by absorber plate under a cover
system:

The transmittance-absorptance product (τα) should be

thought of as a property of a cover-absorber combination
rather than the product of two properties

Reasonable approximation for most practical solar collectors:

Of the radiation passing through the cover system and incident on the plate, some is reflected back to the cover system.
However, all this radiation is not lost since some of it is, in turn, reflected back to the plate. τ is the transmittance of the
cover system at the desired angle and α is the angular absorptance of the absorber plate. Of the incident energy, τα is
absorbed by the absorber plate and (1 − α)τ is reflected back to the cover system. The reflection from the absorber
plate is assumed to be diffuse (and unpolarized) so the fraction (1 − α)τ that strikes the cover system is diffuse radiation
and (1 − α)τρd is reflected back to the absorber plate. The quantity ρd refers to the reflectance of the cover system for
diffuse radiation incident from the bottom side.

46
Flat-plate collector energy balance equation and efficiency
In steady state, the performance of a solar collector is described by an energy balance that indicates the distribution
of incident solar energy into useful energy gain Qu (J/s), thermal losses, and optical losses.

𝑄𝑢 = 𝐴𝑐 𝐼 − 𝑈𝐿 (𝑇𝑎𝑝 − 𝑇0 )

I (or H): solar radiation absorbed by a collector per unit area of absorber (which is equal to the difference between the
incident solar radiation and the optical losses) (W/m2); ap: absorber plate
1 + cos 𝛽 1 − cos 𝛽
Using 𝐻𝑡 = 𝐻𝑏 𝑅𝑏 + 𝐻𝑑 + 𝐻𝜌𝑔
2 2

1+cos 𝛽 1−cos 𝛽
𝐻𝑡 = 𝐻𝑏 𝑅𝑏 (𝜏𝛼)𝑏 +𝐻𝑑 (𝜏𝛼)𝑑 +𝐻𝜌𝑔 (𝜏𝛼)𝑔
2 2

Second term in RHS: thermal energy lost from the collector to the surroundings by conduction, convection, and infrared
radiation represented as the product of a heat transfer coefficient UL (W / m2K) times the difference between the mean
absorber plate temperature Tap and the ambient temperature T0.

47
A measure of collector performance is the collection efficiency, defined as the ratio of
the useful gain (Qu) over some specified time period to the incident solar energy over
the same time period.
I

If conditions are constant over a time period:

Q. In absence of atmosphere or any hindrance to sun rays on their way to earth’s

surface, if the useful gain of flat-plate collector is 1000 W, then (i) what is its
area at 50% collection efficiency and (ii) what is its efficiency at 10 m2 area ?

𝑄𝑢 = 𝐴𝑐 𝐼 − 𝑈𝐿 (𝑇𝑎𝑝 − 𝑇0 )

Answers: IT = 1366 W/m2 ; 1.4 m2 ; 7.3%

Sonal K. Thengane, IAH 302, IIT Roorkee 48

Q. Calculate the temperature rise of water in 100-litre capacity solar thermal water heating system during a typical day of
operation. Find the electricity saved because of solar water heater and a corresponding reduction in monthly electricity
bill.
Data: collector with absorber plate area = 2 m2;
Solar radiation falling = 5 kWh/m2
collector efficiency =50%
specific heat of water = 4.2 kJ/kg°C
geyser efficiency = 95%
Cost of electricity per unit = Rs 5.50
initial temperature of water = 20°C

49
Temp rise of water:
Energy absorbed by collector = Enthalpy change in water
Solar radiation incident on collector/day x collector area x collector efficiency = m Cp ΔT
(5 x 3600) x 2 x 0.5 = 100 x 4.2 x (Tf – 20)
Sun rays Tf
=> Tf = 63 C Hot water
Storage
tank
Cold water
Collector
Ti
Electrical energy saved:
Geyser Efficiency = Output (enthalpy change in water) / Input (electrical energy to geyser)
0.95 = 5 x 2 x 0.5 (kWh) / Input (kWh)
 Input = 5.26 kWh
 Electricity cost per day = 5.26 x 3.5 = Rs. 18.42
 Cost for 1 mont = 18.42 x 30 = Rs. 553

50
Solar PV

51
52
Working Principle
Conversion of light energy in electrical energy is based on a
phenomenon called photovoltaic effect. Solar cells convert
the energy in sunlight to electrical energy. Solar cells
contain a material such as silicon (semiconductor) that
absorbs light energy. A single photovoltaic cell consists of p-
conducting base material and an n-conducting layer on the
top side. The energy knocks electrons loose so they can
flow freely and produce a difference in electric potential
energy, or voltage. The flow of electrons or negative charge
creates electric current. Solar cells have positive and
negative contacts, like the terminals in a battery. If the
contacts are connected with a conductive wire, current
flows from the negative to positive contact.
Why Silicon?
Si is the 2nd most abundant element in the earth crust (26% of the earth crust)
Si processing technology is mature due to the development in Si ICs
The generation of electric current happens inside the depletion zone of the
PN junction where the electrons from the N-type silicon, have diffused into
the holes of the P-type material. When a photon of light is absorbed by one of
these atoms in the N-Type silicon it will dislodge an electron, creating a free
electron and a hole. The free electron and hole have sufficient energy to jump
out of the depletion zone. If a wire is connected from the cathode (N-type
silicon) to the anode (P-type silicon) electrons will flow through the wire. The
electron is attracted to the positive charge of the P-type material and travels
through the external load (meter) creating a flow of electric current. The hole
created by the dislodged electron is attracted to the negative charge of N-
type material and migrates to the back electrical contact. As the electron
enters the P-type silicon from the back electrical contact it combines with the
hole restoring the electrical neutrality.
53
A solar cell can produce about 1 to 2 watts of
electricity. This energy is too less for use in
any household or for a commercial purpose.

In order to increase the output of electricity,

several photovoltaic cells are electrically
connected together to form a photovoltaic
module and these modules are further
electrically connected to form a photovoltaic
panel. The panels are connected together to
form a photovoltaic array. This array is then
used in a typical solar PV system along with
other components.

The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated according to their maximum DC power output (watts)
under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard Test Conditions are defined by a module (cell) operating temperature of
25oC, and incident solar irradiance level of 1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution.
54
Classification of materials
Conductor: Conducting materials are those in which
plenty of free electrons are available for electric
conduction. In terms of energy bands, it means that
electrical conductors are those which have
overlapping in valence and conduction bands. These
elements (metals) mostly have 1 valence electron in
its outermost orbit with some having 2 to 3
electrons. Their resistance is very low.

Semiconductor: These are characterized by a very

narrow energy gap (0.7-1.2 eV) between the valence
band and conduction band. These are solids whose
Insulator: Solids having a wide energy gap (10 eV) between a
electrical conductivity lies between high conductivity
filled valence band and empty conduction band are
of conductors and low conductivity of insulators. Their
insulators because valence electrons can not acquire so
resistance is medium or high. Ex: Ge, Si, GaAs. Band
much energy from an applied field that they could cross the
gap in Ge, Si and GaAs are 0.7eV, 1.1eV and 1.43eV
gap and enter the conduction band hence conduction is
respectively.
impossible in them. Their resistance is very high.

55
Types of PV Systems

• Directly connected systems

➢ Simplest possible PV systems that require no PV DC

Panel Load
batteries, charge controllers, or inverters.
➢ Panels directly connect to the appliance
➢ Example: DC fan, water pumping system, etc.

• Systems with battery storage

PV Charge DC
➢ Battery used vary widely as a storage medium controller
Panel Load
➢ Battery regulated voltage, suppresses transients,
can provide higher current than PV array capability
➢ Charge controller is required to protect Battery

overcharging or over-discharging of battery

56
 DC-AC AC
• Systems with both AC and DC loads
Converter Load
➢ Inverter (DC-AC converter) is required to
convert DC into AC current PV Charge DC
V
Panel controller Load
➢ Inverter efficiency is in the range of 85-95%

Battery

• Systems connected with grid / generator

➢ Back-up or additional energy source can be used Utility DC-AC AC

grid Converter Load
with a PV system
➢ A back-up can be a DG (Diesel Generator) set PV Charge DC
➢ PV system can also take or give power to utility Panel Controller Load

Generator Battery
57
Sonal K. Thengane, IAH 302, IIT Roorkee 58
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves are graphs of output voltage versus current for different levels of irradiation and
temperature and can explain a PV cell or panel’s ability to convert sunlight into electricity.
Figure shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell operating under normal conditions.

VOC = open-circuit voltage – This is the maximum

voltage that the array provides when the terminals are
not connected to any load (an open circuit condition).
This value is much higher than Vmp which relates to the
operation of the PV array which is fixed by the load.
This value depends upon the number of PV panels
connected together in series.

ISC = short-circuit current – The maximum current

provided by the PV array when the output connectors
are shorted together (a short circuit condition). This
value is much higher than Imp which relates to the
normal operating circuit current.

MPP = maximum power point – This relates to the

point where the power supplied by the array that is
connected to the load (batteries, inverters) is at its
maximum value, where MPP = Imp x Vmp. MPP of a PV
array is measured in Watts (W) or peak Watts (Wp).
59
Fill factor (FF) – The fill factor is the relationship between the maximum
power that the array can actually provide under normal operating
conditions and the product of the open-circuit voltage multiplied by the
short-circuit current, ( VOC x ISC ). This fill factor value gives an idea of the
quality of the array and the closer the fill factor is to 1 (unity), the more
power the array can provide. Typical values are between 0.7 and 0.8.

Efficiency – The efficiency of a photovoltaic array is the ratio between

the maximum electrical power that the array can produce compared to
the amount of solar irradiance hitting the array. The efficiency of a
typical solar array is normally low at around 10-15%, depending on the
photovoltaic type (monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous or thin
film) of cell being used.
Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in
either series or parallel combinations, or both to increase the
voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the array
panels are connected together in a series combination, then
the voltage increases and if connected together in parallel
then the current increases.

60
Effect of irradiation and temperature

As the temperature increases, due to environmental changes or heat generated by internal power dissipation during energy production, the
open circuit voltage (Voc) decreases. This in turn reduces the power output. The design of a solar PV system must take into account the PV
module temperature coefficient, comparing the expected average cell temperature in its operational environment, against the STC data
used to calculate the module output. In the same way, irradiance will also affect module performance, with a reduction of sunlight resulting
primarily in a reduction in current and consequentially a reduced power output.
61
Types of Solar PV Panels

Three types of solar panels that are widely

available for use in photovoltaic systems:
(1) Monocrystalline
(2) Polycrystalline
(3) Amorphous thin-film

Each type of panel has its advantages and

disadvantages. The primary differences between
these panel types are their cost and efficiency.

• Monocrystalline panels have a uniform crystal structure across the entire panel. Monocrystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency
ratings to date and perform better than other types of panels in low-light conditions. The efficiency also decreases more slowly over time.
Monocrystalline solar panels are produced from silicon ingots and are expensive to manufacture.
• Polycrystalline silicon solar panels have a unique speckled blue color that varies in shade with different areas of the panel. The silicon
used in these panels is not homogenous; which means that the crystal structure can be different in various areas of the panel. As a result,
polycrystalline solar panels are less efficient and less expensive than monocrystalline solar panels.
• Thin-film solar panels are less efficient than monocrystalline or polycrystalline solar panels and have a shorter lifetime. However, their
costs are much lower due to the simple manufacturing methods in comparison with crystalline solar panels. Thin-film solar panels can
also be made flexible, whereas crystalline solar panels are much more brittle and will crack if they are bent.
62
Components of Solar PV Module / Panel
• Solar cells are the building blocks of solar panels. Thousands of cells
come together to form a solar panel. These Solar Cells are stringed
together to make Solar Panels which involves soldering, encapsulating,
mounting them on a metal frame, testing, etc.
• The main function of tempered glass (3-4 mm thick) is to protect the
solar cells from harsh weather, dirt, and dust.
• EVA sheet or the ‘ethylene vinyl acetate’ is a highly transparent (plastic)
layer used to encapsulate the cells. It provides laminated layering on top
of the cells to hold them together.
• Backsheet is the rear-most layer of the panel providing both mechanical
protection and electrical insulation. It is essentially a protective layer.
• Frame provides structural strength to the panel. It is recommended to
use a frame made of strong but lightweight material.
• A junction box is fixed at the backside of the panel. It is the central point
where cables interconnect with the panels.
• A busbar is a thin strip of aluminum or copper found between cells in a
solar panel. Its job is to separate solar cells and conduct the direct
current the solar cells collect from solar photons to the solar inverter.
• Inter or cross connectors help solar panels connect with one another.
Silicon glue creates strong bonds and is resistant to chemicals, moisture,
and weather conditions.

Most common residential panels still use the standard 6”

(156mm) square 60-cell panels while commercial systems
use the larger format 72 cell panels.

63
Average Cost of Solar Panel Installation for Home in India (2023)
Government Solar Subsidy Scheme (MNRE)

Companies: Sprng Agnitra, Ayana Solar, SB Energy Solar,

ACME, Azure, NTPC, Tata Power Ren Energy Ltd, Renew
Power, FRV Ltd, Fortum Finnsurya Energy Pvt Ltd., PSEPL,
Adani Green Energy, JSW Energy, etc.

• Bhadla Solar Park is a solar PV power plant located in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan. After its completion in 2019, the solar park
achieved a total installed capacity of 2.24 GW (area req 5600 hec), making it the largest solar park in the world as of 2023.
• Pavagada Solar Park is a solar park (area 5300 hec) in Pavagada taluk, Tumkur district, Karnataka. Completed in 2019, the park has
a capacity of 2.05 GW.
• Other major solar pv parks in India: Kurnool Ultra Mega Solar Park (1 GW), NP Kunta Ultra Mega Solar Park (1 GW), Rewa Ultra
64
Mega Solar (0.75 GW), etc.
Components of a typical SPV system
• PV generator (PV cell,
PV module, PV array)
• Charge Controller /
MPPT
• Battery system
• Inverter
• Grid / Auxiliary
Connection
• Load / Load Center

A charge controller or charge regulator is basically a voltage

and/or current regulator to protect batteries from
overcharging/over-discharging. An MPPT, or maximum power
point tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter that optimizes
the match between the solar array (PV panels), and the battery
bank or utility grid. They convert a higher voltage DC output
from solar panels down to the lower voltage needed to charge
batteries. Inverters are used to convert the 12V, 24V or 48 Volts
direct current (DC) power from the solar array and batteries into
an alternating current (AC) electricity and power of either 120 V
AC or 240 V AC for use in the home to power AC mains
appliances. For minimizing losses, voltages of battery bank, pv
array and inverter are kept nearly equal. 65
 PV System Design
• Specifying ratings, numbers and arrangements of all components of a PV system
- Approximate design
- Precise design

For designing a PV systems, each component in the path of energy flow should be considered.
Consideration for specifications, efficiency, rating , autonomy etc.

The choice of the system configuration mainly depends on the following parameters:
• Load requirements
• Resource availability
• Performance of the system
• Reliability of the system
• Cost of the system

66
How to design a standalone PV system
Standalone PV system: not connected to
any source other than PV

Follow demand to source approach in design

Steps:

1) Determine the power load (AC/DC) (demand)

2) Determine the size of inverter

3) Determine the size of battery

4) Determine the size of power controller

5) Determine the size of PV panel/array based on solar

radiations for a given region (source)

From Step 2, efficiency of each component must be considered when deciding the energy input to that component
67
Q. Design a standalone PV system for the following load in Roorkee (radiation: 6 kWh/m2-day; latitude 30o):

Items Number Rating (W) Usage (h/day)

TV 1 100 2
Fans 2 50 8
Lights 3 18 5

Inverter: 85 % efficiency
Battery: 24 V, DOD 50%, 80% efficiency, Autonomy = 2 (12V, 100 Ah available in market)
Charge Controller: 100% efficiency
PV modules: 24 V (60 Wp, 12 V available in market)

Daily energy consumed = watts x usage/day Efficiency = energy output / energy input

Depth of Discharge (DOD): how much charge can we take from the battery. 100% DOD means we can drain the
battery completely

Autonomy: number of days system should supply load without sunlight. If autonomy is 3, charge storage will be 3
+ 1 = 4 days (for today plus 3 extra days with no sun)

PV module rating = PV module output / (peak sun hours per day)

68
Sonal K. Thengane, IAH 302, IIT Roorkee
 No. Watt Usage (h/day) Wh/day
Light 3 18 5 270
Fan 2 50 8 800
TV 1 100 2 200
Total load 1270
Total load= 1.27 kWh/day

Inverter: Total power needed to supply from inverter = 3x18 + 2x50 + 1x100
= 254 W = 254 VA
So, we need an inverter of rating 260 W. Had this number be 473.2 Ah, you
Energy input to inverter (η=85%) = 1270 / 0.85 = 1494 Wh/day = 1494 VAh/day would calculate 5 batteries but will
need 6 batteries to maintain desired
voltage of system
Battery: 24 V battery bank is to be installed as given in question
Hence, battery system should supply = 1494 / 24 = 62.2 Ah/day
Market has 12 V, 100 Ah battery.
Battery system capacity = 62.2/DOD = 62.2 / 0.5 = 124.4 Ah/day System voltage required = 24 V
System energy required= 373.2 Ah
Autonomy = 2, charge storage for 2+1=3 days.
Battery system charge capacity for 3 days = 124 x 3 = 373.2 Ah Hence, number of battery required = 373.2/100
= 3.73 = 4 batteries (approx.)

69
 Battery configuration
1494
Energy Input to battery = = 1867.5 VAh / day or Wh/day
0.8
(Ƞ = 80%) B1 B3

24V, 400Ah
Charge controller : Ƞ = 100% 1 battery:
B2 B4 E = 12 (V) x 100 (A) = 1200 Wh
Battery Bank:
E = 24 (V) x 200 (A) = 4800 Wh
PV Module :
PV module must supply 1867.5 Wh/day
Roorkee : 6 kWh/m2-day radiation
= 6000 Wh/m2-day
= 6 hrs of 1000 Wh/m2-day

Peak sun hours PV module design basis

1867.5 𝑊ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
PV module rating = = = 311.25 Wp
6 ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦 P1 P3 P5

Market has 60 Wp modules of 12V. 24V

311.25
360Wp
We need = = 5.18 ≃ 6 modules P2 P4 P6
60
Had this number be 5
module, we will still need
For 24 V system, configuration will be: 6 to maintain desired
voltage of system
Biomass and bioenergy – Introduction

1
21st Century Energy Challenges:
• to meet the growing energy demand for
transportation, heating and industrial processes
• to provide raw materials for chemical industries
(in sustainable ways with minimal environmental
impact)

Solutions:
• Efficiency improvement in existing technologies
• Alternative fuels and renewables
• Net negative emissions technologies (NETs)
• Carbon capture utilization and storage (CCUS)
2
What is biomass ?
Biomass refers to the mass of living organisms, including
plants, animals, and microorganisms, or, from a Properties:
biochemical perspective, cellulose, lignin, sugars, fats,
• Solid carbon-based fuel (like coal):H:C ~1.5,
and proteins.
O:C ~1 containing
• Metals, S, N , minor elements come from soil
Biomass is plant or animal material used for energy
• High moisture (>30%)
production (electricity or heat), or in various industrial
processes as raw substance for a range of products. • Low energy density (<10 MJ/kg wet basis)
• Diffuse, expensive to harvest, ship

Biomass is biological or organic material • Annual cycle: biomass available only at

derived from living, or recently living organisms harvest time, may need to be stored
including plants, animals, and microorganisms.

3
Biomass: carbon neutral renewable energy source
Neutral Emissions Negative Emissions

Bioenergy is the energy retrieved from biomass

4
 Molecular mass (g/mole):
H2O = 18; CO2 = (12x1) + (16x2) = 44
Glucose (C6H12O6) = (12x6 + 1x12 + 16x6 = 180)

Ref: The National Energy Education Project 5

Biomass sources

• Forestry crops and residues- firewood, wood pellets, and

wood chips
• Agricultural crops and residues— corn, soybeans, sugar
cane, switchgrass, woody plants, and algae, and crop and
food processing residues, energy crops
• Biogenic materials in municipal solid waste— paper, cotton,
and wool products, and food, yard, and wood wastes, leaf
litter
• Animal residues, manure, and human sewage, dead animals
• Industrial and mill residues- wastes from food, dairy,
textiles, and sugar industry; lumber and furniture mill
sawdust and waste, black liquor from pulp and paper mills

6
Global energy demand: 500 EJ/year (exa = 1018)

Total solar energy that the earth stores in plants through photosynthesis: 2200 EJ/year

• Out of 2200 EJ, 300 EJ/year is currently being exploited by human, of which approximately 230 EJ/year is
used for food, animal feed, fiber, and energy and the 70 EJ/year is lost during harvest or burnt in
anthropogenic field fires (Ref: Pour, 2019)

• Any projection of bioenergy potential higher than 250 EJ/year (40-50% of global primary energy demand)
exceeds the biophysical limits

• Natural upper limit of harvestable bioenergy is further constrained by technical, economic, environmental,
and social complications

7
Biomass composition
Hemicellulose: (C5H8O4)m ; m
ranges from 50-200

Cellulose:
• Biomass, also termed as, lignocellulosic biomass (C6H10O5)n, n ranges Lignin: heterogeneous
from 500-10000 and varies from
- Mainly obtained from plants species to species;
approx. formula for
- Constitute more than 80% of the total biomass
aspen wood:
(C31H34O11)n
8
Biomass analyses

Proximate analysis of a fuel provides the percentage of the

material that burns in a gaseous state (volatile matter), in the
solid state (fixed carbon), and the percentage of inorganic
waste material (ash).
Biomass is heated under various conditions for variable
amounts of time to determine moisture, volatile matter, fixed
carbon, and ash yield

Ultimate or elemental analysis determines the carbon,

hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur in the material, as found in the
gaseous products of its complete combustion, the
determination ash in the material as a whole, and the
estimation of oxygen by difference

9
Numerical 1: A biomass sample composition on mass basis (ultimate analysis on as received basis) is as follows:
C: 37.5 (%),
H: 8.8 %,
O: 27.6 %, Atomic weights:
N: 0.30 %, C: 12; H: 1; O: 16; N: 14; S: 32;
S: 0.20 %, H2O: 18; Ash: 56
Moisture: 20.5% and
Ash: 5.1%.
Find the molecular formula of the biomass on i) as received
basis and ii) on dry and ash free basis.

Basis: 100 g biomass Dry and ash free basis

C: 37.5 g = 37.5/12 = 3.125 moles
H: 8.8 g = 8.8/1 = 8.8 moles
O: 27.6 g = 27.6/16 = 1.725 moles
N: 0.30 g = 0.3/14 = 0.02142 moles
S: 0.20 g = 0.20/32 =0.00625 moles
Moisture (H2O): 20.5 g = 20.5/18 = 1.139 moles
Ash: 5.1 g = 5.1/56 =0.091 moles
(Dry and ash free basis) Find x, y, z, a, b
O from moisture (H2O) = 1.139 moles
CxHyOzNaSb
H from moisture (H2O) = 2*1.139 = 2.278 moles
(As received basis)
10
C3.125H11.078O2.864N0.02142 S0.00625 Ash0.091
Overview of biomass conversion processes

11
Van Krevelen Plot
Van Krevelen diagrams characterize source rock organic matter or coal or biomass on a plot of atomic O/C versus
atomic H/C from elemental analysis

12
Thermochemical conversion

13
Hydrothermal liquefaction Liquid fuels

14
• Combustion: the material is in an oxygen-rich atmosphere, at a very high operating temperature, with

heat as the targeted output.

• Gasification takes place in an oxygen-lean atmosphere, with a high operating temperature, and gaseous

products being the main target (syngas production in most cases).

• Hydrothermal liquefaction occurs in a non-oxidative atmosphere, where biomass is fed into a unit as an

aqueous slurry at lower temperatures, and bio-crude in liquid form is the product.

• Pyrolysis is conducted usually at 400-600°C in the absence of oxygen, and produces gases, bio-oil,

and char; it is one of the first steps in gasification and combustion.

15
Biomass pyrolysis

16
Pyrolysis
Pyro = heat
Lysis = break down

Pyrolysis is thermal breakdown

of big molecules into smaller
molecules. It is a complex
process involving numerous
reactions over a range of
temperatures 300-700°C, often
Process Schematic in absence of oxygen.
17
 Types of Pyrolysis

Slow pyrolysis – Fixed bed reactor; Batch reactor

Fast pyrolysis – Bubbling Fluidized bed reactor

Flash pyrolysis – Circulating Fluidized bed; Entrained Flow reactor

18
Pyrolysis process control parameters

Important pyrolysis process control parameters include:

• Heating rate (length of heating and intensity),

• Prevailing temperature and pressure

• The presence of ambient atmosphere

• The chemical composition of the fuel (e.g., the biomass resource),

• Physical properties of the fuel (e.g. particle size, density),

Variation in products with temperature,
• Residence time and the existence of catalysts. residence time, and heating rate

These parameters can be regulated by selection among different reactor types and heat transfer modes

19
Types of reactors Reactor Mode of heat
type transfer
Based on the movement of solids through the reactor during pyrolysis: Fluidized 90% conduction;
bed 9% convection;
• No solid movement through the reactor during pyrolysis (Batch reactors) 1% radiation
Circulating 80% conduction;
• Moving bed (Shaft furnaces) fluidized 19% convection;
bed 1% radiation
• Movement caused by mechanical forces (e.g. rotary kiln, rotating screw etc.)
Entrained 4% conduction;
• Movement caused by fluid flow (e.g., fluidized bed, entrained bed etc.) flow 95% convection;
1% radiation

Rotating cone Bubbling fluidized bed Recirculating fluidized bed Vacuum 20

• Energy density of bio-oil is lower than
fossil oil because of higher water and
oxygen contents
• Quality of bio-oil from lignocellulose is too
poor for a direct use as transportation fuel
• Upgrading of crude bio-oil (reduce oxygen
content and increase the hydrogen
content): through distillation and/or
catalytic hydrotreatment

21
Numerical 2: On slow pyrolysis, forest wood produced 35% bio-oil, 40% char and 25% gas. Molecular formula of
the char is CH0.56O0.28N0.013 and of bio-oil is CH1.47O0.36N0.005. Gas composition is as follows: H2:20 %, CO2:36 %,
CO:25 % and CH4:19 %. Determine the percentage of carbon converted to bio-oil.

Assume basis: 100 g wood: 35 g bio-oil, 40 g char, 25 g gas

22
 Biomass gasification
Sampada Stove - India

23
Gasification
• Gasification is thermochemical decomposition of organic material in a limited oxygen atmosphere (20 to
40% of stoichiometric value) to obtain producer gas as main product; though some liquids and tars,
charcoal and mineral matter (ash or slag) are also formed as byproducts.
• It adds value to low value biomass by converting them to marketable fuels and products.
• Gasification agent is the oxidant or an oxygen carrier for the gasification process e.g. atmospheric air,
pure oxygen, steam, CO2, metal oxides
• Composition of the producer gas is dependent on the type of feedstock, gasification process, gasification
agent, gasification temperature, and catalysts.
Producer gas
Air, CO, H2, CO2, H2O, CH4, C2H4
Steam,
CO2, O2 + BIOMASS
Unconverted tars

Syngas or Synthesis gas: CO, H2 mixture

24
Equivalence ratio (ER) is defined as the ratio of actual air-
fuel ratio and stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. ER is thus the net
effect of airflow rate, feed consumption rate and the run
duration.

ER =
Actual air volume supplied per kg of biomass
Stoichiometric air volume per kg of biomass

The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (m3/kg of biomass) at

normal conditions:

SR = 0.0889*(C + 0.375*S) + 0.265*H - 0.0333*O

where C, H, S, and O are the respective dry ash free mass

percentages of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen in the
biomass feed. These values can be found from the ultimate
analysis of the feed.
25
 Types of gasifiers
• Fixed bed: Updraft, Downdraft, Cross draft depending on the flow of gas through the bed (moving bed)
• Fluidized bed: Bubbling, Circulating
• Entrained flow

26
Updraft
The solid and the gas circulate in opposite directions. The solid descends slowly and the gasifying agents (air and oxygen
and steam) circulate in an upward direction. When the biomass descends, it is heated by the gas stream until it reaches
the combustion zone where the maximum temperature is reached, suffering a subsequent cooling prior to the discharge
of the ash. A fairly polluted gas is obtained since the low temperatures of the gases (250–500 °C) do not allow the
decomposition of oils, tars and gases formed (phenols, ammonia and H2S)

Downdraft
The solid and the gas circulate in the same direction inside the gasifier. The biomass, which is introduced through the
upper part, is subjected to a progressive increase in temperature, drying at the beginning and pyrolysis below. This
temperature pattern is originated due to the high temperatures generated in the lower part of the reactor, through the
partial combustion of the products that get there (gases, tars and coal). A fairly cleaner gas with lower tar contents is
produced.

Crossdraft
In this case, the oxidizing agent is introduced through one side of the reactor, the synthetized gas leaves the diametrically
opposite side. This gasifier has certain advantages over the previous ones since it has lower starting times, it can operate
with dry and wet fuels, and the temperature of the gas obtained is relatively high, so that the composition of the gas
produced contains small amounts of H2 and CH4, but higher tar contents.

27
 Producer Gas
Producer Gas

Fixed bed gasifiers are simpler, less expensive, and

Fluidized
Bed
produce a lower heat content producer gas; preferred
Cyclone
Biomass Riser
for lower capacities. Fluidized bed gasifiers are more
Return
Biomass Leg complicate, more expensive, but produce a syngas
with a higher heating value; preferred for higher

Air throughput.
Air
Bubbling Circulating
Steam Oxygen
Biomass
Syngas
Flue gas
Other gasifier types
Combustor Gasifier
Plasma
torch
Biomass

Steam
Slag
Slag Syngas Air
28
(a) EF gasifier (b) Duel FB gasifier (c) Plasma gasifier
Bubbling fluidized bed:
The bed material (which could be a mixture of inert particles such as sand along with finely ground biomass) rests on a
distributor plate (either perforated or porous type) through which the fluidizing medium (e.g. air) is passed at a velocity
of about five times that of minimum fluidization velocity. Typical temperature in the bed is about 700–900 °C. The feed,
which is finely grained biomass, is introduced just above the distributor plate. The biomass first undergoes pyrolysis in
the hot bed above the distributor to form char and gaseous products due to devolatilization. The char particles are
lifted along with fluidizing air and undergo gasification in relatively upper portions of the bed. Due to contact with high
temperature bed, the high molecular weight tar compounds formed are cracked; thus, reducing the net tar content of
the producer gas to less than 1–3 g/Nm3.

Circulating fluidized bed:

They are an extension of the concept of bubbling bed fluidization. In this case, the velocity of the fluidizing air is much
higher than the terminal settling velocity of the bed material. Thus, the entire bed material (biomass + inert material
such as sand) is lifted by the fluidizing air. The exhaust of the gasifier is a relatively lean mixture of solids and gas. This
exhaust is admitted into a cyclone separator where solids are disengaged from the gas and are returned to the bed
through a down comer pipe.

29
Composition of the producer gas is dependent on the type of gasification process, feedstock, gasification agent,
gasification temperature, and catalysts.

Air and Steam/Air: Low calorific value gas ( 4 – 6 MJ/m3)

O2 and Steam: Medium calorific value gas ( 12 – 18 MJ/m3)
30
Gasifier Efficiency
• For engine applications, gas is often cooled. Cold gas efficiency is used for such applications, defined as the ratio of
energy content of producer gas to the energy content of the biomass
(Volumetric flowrate∗LHV)producer gas
Cold gas efficiency (%) = ∗100
(Consumption rate∗LHV)biomass

The lower heating value (MJ/m3) of producer gas is calculated using the LHVs and mole fractions (yi) of CO, H2 and CH4

LHVgas = yH ∗10.7426 + yCO ∗12.59852 + yCH ∗35.8226

2 4

• For thermal applications, the gas is not cooled before combustion and the sensible heat of the gas is also useful.
The thermal or hot gas efficiency is used for such applications, which is defined as:
Sensible heatpg + (Volumetric flowrate∗LHV)𝑝𝑔
Hot gas efficiency (%) = ∗100
(Consumption rate∗LHV)biomass

𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡pg = mpg ∗Cppg ∗(Tpg −Tref/atm )

31
Numerical 1: Dry Bagasse (C: 45%; H: 15%; O: 35%; N: 0.4%; S: 0.1%; Ash: 4.5%) is processed at a rate of 5 kg/h in a fixed
bed gasifier in presence of air at 10 kg/h. Find the ER, and cold and hot gas efficiencies of the gasifier, if the gas composition
is as follows: CO: 20%, H2: 10%, CO2: 15%; N2: 50%; CH4: 5%. Producer gas comes out at 500 C at flow rate of 12 kg/h.
Assume density of air as 1.2 kg/m3, density of gas as 1 kg/m3,
Cp of gas as 1 KJ/kgK, LHV of bagasse as 15 MJ/kg.
ER =
Actual air volume supplied per kg of biomass
Stoichiometric air volume per kg of biomass
SR = 0.0889*(C + 0.375*S) + 0.265*H - 0.0333*O
SR = 7.13 where C, H, S, and O are the respective dry ash free percentages
ER = 0.233
LHV of pg = 5.385 MJ/m3 Sensible heatpg + (Volumetric flowrate∗LHV)𝑝𝑔
Hot gas efficiency (%) = ∗100
(Consumption rate∗LHV)biomass
Sensible heat of pg = 5.7 MJ
HE = 93.76 % 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡pg = mpg ∗Cppg ∗(Tpg −Tref/atm )
CGE = 86.16 %
LHVgas (MJ/m3) = yH ∗ 10.7426 + yCO ∗12.59852 + yCH ∗35.8226
2 4
(Volumetric flowrate∗LHV)producer gas
Cold gas efficiency (%) = ∗100
(Consumption rate∗LHV)biomass 32
 Particulate Gas Shift Synthesis Gas

Fuels & Chemicals

Removal Cleanup Reactor Conversion

Removal of tar, which is the most

problematic parameter, increases the
Particulate Fuels &
overall cost of gasification set-up.
Chemicals
Sulfur Byproduct
Air
Biomass Fuels,
Compressor
Wastes

Oxygen
Air
Different cleaning methods can be

Power Generation
Separator
Gasifier Combustion Generator Electric employed for removing tar from
Air Turdine Power
Steam
producer gas:
Exhaust - Wet or wet-dry scrubbing
Steam - Catalytic reforming
Heat Recovery Electric
Steam Generator Power - Thermal cracking
Generator
Recovered Steam
Solids Turbine

Process schematic with applications 33

 Gasification characteristics of different types of waste agricultural biomass

Treatment, bulk density, moisture Ash

Fuel Tar (g/m3) Gasifier Experience
(MC) (%)
Coconut Crushed (1-4 cm), 435kg/m3 Excellent fuel. No slag
3 0.8 downdraft
shell MC =11.8% formation
Coconut Slag on grate but no
Pieces 2 - 5 cm, 65kgm3 Insignificant 3.4 downdraft
husks operational problem
Excellent fuel. No
Com cobs 304 kg/m3 , MC = 11% 7.24 1.5 downdraft
slagging
Sever slagging and
Com fodder Cubed, 390 kg/m3, MC= 11.9% 1.43 6.1 downdraft
bridging
Cotton
Cubed, 259kg/m3 , MC= 20.6% 5 17.2 downdraft Severe slag formation
stalks
Peat Briquettes, 555kg/m3, MC=13% _ _ downdraft Severe slagging
Rice hulls Pelleted, 679 kg/m3, MC = 8.6% 4.32 14.9 downdraft Severe slagging
Slag on hearth ring.
Sugarcane Cut 2-5 cm, 52 kg/m3 Insignificant 1.6 downdraft
Bridging

34
Case Study

35
(a) Mass balance

36
(b) Energy balance
 Economics
▪ Biomass Pellets HHV = 20 MJ/kg; LPG HHV = 50 MJ/kg; Ratio = 2.5

▪1 LPG cylinder (14 kg LPG, cost Rs. 800) energy equivalent to 70 kg pellets (14x2.5 = 35/0.5 gasifier

efficiency 50%).

▪ Targeted Pellets Cost: Rs. 5/kg for 1 TPD capacity

▪ Approx. Cost of Rs. 7/kg pellets (Rs. 500 for 70 kg) make it economical than LPG on O&M cost

▪ Gasifier (10 kg/h) Cost: 1.5 lakhs

▪ For a kitchen consuming 3 LPG cylinders a day, 1 cylinder could be substituted saving approx. Rs.
300/day

▪ Payback period: less than 2 years

37
Biochemical
conversion
Biogas
Anaerobic Digestion / Biomethanation

• A series of biological processes in which microorganisms

breakdown biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen

• Products :
Biogas: a mixture of CH4 and CO2 mainly which is combusted
to generate electricity and/or heat or processed into
renewable natural gas and transportation fuel
Digested solid: residue from the digester, can be composted
and applied as land amendment or used for dairy bedding
Nutrients: residue from liquid digestate, used in agriculture
as fertilizer

Various feedstock can be used: Livestock manure, municipal

wastewater solids, food waste, industrial wastewater and
residuals, fats, and other organic waste streams
• Biogas is a gas produced by anaerobic digestion Types of digester

• A biodigester is a tank that processes the organic material • Floating Drum (Indian model)

that produces biogas. • Fixed Dome (Chinese model)

• A biodigester can come in different shapes and sizes, • Bag or Balloon Digester

depending on the needs of the people using it and the • Plastic Digester

local possibilities in building materials. • Plug Flow Digester

Chinese model Indian model

Famous models used in India
• Floating gas holder type Biogas Plant (KVIC Model 1960s; Composite unit of a masonry (concrete, stone) digester and a metallic dome)
• Deenbandhu model (1980s; Design consists of segments of two spheres of different diameters joined at their base)
• Pragati model (Combination of Deenbandhu and KVIC designs; Lower part of the digester is semi spherical with conical bottom)
• TERI’s TEAM model (Reinforced dome with layers of Ferro-cement and tile bricks; Slurry Inlet box to avoid short circuits; Stirrer to have a
homogenous mixture of slurry)
• ARTI (Appropriate Rural Technology Institute) model
Process
• Initial hydrolysis of particulate matter and
larger molecules

• Fermentation: (acidogenesis) (formation of

acids) generating primarily acetate but also
other Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA)
• Acetogenesis: (formation of acetate),
Hydrogen is used as an electron acceptor

• Methanogenesis:
Acetate → CO2+ CH4 (major pathway app. 70%)
4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O

Typical composition: 50-60% CH4 and 40-50%

CO2 with some N2, H2 and impurities (< 2-3%)
such as H2S, NH3, etc.
Biogas
• Gas mixture (CO2, CH4, trace gases) which is about 20% lighter than air
• Autoignition temperature range - 600° to 750° C
• Odorless
• Colorless
• Burns with blue flame similar to LPG gas
• Calorific value is 20 MJ/m3
• Burns with 60 percent efficiency in a conventional biogas stove

Factors affecting biogas production

• Feed type and composition – manure, agro-residues, industrial waste, sludge, algae
• Microbes – the driving force
• Plant design – range of plant designs
• Construction materials – concrete, metal, plastic
• Climate – temperature, humidity
• Other inputs to the process (mixing, preheating, pretreatment)
• Inter-relationships among these factors
Operating conditions and Types

• Mesophilic temperature is the most widely

used temperature for AD, as it is feasible
without external energy inputs for
approximately 40% of the world's
population living in tropical regions

Biodigesters that operate in tropical and subtropical regions work in mesophilic conditions, and in cold regions work under
psychrophilic conditions
Applications
• Energy: – Cooking – Lighting – Heating
• Saving of fire wood – Environmental protection through reduced deforestation – For women: more time for
literacy and other income generating activities
• Agricultural improvements in terms of plant and animal production yields – Increased household income
• Fertilizer production- protection and/or recovering of soil fertility
• Sanitation and waste management – Controlled disposal of animal manure and organic waste – Greywater
collection and reuse – Improved hygiene and sanitary conditions
• Health – Reduction of diseases related to wastewater and solid waste – Reduction of exposure to smoke while
cooking
• Climate protection

Biogas plant guideline

• 8– 10 m³ biogas plant produces 1.5-2 m³ gas and 100 litres of digested slurry per day using dung from 3-5 cattle or 8-12 pigs.
• With that much biogas, a 6-8 person family can: - cook 2-3 meals -operate one refrigerator all day -burn two lamps for 3
hours -operate a 3 kw motor generator for 1 hour
Solids in liquid feedstock
Solids are the portion of a liquid or slurry that is left when the water is removed. The amount of solids in wastewater and
manure affects nutrient content, treatment processes and handling procedures.

TS = TDS + TSS TDS = FDS + VDS and TSS = FSS + VSS

TS = TFS + TVS TFS = FSS + VSS and TVS = VSS + VDS

TS = FSS + VSS + FDS + VDS

TS: Total Solids
TSS: Total Suspended Solids
TDS: Total Dissolved Solids
FSS: Fixed Suspended Solids
VSS: Volatile Suspended Solids
FDS: Fixed Dissolved Solids
VDS: Volatile Dissolved Solids
TVS: Total Volatile Solids
TFS: Total Fixed Solids
If you know any four measurements, you can figure out the other four.
This is routinely done in the lab using the analyses TS/TVS and TSS/TVS.
TS/TVS: A sample is placed into a crucible, dried in an oven at 103℃ for 24 hours
(TS), then placed in a furnace for one hour at 550℃ (TVS).
TSS/VSS: A sample is filtered through a glass fiber filter with 1.5 micron openings.
The filter is dried in an oven at 103℃ for 24 hours (TSS), and then placed in a 550℃
furnace for 1 hour (VSS).
The portion of TS that remains after heating at 550℃ for 1 hour is called Total Fixed
Solids (TFS); the portion lost during heating is Total Volatile Solids (TVS).
The solids contents of liquids and
slurries are expressed on either a
volume or mass basis.

Mass per Volume Basis:

Milligrams per liter (mg/l):
The mass of solids
contained in a sample are
divided by the volume of
the sample.

Mass per Mass Basis:

TS = TDS + TSS
Percent Solids on Wet Basis (%
wb): The mass of solids in a sample are
TS = TFS + TVS
divided by the original weight of the
sample and multiplied by 100.
TS = FSS + VSS + FDS + VDS
 Yield factors based on temperature and the feedstock retention time (*IRENA)

If a fixed dome plant has a rated daily gas production of 1 .2 m3/day for poultry, the total plant volume would be 1.2 x 2.3 =
2.76 m3.
Biogas plant size calculation

Background details of a case Household Fixed Dome

Biogas Plant are outlined:

• A household with 3 cows

• 10 kg of dung per cow in a day (from literature)

• Total solid (TS) is estimated at 20%,

• Volatile solid (VS) estimated at 80% of TS,

• Cattle manure biogas yield/Kg (BY): 0.35 (from

literature)

• Optimum mixing ratio, dung: water (1:3) (1:1 ratio

may also be used)
1. Digester size (Ds) calculation
𝑘𝑔
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑢𝑛𝑔 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠 × 𝑑𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑎𝑦
If the animal waste is mixed with water using dung to water ratio of 1:3, then the total influent (Influentt) is

𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐷𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 + 3 × 𝐷𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

consider the density of water and dung to be equal and hydraulic retention time (HRT) to be 30 days.
𝐻𝑅𝑇
𝐷𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐷𝑠 𝑚3 = 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑡 ×
1000
2. Gas holder size (GHs) calculation
𝐷𝑠 = 75% × 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒

𝐺𝐻𝑠 = 25% × 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒

3. Total biogas plant size (BPs) calculation

𝐵𝑃𝑠 𝑚3 = 𝐷𝑠 + 𝐺𝐻𝑠
4. Feedstock concentration/quality (FC)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑇𝑆 = 20% × 𝐷𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑆 = 80% × 𝑇𝑆

Feedstock concentration (VS in per m3 of influent) is calculated as:

𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆
𝐹𝐶 = × 1000
𝑚3 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑡
5. Organic loading rate (OLR)

The organic loading rate (OLR) is the rate at which organic matter is added to a digester.

𝑘𝑔 𝑉𝑆 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝐹𝐶
𝑂𝐿𝑅 =
𝑚3 𝐷𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 (𝐷𝑠 )
𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑡
where, 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = to convert litre to m3; OLR below 2 kg is appropriate.
1000

6. Biogas amount (BA)

𝑚3
𝐵𝐴 = 𝑂𝐿𝑅 × 𝐵𝑌 × 𝐷𝑠
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Case Study On BIO-CNG AND MANURE PLANT

Year founded : 2017-18

: Nauragabad, Gendikhata, Najibabad
Location
Road, Hardiwar, Uttarkhand.
Capacity : 20 ton of feed (1:1:: dung :
water)
Capital Investment : 3 crores (including 1.6 crores worth
digester set-up)*
Sponsored by : ONGC under CSR project
Funds by ONGC : INR 1.89 Cr

• Cow dung source: 5000 cattle in two Gaushalas within 8 km radius.

• Dome-shaped digester capacity of 1600 m3, placed 3 m deep into the ground and 5 m above the ground
• 20 hp motor pumps feed into digester
• 5-6 workers (2 skilled and 4 unskilled) for operation and maintenance
• Biogas collected in the dome has a pressure of about 0.7 psi and average composition as 52 % CH4 and 46% CO2 with the
remaining constituting NH3, and H2S.
• PSA based biogas enrichment unit improves the methane content in the biogas up to 92 -95 %.
• Other daily products: Biogas slurry: solid and liquid digestate
Feed prepared using cow dung with water (1:1 ratio) in the feed tank Liquid slurry tank

PSA based biogas enrichment unit

Solid manure from dried digestate Compression unit
Support for biogas plants in India
• Financial and fiscal support available, e.g., subsidy – (capital / interest), tax and duty exemptions, CDM etc.

Financial support from MNRE

• Small biogas plant ( 1 m3 to 6 m3) – Rs 2100 to Rs 11,700 per plant depending on geographical location
• Toilet linked biogas plant – Additional amount of Rs 500 per plant to above cost.
• Sewage treatment plant - 40% of project cost subject to max of Rs 2 crore
• Large biogas plant (Biomethanation of urban wastes)
– For thermal use: Rs 1 crore per MWeq (i.e. for 12000 m3 of biogas)
– For power generation: 50% of project cost subject to max of Rs 3 crores
• Biogas bottling plant – 50% subsidy on project cost (gas enrichment equipment and compressor)
• Power generation based on high rate biomethanation technology – Rs 2 crore/MW
• Preparation of detailed project report (DPR) – Rs 1 lakh
• Training program Loan facility: NABARD – IREDA – KVIC
Co-digestion

• Co-digestion is the simultaneous AD of two or more substrates (food waste, animal waste, crop residue, MSW, sludge from WWTP) as a
promising possible option to overcome the disadvantages of mono-digestion and improve the economic viability of AD plants.
• Anaerobic co-digestion of certain substrates can produce synergistic or antagonistic effects.
• Synergistic effects may appear from the contribution of additional alkalinity, trace elements, nutrients, enzymes, or any other
improvement which a substrate by itself may lack, and could result in an increase in substrate biodegradability and therefore methane
potential.
• Competitive effects can come from several factors such as pH inhibition, ammonia toxicity or high volatile acid concentration.

Benefits of the co-digestion process are:

• dilution of the potential toxic compounds eventually present in any of the co-substrates involved;
• adjustment of the moisture content and pH;
• supply of the necessary buffer capacity to the mixture;
• increase of the biodegradable material content;
• widening the range of bacterial strains taking part in the process.
All these benefits concur in an improved stability and performance of the process and in a higher biogas and energy production
Bioethanol and
Biodiesel
Classification of Biofuels

Bio-alcohols Advanced biofuels Algal fuels Electro biofuels

Bio-oils Solar biofuels
GM derived fuels
 Bioethanol
• Ethanol (C2H5OH) is a high-octane fuel, and oxygen in the
ethanol molecule helps in complete combustion, which
means less emissions
• Bioethanol: Ethanol produced through fermentation
• FlexFuel Vehicles (FFV) can use ethanol blended up to
85% with petrol (E85 fuel).

MoPNG 2017a

Indian Scenario
Bioethanol from different sources

Saccharification: process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (such as starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components
Molasses is the only feedstock resource presently used
predominantly for fuel ethanol production in India

Molasses are classified into three types:

A-molasses or first molasses is the first byproduct during
processing of sugar and it contains more than 70% of
fermentable sugar.
B-molasses or second molasses contain fermentable sugars of
about 60% and
C-molasses or final molasses contain 32%.
Presently, A-molasses and B-molasses are further processed for
sugar production. C-molasses or final molasses is the only
source for production of ethanol in India.
• Currently, ethanol yields 25% more energy output than input to produce it.
• Research is on for less costly ways of producing ethanol, and better ways to blend it with petrol.

• Obstacles to commercial production of cellulosic ethanol:

• Accelerating the breakdown of cellulose fibers
• Lignin waste problem: Lignin can fuel Combined Heat and Power plants, however, CHP plants
are expensive.
• Use of GM (genetically modified) microorganisms
Biodiesel
• Biodiesel is a liquid biofuel obtained by chemical processes from vegetable oils or animal fats and an
alcohol that can be used in diesel engines, alone or blended with diesel oil.

• ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) defines biodiesel as a mixture of long-chain
monoalkylic esters from fatty acids obtained from renewable resources, to be used in diesel engines.

• Depending on its composition, the generated biodiesel mostly comprises various fatty acids. It has a low
sulfur content, is non-toxic, renewable, and biodegradable, and has fewer hazardous gas emissions.

• Low-level blends (≤20% biodiesel) can

be used in almost any existing diesel
engine
• High-level blends (>20%) can be used
in most new diesel engines
Production methods
Vegetable oils have high viscosity, which
hinders their direct use in diesel engines.
High viscosity results in poor combustion,
which affects diesel engine performance.
Different methods have been reported for
biodiesel production from oil such as
microemulsion, pyrolysis, and chemical-
based transesterification
Transesterification
• Most common production method
• Uses vegetable oils and animal fats as feed stocks
• The reaction of a fat or oil with an alcohol to form
esters (biodiesel) and glycerol/glycerin
• The oils most used for worldwide biodiesel production are
rapeseed (mainly in the European Union countries),
soybean (Argentina and the United States of America),
palm (Asian and Central American countries), sunflower,
peanut, linseed, vegetable oils, and also animal fats.
• Consumption of non-edible oil as a raw material for
biodiesel has many benefits, for example, it is
biodegradable, has a low amount of sulfur, with no effect
on the food chain, low aromatic content and availability.
• Methanol is the most frequently used alcohol although
ethanol can also be used.
Oil, alcohol, and a catalyst undergo
transesterification. From there they are mixed
methyl esters from which crude glycerol is removed.
The crude glycerol goes into a separator under heat
and a vacuum in which alcohol is removed. It then
goes through a water wash and is neutralized with
acid to produce neutralized glycerol. The other
remaining mixed methyl esters from
transesterification go into a different separator
which removes any alcohol. They then undergo an
extraction using water and move into a second
separator under heat and a vacuum that removes
any water. This yields biodiesel.
Challenges with biodiesel

• Expensive feed stocks and inefficient production methods

• Strict standards for product quality
• Fuel-supply reliability
• Lack of understanding of environmental impact - NOx
emissions

• Storage Issues with Stability and Transportation issues with

high cost of delivered fuel compared to fossil fuels

• Complexity of biomass-power infrastructure compared to

known well established coal and natural gas markets
Bioethanol and Biodiesel comparison
Biofuels
Biorefinery
• Biorefinery is a facility with integrated, efficient and flexible conversion of biomass feedstocks, through a
combination of physical, chemical, biochemical and thermochemical processes, into multiple products
(Source: Biorefineries and Chemical Processes: Design, Integration and Sustainability Analysis, 2014)

• “Biorefining is the sustainable processing of biomass into a spectrum of marketable products and energy.”
(IEA 2008)

• “A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels,
power, and chemicals from biomass.” (NREL 2011)

• Concept is analogous to the crude oil / petrochemical refineries adopting the process engineering
principles applied in their designs, such as feedstock fractionation, multiple value-added productions, and
process flexibility and integration