Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow’s Contributions to Psychology

Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) was best known for:
o Hierarchy of needs
o Founder of humanistic psychology
o Peak experiences
o Self-actualization

His theories focused on the positive aspects of human nature. At a time when most psychologists focused on
aspects of human nature that were considered abnormal, He shifted focus to look at the positive sides of mental
health.
His work influenced how we see mental health. His interest in human potential, peak experiences, the
improvement of mental health, and personal growth had a lasting influence on psychology.
His work continues to exert an influence today. While Maslow’s work fell out of favor with many academic
psychologists and some suggest his hierarchy might be due for an update, his theories are enjoying a resurgence
due to the rising interest in positive psychology.

Key Takeaways
§ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of
human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
§ The five levels of the hierarchy are physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-
actualization.
§ In this theory, higher needs in the hierarchy begin to emerge when people feel they have
sufficiently satisfied the previous need. Hence, lower-level basic needs like food, water, and safety
must be met first before higher needs can be fulfilled.
§ Few people are believed to reach the level of self-actualization, but we can all have moments of peak
experiences.
§ The order of the levels is not completely fixed. For some, esteem outweighs love, while others may
self-actualize despite poverty. Our behaviors are usually motivated by multiple needs simultaneously.

Introduction
This hierarchy ranges from more concrete needs such
as food and water to abstract concepts such as self-fulfillment.
According to Maslow, when a lower need is met, the next
need on the hierarchy becomes our focus of attention. He
argued that it is only after meeting all five needs that humans
can truly thrive. The higher up the hierarchy, the more
difficult it is to satisfy the needs associated with that
stage, because of the interpersonal and environmental
barriers that inevitably frustrate us.

Maslow mapped these needs onto a pyramid diagram,

with each need occupying a different level of the pyramid. The
lowest and biggest levels represent the basic and highest-
priority needs that are essential for survival. As a humanist,
Maslow believed that people have an inborn desire to be
self-actualized, that is, to be all they can be. To achieve this
ultimate goal, however, a number of more basic needs must be
met. This includes the need for food, safety, love, and self-
esteem.

Different Types of Needs

 Deficiency needs: Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs, which arise due
to deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences.
Growth needs: Maslow called the needs at the top of the pyramid growth needs. These needs don't stem
from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.

Starting at the bottom of the pyramid, the five needs are as follows:
NEED TYPE DEFINITION EXAMPLES EFFECT IF
UNMET
Physiological Deficiency Biological requirements for A person who is lost in § Physical
human survival such as air, the desert is likely to illness
food, drink, shelter, clothing, be primarily § Hoarding
warmth, sex, and sleep. concerned with behavior
meeting their
physiological needs,
such as finding food
and water
Safety Deficiency Related to feeling safe and A person who lives in § Anxiety
secure. Order, predictability, a war-torn country § Psychological
and having a sense of may be primarily trauma
control may contribute to this. concerned with
meeting their safety
Safety can come from the needs, such as finding
actions of an individual or from shelter and avoiding
their family or community. violence.
Depending on the person, it
might include:
o living or working in a
safe environment
o having a stable and
sufficient source of
income
o feeling protected from
crime or abuse
o being in good physical
health with no serious
illnesses

Love and Deficiency Being connected to others, A person who is new § Loneliness
belonging belonging to a group, and to a city may be § Antisocial
having secure relationships. primarily concerned behavior
People meet these needs with meeting their love
through: and
o making friends belonging needs by
o giving and receiving making new friends
affection and finding a
o emotional intimacy supportive community.
o feeling accepted by
loved ones

Esteem Deficiency Esteem presents the typical A student who is § Feeling

human desire to be accepted struggling in school worthless
and valued by others. People may be primarily § Feeling
often engage in a profession or concerned with invisible or
hobby to gain recognition. meeting their esteem unappreciated
These activities give the
 person a sense of contribution needs by improving § Low self-
or value. their grades and confidence
getting recognition § Depression
(i) esteem for oneself (dignity, from their teachers
achievement, mastery, and peers.
independence) and (ii) the
desire for reputation or
respect from others (e.g.,
status, prestige).
Self- Growth "What a man can be, he must An artist who is § Boredom
actualization be," referring to the need working on their § Cynicism
people have to achieve their magnum opus may be § Lack of
full potential as human primarily concerned meaning in life
beings. with meeting
their self-actualization
This is different from the needs by creating a
esteem needs of the work of art that they
previous section. According are proud of.
to Maslow, people who become
self-actualized find
motivation in growth and
possibility rather than trying
to gain something they lack.
They see things that they or
their community could achieve,
and they pursue them,
whether or not it results in an
external reward.

Self-Actualization
§ Peak level of psychological development, where personal potential is fully realized after basic bodily
and ego needs have been fulfilled.

§ Being self-actualized does not mean a person has no problems and is always happy. For Maslow, a
person is always “becoming” and never remains static in these terms. In self-actualization, a person
comes to find a meaning in life that is important to them. This occurs when a person experiences the
world totally for what it is, and there are feelings of euphoria, joy, and wonder.

§ Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. Self-actualization merely involves achieving
one’s potential. Thus, someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and impolite, and still self-actualize.

Progressing Through the Pyramid of Needs

§ Once lower-level needs have been met, people can move on to the next level of needs. As people
progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social.

§ At the top of the pyramid, the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority.
Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a process of growing and developing
as a person in order to achieve individual potential.

§ While the theory is generally portrayed as a fairly rigid hierarchy, Maslow noted that the order in which
these needs are fulfilled does not always follow this standard progression.
 o For example, he noted that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than
the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic
needs.

EXAMPLES
§ A child who is raised in a loving and supportive home is likely to have their love and belonging needs
met. This can give them a strong foundation for developing their esteem needs and self-actualization
needs later in life.
§ A person who is struggling with poverty or homelessness may need to focus on meeting their basic needs
and safety needs before they can focus on their higher-level needs.

Application for Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

NURSING
The hierarchy provides a framework for understanding patients as multifaceted human beings.

Patient care should be holistic, not just medical. Nurses must assess and address the spectrum of patient needs
– physical, mental, emotional, and social. Doing so motivates greater engagement in care, faster healing, and
improved outcomes.

1) Physiological needs – Ensure patients have adequate nutrition, hydration, pain control, sleep, and
physical comfort. Address pain that hinders sleep and recovery.
2) Safety needs – Maintain a clean, quiet environment with call bells for assistance. Prevent injuries through
fall precautions, blood clot prevention, and pressure ulcer avoidance. Explain tests, treatments, and
medications to patients to relieve anxiety. Keep patient info confidential.
3) Belongingness – Loneliness impedes healing. Make patients feel welcomed and included. Introduce them
to other patients. Allow for family visitation and spiritual practices.
4) Esteem – Show respect through courteous communication and cultural sensitivity. Maintain dignity and
privacy. Empower patients in care decisions. Explain care in an easy-to-understand way. Listen
attentively to their concerns. Make them feel valued.
5) Self-actualization – Align care with patient values and aspirations. Perhaps share motivational stories
of those with similar diagnoses who stayed active. Or provide resources on coping with grief over health
changes.

EDUCATION
Rather than reducing behavior to a response in the environment, Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic approach to
education and learning.

Here are some ways a teacher can apply Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the classroom:
1) Physiological – Ensure students have access to water, food, restroom breaks, and movement. Allow
snacks, flexible seating, and adequate breaks.
2) Safety – Maintain an orderly classroom with clear expectations. Prevent bullying. Build trust through
consistency and fairness. Allow students to make mistakes safely.
3) Belongingness – Facilitate community and collaboration. Foster teamwork through group projects. Learn
student names and backgrounds. Appreciate diversity.
4) Esteem – Recognize student strengths and progress. Display student work. Empower leadership roles
like line leader or tech helper. Praise efforts, not just achievement.
5) Self-Actualization – Help students pursue interests creatively. Assign passion projects. Encourage goal-
setting. Provide enrichment opportunities. Support challenging oneself.

Critical Evaluation
 Some critics say that while it is logical to
put physiological needs first and self-
The order of needs actualization last, people do not
within the necessarily pursue or obtain the needs
hierarchy is in this order.
arbitrary
In his early work, Maslow argued that a
person could only self-actualize once they
had met their basic needs. However, an
Self-actualization older 2015 paper notes that, sometimes,
is not linear not being able to meet one’s basic
needs helps people identify their self-
actualization goals.
For example, some argue that a healthy
relationship with oneself is an important
requirement for having healthy
relationships with others. Maslow himself
met people who valued self-esteem more
than love. However, Maslow did not
consider the exact order of needs to be
rigid.
For example, a person may have a stable
career for many years, fulfilling their safety
needs. However, if they lose their job, they
may realize that their old career was not
satisfying. Needing another source of
income might spur them to pursue the job
they truly want.

The theory is Other critics of Maslow's theory note that his definition of self-actualization is difficult to
difficult to test test scientifically. His research was also based on a very limited sample of individuals,
including people he knew as well as biographies of famous individuals who Maslow
believed to be self-actualized.

Conclusion
Maslow believed that people are motivated to fulfill their needs in order from the bottom of the pyramid
to the top. Once a need is met, it is no longer a motivator, and people move on to the next level of needs.
However, if a need is not met, it can continue to motivate people until it is fulfilled.
It is important to note that the hierarchy is not a rigid structure, and people may move between levels
depending on their individual circumstances. However, the hierarchy does provide a general framework for
understanding what motivates people and how to create environments that are supportive and fulfilling.

References
Cherry, K. (2023, March 14). Biography of Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). Very Well Mind.
https://www.verywellmind.com/biography-of-abraham-maslow-1908-1970-2795524

Cherry, K. (2022, August 14). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Very Well Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-
is-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-4136760

Mcleod, S. (2023). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

West, M. (2022). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Uses and criticisms. Medical News Today.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs#what-it-is
 Sullivan's Transactional Analysis (Interpersonal Theory)

"A personality can never be isolated from the complex of interpersonal relations in which the person lives and
has his being" - Harry Stack Sullivan (1953)

Background of the Theorist

§ He was born in Norwich, New York, on February 21, 1892.

§ His social isolation as a child may have contribute his later interest in psychiatry.
§ Graduated from Smyrna Union School, spent two years at Cornell University,
beginning in 1909. In 1917, he earned his medical degree from the Chicago College
of Medicine and Surgery
§ Between 1925 and 1929, Sullivan worked at Sheppard Pratt Hospital, treating
schizophrenic patients with treatments considered experimental.
§ Founder of the William Alanson White Institute, as well of the journal Psychiatry
in 1937.
§ Explained the role of Interpersonal relationships and social experience in shaping personality and
the importance of current life event to psychopathology.
§ Died on January 14, 1949 in Paris, France.
§ Sullivan developed the concept of “developmental epochs” to help explain the development of
personality across the lifespan. Like many other theorists of his time, his theory is stage-based. Sullivan
often emphasized the pivotal importance of friendship and connectedness, and his stage-based
theory sees social skills as a bridge to greater development and enrichment.

Sullivan’s Terminologies
Concept of Personality
Tensions
Sullivan conceptualized personality as an energy system, with energy existing either as tension (potentiality for
action) or as energy transformations (the actions themselves). He further divided tensions into needs and anxiety.
• Needs
Needs can relate either to the general well-being of a person or to specific zones, such as the mouth or
genitals. General needs can be either physiological, such as food or oxygen, or they can be interpersonal,
such as tenderness and intimacy.
• Anxiety
Unlike needs-which are conjunctive and call for specific actions to reduce them-anxiety is disjunctive and
calls for no consistent actions for its relief. All infants learn to be anxious through the empathic
relationship that they have with their mothering one. Sullivan called anxiety the chief disruptive force in
interpersonal relations. A complete absence of anxiety and other tensions is called euphoria.

Energy transformations transform tensions into either covert or overt behaviors and are aimed at satisfying
needs and reducing anxiety.

Sullivan's Dynamisms
Sullivan used the term dynamism to refer to a typical pattern of behaviour. Dynamisms may relate either to
specific zones of the body or to tensions.
• Malevolence
The disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred is called malevolence, defined by Sullivan as a feeling of
living among one's enemies. Those children who become malevolent have much difficulty giving and
receiving tenderness or being intimate with other people.
• Intimacy
The conjunctive dynamism marked by a close personal relationship between two people of equal status
is called Intimacy. Intimacy facilitates interpersonal development while decreasing both anxiety and
loneliness.
 • Lust
In contrast to both malevolence and intimacy, lust is an isolating dynamism. That is, lust is a self-centered
need that can be satisfied in the absence of an intimate interpersonal relationship. In other words,
although intimacy presupposes tenderness or love, lust is based solely on sexual gratification and
requires no other person for its satisfaction.
• Self-System
The most inclusive of all dynamisms is the self-system, or that pattern of behaviors that protects us
against anxiety and maintains our interpersonal security. The self-system is a conjunctive dynamism, but
because its primary job is to protect the self from anxiety, it tends to stifle personality change. Experiences
that are inconsistent with our self-system threaten our security and necessitate our use of security
operations, which consist of behaviors designed to reduce interpersonal tensions. One such security
operation is dissociation, which includes all those experiences that we block from awareness. Another
is selective inattention, which involves blocking only certain experiences from awareness.

Personification of Interpersonal Theory

Sullivan believed that people acquire certain images of self and others throughout the developmental stages,
and he referred to these subjective perceptions as personifications.
• Bad-Mother, Good-Mother
The bad-mother personification grows out of infants' experiences with a nipple that does not satisfy their
hunger needs. All infants experience the bad-mother personification, even though their real mothers may
be loving and nurturing. Later, infants acquire a good-mother personification as they become mature
enough to recognize the tender and cooperative behaviour of their mothering one. Still later, these two
personifications combine to form a complex and contrasting image of the real mother.
• Me Personifications
During infancy children acquire three "me" personifications:
(1) The bad-me, which grows from experiences of punishment and disapproval,
(2) The good-me, which results from experiences with reward and approval, and
(3) The not-me, which allows a person to dissociate or selectively not attend to the experiences related
to anxiety.
• Eidetic Personifications
One of Sullivan's most interesting observations was that people often create imaginary traits that they
project onto others, included in these eidetic personifications are the imaginary playmates that
preschool-aged children often have. These imaginary friends enable children to have a safe, secure
relationship with another person, even though that person is imaginary.

Levels of Cognition
Sullivan recognized three levels of cognition, or ways of perceiving things:
• Prototaxic Level
Experiences that are impossible to put into words or to communicate to others are called prototaxic
Newborn Infants experience images mostly on a prototaxic level, but adults, too, frequently have
preverbal experiences that are momentary and incapable of being communicated.
• Parataxic Level
Experiences that are prelogical and nearly impossible to accurately communicate to others are called
parataxic. Included in these are erroneous assumptions about cause and effect, which Sullivan termed
parataxic distortions.
• Syntaxic Level
Experiences that can be accurately communicated to others are called syntaxic. Children become
capable of syntaxic language at about 12 to 18 months of age when words begin to have the same
meaning for them that they do for others.

Stages of Development
Sullivan (1953) postulated seven epochs or stages of development from infancy to mature adulthood. Personality
change can take place at any time, but it is most likely to occur during the transition from one stage to the next.
The seven stages are the following:
1) Infancy (birth-18 months)
The period from birth until the emergence of syntaxic language is called infancy, a time when the child receives
tenderness from the mothering one while also learning anxiety through an empathic linkage with the mother.
Anxiety may increase to the point of terror, but such terror is controlled by the built-in protections of apathy
and somnolent detachment that allow the baby to go to sleep. During infancy children use autistic language,
which takes place on a prototaxic or parataxic level.
2) Childhood (18 months-6 years)
The stage that lasts from the beginning of syntaxic language until the need for playmates of equal status is
called childhood. The child's primary interpersonal relationship continues to be with the mother, who is now
differentiated from other persons who nurture the child.
3) Juvenile Era (6-9 years)
The juvenile stage begins with the need for peers of equal status and continues until the child develops a need
for an intimate relationship with a chum, at this time children should learn how to compete, to compromise,
and to cooperate. These three abilities, as well as an orientation toward living, help a child develop intimacy,
the chief dynamism of the next developmental stage.
4) Preadolescence (9-12 years)
Perhaps the most crucial stage is preadolescence, because mistakes made earlier can be corrected during
preadolescence, but errors made during preadolescence are nearly impossible to overcome in later life.
Preadolescence spans the time from the need for a single best friend until puberty. Children who do not learn
intimacy during preadolescence have added difficulties relating to potential sexual partners during later stages.
5) Early Adolescence (12-14 years)
With puberty, comes the lust dynamism and the beginning of early adolescence. Development during this
stage is ordinarily marked by a coexistence of intimacy with a single friend of the same gender and sexual
interest in many persons of the opposite gender. However, if children have no pre-existing capacity for intimacy,
they may confuse lust with love and develop sexual relationships that are devoid of true intimacy.
6) Late Adolescence (14-21 years)
Chronologically, late adolescence may start at any time after about age 16, but psychologically, it begins when
a person is able to feel both intimacy and lust toward the same person. Late adolescence is characterized by
a stable pattern of sexual activity and the growth of the syntaxic mode, as young people learn how to live in
the adult world.

7) Adulthood (21 years and above)

Late adolescence flows into adulthood, a time when a person establishes a stable relationship with a significant
other person and develops a consistent pattern of viewing the world.

Therapeutic Community or Mileu

§ The concept of mileu therapy, involves client’s interaction with one another; i.e., practicing interpersonal
relationship skills, giving one another feedback about behaviour and working cooperatively as a group to
solve day-to-day problems.
§ The first therapeutic community or mileu was developed by Sullivan in 1929.
§ In the concept of mileu, the interaction among client is seen as beneficial and treatment emphasizes the
role of this client-to-client interaction.
§ Today, inpatient hospital stays are often too short for clients to develop meaningful relationship with one
another. Therefore, the concept of mileu therapy requires little attention.

Relevance of Interpersonal Theory to Nursing Practice

§ Nurses develop therapeutic relationships with clients in an effort to help them generalize this ability to
interact successfully with others.
§ Nurses use the concepts of this theory to help clients achieve a higher degree of independent and
interpersonal functioning.
§ Nurses use Sullivan's techniques and approaches on psychiatric interview.
§ Sullivan's interpersonal theory provides the theoretical basis for interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) for
depression and schizophrenia.

Roles of Patient & Nurse

§ Patient and nurse should be in dyad partnership.
§ Nurse should provide the patient an atmosphere of uncritical acceptance and the patient speaks out
openly.
§ Nurses should interact as a person who has beliefs, values, thoughts and feelings.
§ Patient should share his concerns with the nurse and participate in the relationship to the best of his
ability.
§ Nurse should provide safety and protection for all clients and promoting social interaction.