HVAC Systems

1 UNIT
Advanced Vapour
Compression Cycles
CONTENTS
Advanced Vapour Compression 1-2A to 1-10A
Part-1 :
Cycles: Review of Vapour
Compression Cycle
Effect of Superheating, 1-10A to 1-13A

Part-2 :
Subcooling, Condenser Pressure
and Evaporator Pressure on COP
Transcritical Cycle, Ejector . 1-13A to 1-16A
Part-3 :
Refrigeration Cycle, Presentation
of Cycle on P-h and T-s Chart
Part-4 : Refrigerants 1-17A to 1-20A

Classification of Refrigerants,
CFC, HFC, HCFC, Azeotropic,
Zeotropic, Natural Refrigerant,
Secondary Refrigerant,
Anti-freeze solution, Phase
Changing Materials
Part-5: Desired Properties of 1-20A to 1-25A

Refrigerants, Requirements
for Refrigerant, Classification
based on Safety, Refrigerant Oils
and Applications, Properties
and uses of Commonly used Refrigerant,
Greenhouse Effect, Global
Warming, Future Refrigerants
Like Hydrofluoro-Olefines
1-1A (ME-Sem-7)
1-2A (ME-Sem-7) Advanced Vapour Compression Cycles
PART-1
Advanced Vapour Compression Cycles :

Review of Vapour compression Cycle.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. Describe vapour compression refrigeration system. Also

mention advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
A Vapour Compression Refrigeration System:
1. It is an improved type of air refrigeration system in which a suitable
working substance termed as refrigerant is used.
2. The refrigerant does not leave the system. Condensed and evaporated
alternately and is circulated throughout the system.
3. During evaporation, the refrigerant absorbs its latent heat from the
brine (salt water)which is used for circulating it around the cold chamber.
4. While condensing, it gives out its latent heat to the circulating water of
the cooler.
5. Therefore, vapour compression refrigeration system is a latent heat
pump, as it pumps its latent heat from the brine and delivers it to the
cooler.
B. Advantages of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System :
1 It has smaller size for the given capacity of refrigeration.
2 It has less running cost.
3 It can be employed over a large range of temperatures.
4 The coefficient of performance is quite high.
C. Disadvantages of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System :
1 The initial cost is high.
2 The prevention of leakage of the refrigerant is the major problem in
vapour compression system.
Que 1.2. Describe the mechanism ofa simple vapour compression
refrigeration system.
HVAC Systems 1-3A(ME-Sem-7)
Answer
This mechanism consists of following essential parts as shown in
Fig. 1.2.1.
i. Compressor :
1. The low pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from evaporator
is drawn into the compressor through the inlet or suction valve A,
where it is compressed to a high pressure and temperature.
2 This high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant is discharged
into the condenser through the delivery or discharge valve B.
Insulated cold
chamber
Low pressure
liquid vapour
mixture
Evaporator
Low pressure vapour Expansion valve
Pressure gauge
Pressure or refrigerant
control valve
gauge High pressure
Low pressure side
vapour
High pressure
liquid
A B Condenser
Compressor
Receiver
High pressure liquid

vapour mixture
Fig. 1.2.1. Simple vapour compression refrigeration system.
ii. Condenser :
1 The condenser consists of coils of pipe in which the high pressure and
termperature vapour refrigerant is cooled and condensed.
2 The refrigerant, while passing through the condenser, gives up its latent
heat to the surroundings condensing medium which is normally air or
water.
ii. Receiver:
1, The condensed liquid refrigerant from the condenser is stored in a
vessel known as receiver from where it is supplied to the evaporator
through the expansion valve or refrigerant control valve.
14A (ME-Sem-7)
Advanced Vapour Compression Cycles
iv. Expansion Valve :
1. It is also called
throttle or refrigerant control valve.
2. The function of the expansion valve is to
allow the liquid refrigerant
under high pressure and temperature to pass at a controlled rate after
reducing its pressure and temperature.
v. Evaporator :
1 An evaporator consists of coils of pipe in
which the
refrigerant at low pressure and temperature is evaporatedliquid-vapour
and changed
into vapour refrigerant at low pressure and temperature.
2 During evaporation, the liquid vapour refrigerant absorbs its latent
heat of vapourisation from the medium (air, water or brine) which is to
be cooled.
Que 1.3.
Describe a simple vapour compression refrigeration
system with the help of p-h and T-s diagram.
Answer
The working of a single stage simple vapour
compression cycle is
explained with the help of following five cases:
When the Vapour is Dry and Saturated at the End of
Compression : The four process of the cycle are shown on T-s and
p-h diagrams in Fig. 1.3.1(a) and (b).
|T,=T,
Temperature. Cond. 2
P2P3 Cond.
2
Comp. Pressure
Comp.
Exp. PiP4/ Exp.
4, Evap.
1
4 Evap
S= S
Entropy h
(a) T-s diagram Enthalpy
(b) p-h diagram
Fig. 1.3.1.
i.
Compression Process (1-2):
1. The
vapour refrigerant at low pressure p, and
temperature T, is
compressed isentropically to dry saturated vapour.
2. Work done
during isentropic compression per kg is given by,
W=h,-h,
Where, h, = Enthalpy of vapour
T, (i.e., at suction ofrefrigerant
at temperature
the compressor), and
HVAC Systems 15A (ME-Sem-7)
h, = Enthalpy of the vapour refrigerant at

temperature T, (i.e., at discharge of the
compressor).
ii. Condensing Process (2-3) :
1. The high temperature and pressure vapour refrigerant from the
compressor is passed through the condenser where it is completely
condensed at constant pressure p, and temperature T,.
iii. Expansion Process (3-4) :
1. The liquid refrigerant at pressure p,=P, and temperature T, =T,
is expanded by throttling process through the expansion valve to a
low pressure p, =P, and temperature T, =T
2. During the throttling process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by
the liquid refrigerant.
iv. Evaporation Process (4-1) :
1. The liquid vapour mixture ofthe refrigerant at pressurep, =P, and
temperature T, = T, is evaporated and changed into vapour
refrigerant at constant pressure and temperature.
2 During evaporation, the liquid vapour refrigerant absorbs its latent
heat of vapourisation from the medium which is to be cooled and
the process of vapourisation continues up to point 1 which is the
starting point and thus the cycle is completed.
3. The heat absorbed or extracted by the liquid vapour refrigerant
during evaporation per kg of refrigerant is given by
R=h,-h,=h,-ha (: hg =h)
Where, h, = Sensible heat at temperature T, (i.e., enthalpy
of liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser).
4. Coefficient of performance is given by,
COP =
Refrigerating effect
Work done
b. When the Vapour is Wet after Compression :

1 Avapour compression cycle with wet vapour after compression is shown
on T-s andp-h diagrams in Fig. 1.3.2(a) and (6):
2 In this cycle, the enthalpy at point 2 is found out with the help of dryness
fraction at this point.
3 The dryness fraction at points 1 and 2 may be obtained by equating
entropies at points l and 2.
16A ME-Sem-7) Advanced Vapour Compression Cycles
emperature 3 Cond.
3
|Cond. Comp. P2=Ps
Pressure Comp.
Exp.
Exp.
P1=P4 T41Evap.
4 Evap.
Entropy Enthalpy
(a) T-s diagram (6) p-h diagram
Fig. 1.3.2.
C When the Vapour is Superheated after Compression :
1. Avapour compression cycle with superheated vapour after compression
is shown on T-s and p-h diagrams in Fig. 1.3.3a) and (b) respectively.
Lemperature Pressure 3 Cond. 2

T 2 Tp,=p,= p,] 2
Exp.
Exp. P,=P.
A
T,=T,
Evap. /
4
Evap.
Entropy hy=h, h, h,
(a) T-s diagram Enthalpy
(b) p-h diagram
Fig. 1.3.3.
2. In this cycle, the enthalpy at point 2is found out with the help of degree
of superheat.
3. The degree of superheat may be found out by equating the entropies at
points 1 and 2.
d. When the Vapour is Superheated before Compression:
1. Avapour compression cycle with superheated vapour before compression
is shown on T-s and p-h diagram in Fig. 1.3.4(a) and (b) respectively.
2. In this cycle, the evaporation starts at point 4 and continues upto point
1', when it is dry saturated. The vapour is now superheated before
entering the compressor upto the point 1.
3. The coefficient of performance may be found out as usual from the
relation,
COP = Refrigerating effect h, - h,
Work done h, -h,
HVAC Systems 1-7A (ME-Sem-7)
-Temperature Cond. 2
3 2"
Pressure 2
Comp.
1 1
4 Evap. 1' superheating

Superheating
h hg
Entropy Entropy
(a) T-s diagram. (6) p-h diagram.
Fig. 1.3.4.
e, Theoretical Vapour Compression Cycle with Undercooling or
Subcooling of Refrigerant :
1. Sometimes, the refrigerant, after condensation process 2-3, is cooled
below the saturation temperature (T) before expansion by throttling.
Such a process is called undercooling or subcooling of the refrigerant
and is generally done along the liquid line as shown in Fig. 1.3.5(a)
and (b).
Sat. vapour
Sat. liquid line
line Cond.
Temperature 2
Pressure 3/ Cond.
3' 2'
3 2
2
Under
cooling Comp. Under
IComp.
cooling
Exp 1
4 4' Evap. 4
Evap.
-Entropy Enthalpy
(a) T-s diagram. (6) p-h diagram.
Fig. 1.3.5.
2 The ultimate effect of the undercooling is to increase the value of
coefficient of performance under the same set of conditions.
3 In this case, the refrigerating effect or heat absorbed or
extracted,
R, = h, -h, =h, - hg (:: h, =h)
and work done, W= h,-h,
COP = Refrigerating effect
Work done
Que 1.4. AR-12 vapour compression refrigeration system has a

condensing temperature of 50 C. The refrigeration capacity is
7 tonnes. The liquid leaving the condenser is saturated liquid and
compression is isentropic. Determine :
Refrigerant flow rate.
ii. Power required to run the compressor.
ii. COP of the system.
Take enthalpy at the end of isentropiccompression =210 kJÍkg.
Take following properties of R-12
Temperature °C Enthalpy (k:Jkg)
Liquid Vapour
50 84.868 206.298
36.022 187.397
Answer
Given : hy =h, = 84.868 kJ/ kg, h, =187.397 kJ/kg, Q=7 tonne
h, = 210 kJ/kg, T, = 50°C
To Find: iRefrigerant flow rate.
i Power required to run the compressor.
ü COP of the system.
1. The cycle is shown on T-s diagram in Fig. 1.4.1.
3
Condensation
50 °C
Evaporation
1 0 °C
R,
Entropy
Fig. 14.1.
2 The refrigerant flow rate,
m = 210Q
(h, - h) x60
210 x7
(187.397-84.868) x60
HVACSystems 1-9A (ME-Sem-7)
= 0.238 kg/s
3. The power required to run the compressor
= m(h,-h,)
= 0.238 (210- 187.397)
= 5.38 kW
4 COP= g_h, -h, 187.397-84.868 = 4.54

W h,-h, 210-187.397
Que 1.5. A vapour compression refrigerator uses R-40 and
operates between temperature limits of- 10 and 4500C. At entry to
the compressor, the refrigerant is dry saturated and after
compression it acquires a temperature of 600C. Using properties
from the table, find the COP of the refrigerator.
Answer
[Note : The last zero of temperature consider as the sign of degree]

Given :T, =T, =- 10 °C =-10 + 273 = 263 K,
T, = T,= 45 °C =45 + 273 = 318 K, T,= 60 °C = 60 + 273 = 333 K
To Find : COP of the refrigerator.
2
2
333 2
(K)
Temperature
318 Pressure
4
263/
4
h,
hy
h,
Entropy Enthalpy
(a) T-s diagram (6) p-h diagram
Fig. 1.5.1.
1. The various values as head from p-h chart of R-40 are as follows :
hy = 45.4 kJ/kg, h, = 133 kJ/kg, h, =460.7 k.J/kg, h, =483.6 kJ/kg,
Sn = 0.183 kJ/kg-K, Sg =0.485 kJ/kg-K, s, =S, = 1.637 kJ/kg-K,
S, = 1.587 kJ/kg-K
2 We know that entropy at point 2,
$,= Sy +2.3 C, log
333
1.637 = 1.587 + 2.3 C,,log
318
= 1.587+ 2.3 C, x 0.02 = 1.587+ 0.046 C,
C = 1.09
3. Enthalpy at point 2,
h, = hy + C, x Degree of superheat
= hy +CT,-T;)
= 483.6+ 1.09(333 -318)
= 483.6 + 16.35
= 500 kJ/kg
4. COP of the refrigerator,
460.7-133
COP =
500 -460.7
= 8.34
PART-2
Effect of Superheating, Subcooling, Condenser

Pressure and Evaporator Pressure on COP.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.6. Show the effect of superheating and subcooling with

the help of p-h diagram.
Answer
A Effect of Superheating:
1 It may be seen from the Fig. 1.6.1, the effect of superheating
(process 2-2) is to inerease the refrigerating effect from (h, - h,) to
(h,-h,) but this increase in refrigerating effect is at the cost of increase
in amount of work (h, - h,) to (h, - h,) spent to attain the upper
pressure limit.
2. Since the increase in work is more as compared to increase in
refrigerating effect, therefore overall effect of the superheating is to
give a low value of COP.
HVACSystems 1-11A(ME-Sem-7)
p(Pressure)
P2 33'
P1t 2 2
h (Enthalpy)
Fig. 1.6.1. Effect of superheating.
B. Effect of Sub Cooling of Condensate:
1 From p-h diagram, Fig. 1.6.2, it is clear that refrigerating effect, R,
increases from (h, -h,) to (h,-h,) without any change in compressor
work, We
2. We know that, COP = Rg
We
p (Pressure)
4' 4
P2 3
P1
1' 1
h (Enthalpy)
Fig. 1.6.2. Effect of sub cooling of liquid.
3 The sub cooling results in increase of COP provided that no further
energy has to be spent to obtain the extra cold coolant required.
4 Sub cooling of condensate is generally used to improve the COP of the
cycle.
Que 1.7. Discuss the effect of variation of condenser and
evaporator pressure on COP.
Answer
A. Effect of Change in Suction Pressure (Evaporator Pressure) :
1 In actual practice, the suction pressure (or evaporator pressure)
decreases due to the frictional resistance of flow of the refrigerant.
1-12A (ME-Sem-7) Advanced Vapour Compression Cyeles
2 Let us consider a theoretical vapour compression cycle 1l-2-3-4' when
the suction pressure decreases fromp, to p, as shown on p-h diagram in
Fig. 1.7.1.
2 2'
Pa
Pressure
p. 4
hg=hy =h hhË hy hy
Enthalpy
Fig. 1.7.1. Effect of suction pressure.
3. It may be noted that the decrease in suction pressure:
Decreases the refrigerating efect from (h, -h) to (h,, -h,), and
Increases the work required for compression from (h, - h,) to
(h, -h,).
4 Since the COP of the system is the ratio of refrigerating effect to the
work done, therefore with the decrease in suction pressure, the net
effect is to decrease the COP of the refrigerating system for the same
amount of refrigerant flow.
B. Effect of Change of DeliveryPressure (Condenser Pressure):
1. In actual practice, the discharge pressure (or condenser pressure)
increases due to frictional resistance of flow of the refrigerant.
2 Let us consider a theoretical vapour compression cycle 1-2-3-4' when
the discharge pressure increases fromp,to p, as shown onp-h diagram
in Fig. 1.7.2.
3
Pi 2
4Pa 2
Pressure
hg=h, h =hË hË h, hy
-Enthalpy
Fig. 1.7.2. Efect of discharge pressure.
1-13 A (ME-Sem-7)
HVAC Systems
3 It may be noted that the increase in discharge pressure:

Decreases the refrigerating effect from (h, - h,) to (h, -h,), and
ii. Increases the work required for compression from (h, - h,) to
(h, -h).
4 From above, we see that the effect of increase in discharge pressure is
similar to the effect of decrease in suction pressure.
PART-3
Transeritical Cycle, Ejector Refrigeration Cycle,

Presentation of Cycle on p-h and T-s Chart.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.8. Write short note on transcritical cycle.
Answer
1. Atranscritical cycle is a closed thermodynamic cycle where the working
fluid goes through both subcritical and supercritical states
2 In transcritical systems, CO, is cooled but does not condense at the gas
cooler outlet, being above critical temperature.
3 Transcritical CO, booster systems are the most promising solutions for
using natural refrigerants in retail contexts, above all in climates that
are not too hot.
4 Advantages of transcritical cycle are :
It completely uses natural refrigerants (CO,), and
Higher efficiency.
5 Disadvantages of transcritical cycle are:
High pressures involved, and
Systems are normally more complex than traditional ones.
Que 1.9. Discuss in brief ejector refrigeration system with help
of diagram.
Answer
1. An ejector refrigeration system can be considered as a modification of a
conventional vapour compression cycle (VCC).
2. An ejector takes the place of a compressor to pressurize the
refrigerant
vapour flowing from an evaporator and discharge it toa condenser.
3. The conventional
ejector refrigeration cycle is shown in Fig. 1.9.1.
4. Working fluid is heated at a high pressure and
temperature in the
generator. High-pressure refrigerant vapour enters the nozzle. Working
fluid is then accelerated to a high velocity and entrains motive steam
from the evaporator, resulting in a cooling effect.
5. After that, mixed vapour steams are discharged from the nozzle to the
condenser where they are cooled down and condensed to liquid fluids.
6. A part of the liquid refrigerant returns to the evaporator
through an
expansion valve whereas the other part is pumped to the generator.
7. Ejector cooling technology can be used for air conditioning in trains and
large buildings.
Heat source
4
Gnrator
Pump Condenser loop

Ejector
Coptgn~er
Throttling
valve
Eragorgtor
4
Cooling effect
Fig. 1.9.1.
Que 1.10. Explain pressure enthalpy p-hchart.

Answer
1 The condition of the refrigerant in any thermodynamic state can be
represented as a point on thep-h chart.
2. The point on the p-h chart that represents the condition of the
refrigerant in any one particular thermodynamic state may be located if
any two properties of the refrigerant for that state are known, the other
properties of the refrigerant of that state can be determined directly
from the chart for studying the performance of the machines.
3. The chart is divided into three areas that are separated from the each
other by the saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines.
4 The region on the chart to the left of the saturated liquid line is called
the sub-cooled region.
5. The area to the right of the saturated vapour line is superheated region
in the form of a superheated vapour.
6. The section of the chart between the saturated liquid and saturated
vapour lines is the two phase region and represents the change in phase
of the refrigerant between liquid and vapour phases.
7. p-h chart gives directly the changes in enthalpy and pressure during a
process for thermodynamic analysis.
Critical point
TT
Critical pressure i
Superheated
vapour region
Sub-cooled Wet vapour
Pressure
liquid region region
iSuperheated
vapour line
V
Saturated
liquid line
Enthalpy
Constant volume
Constant temperature
Constant entropy
Fig. 1.10.1. Pressure enthalpy (p-h) chart.
Que 1.11. Explain the working of an actual vapour compression

cycle with the help of T-s diagrams.
Answer
1. The actual vapour compression cycle on T-s is diagram shown in
Fig. 1.11.1.
1-16 A (ME-Sem-7)
?6.....l
Apa 8
10 9
11
Pe
2
"Ps
TAps
Fig. 1.11.1. Actual vapour compression cycle (T-s

diagram).
2 The various processes are given below :
i. Process 1-2-3:
1. This process represents passage of refrigerant through the
evaporator, with 1-2 indicating gain of latent heat of vaporization
and 2-3, the gain of superheat before entrance to
ii. Process 3-4-5-6-7-8:
compressor.
1. The process represents the flow of refrigerant through the
compressor.
2 In Fig. 1.11.1, path 3-4 represents the throttling action that occurs
during passage through the suction valves.
3. Path 7-8 represents the throttling during passage through exhaust
valves.
4 Both of these actions are accompanied by an entropy
a slight drop in temperature.
increase and
5 Compression of the refrigerant occurs along path 5-6, which is
actually neither isentropic nor polytropic and the heat transfer
indicated by path 4-5 and 6-7 occurs essentially at constant pressure.
iüi. Process 8-9-10-11:
1. This process
represents the passage of refrigerant
condenser with 8-9 indicating removal of superheat, through the
9-10 for the
removal of latent heat and 10-11 for removal of heat of liquid or
sub-cooling.
iv. Process 11-1:
1. This process represents passage of the
refrigerant (i.e., an
irreversible adiabatic path) through the expansion valve, both
theoretically and practically.
1-17A (ME-Sem-7)
HVACSystems
PART-4
Refrigerants :Classification of Refrigerants, CFC, HFC, HCFC,

Secondary Refrigerant,
Azeotropic, Zeotropic, Natural refrigerant,
Changing Materials.
Anti-freeze solution, Phase
Questions-Answers
Answer Type Questions

Long Answer Type and Medium
system.
Que 1.12. Classify the refrigerants used in refrigeration
Answer
Refrigerant
Secondary refrigerant
Primary refrigerant
Halocarbon compounds
Water
Azeotropes Sodium chloride brine
Hydrocarbons Calcium chloride brine
Inorganiccompounds
Unsaturated organic compounds Ethylene glycol
refrigerant and its types.
Que 1.13. Discuss in brief about primary
Answer
refrigerantswhich directly take part in
A Primary Refrigerants:Thosecool the substance by the absorption of
the refrigeration system and
latent heat are called primary refrigerants.
chloride,
Example: Ammonia, Caron dioxide, Sulphurdioxide, Methyl
Freon group etc.
B. Types of Primary Refrigerants :
i. Halocarbon Compounds : They are obtained after replacing one or
with halogens
more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon ethane or methane
(chlorine, bromine or fluorine).
Example : R-11 (Trichloro-nonofluoromethane), R-12 (Dichlorodi
fluoromethane)
ii. Azeotropes: The refrigerants belonging to this group consist of mixtures
of different substances. These substances cannot be separated inte
1-18 A (ME-Sem-7) Advanced Vapour Compression Cycles
components by distillation. They possess fixed thermodynamic properties
and do not undergo any separation with changes in temperature and
pressure. An azeotrope behaves like a simple substance.
Example:R-500, R-502, etc.
iii. Hydrocarbons : Most of the refrigerants of this group are organic
compounds. Several hydrocarbons are used successfully in commercial
and industrial installations. Most of them possess satisfactory
thermodynamic properties but are highly inflammable.
Example :Methane, Ethane Butane, etc.
iv. Inorganic Refrigerants:The inorganic refrigerants were exclusively
used before the introduction of halo-carbon refrigerants. These
refrigerants are still in use due to their inherent thermodynamic and
physical properties.
Example :R-717 (Ammonia), R-729 (Air), etc.
V.
Unsaturated Organic Compounds : The refrigerants belonging to
this group possess ethylene or propylene as their constituents.
Example :R-1120 (Trichloroethylene), R-1130 (Dichloroethylene), etc.
Que 1.14. Write short note on following:
i. CFC, ii. HFC,
iii. HOFC, and iv. Zeotropic.
Answer
i. CFC:
1 CFC refers to the chemical composition of the refrigerant.
Chlorofluorocarbon indicates that the refrigerant is comprised of
Chlorine, Fluorine, and Carbon.
2. Common CFC refrigerants are: R-11, R-12, R-13, R-113, R-114, and R
115.
ii. HFC:
1 HFC refrigerant (hydrofluorocarbons) is the third generation of
fluorinated refrigerants.
2 Recognized as Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP) and Global
Potential (GWP), they represent a greener alternative to Warming
CFC and
HCF.
iii. HCFC:
1
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
used in the
(HCFCs) are chemical compounds commonly
foam, refrigeration, and air conditioning
the protective ozone layer and contribute to climatesectors that destroy
change.
2 It is essential to reduce and phase out the use of
practices. HCFCs in industry
HVACSystems 1-19 A (ME-Sem-7)
iv. Zeotropic:
1. Zeotropic refrigerant contains two or more components whose
equilibrium vapour phase and liquid phase compositions differ.
2. The temperature of a zeotropic refrigerant change as it evaporates or
condenses at constant pressure.
Que 1.15. Discuss in detail, the secondary refrigerants.

Answer
1. Those refrigerants which are first cooled with the help of the primary
refrigerants and are then employed for cooling purposes are known as
secondary refrigerant.
2 These refrigerants cool substances by absorption of their sensible heat.
3. There are several applications which forbid the direct use of a refrigerant
due to safety consideration.
4 As an example, the toxic refrigerants cannot be used for the
air conditioning ofresidential buildings.
5. Similarly the amount of refrigerant for the circulation in a big cold
storage would be so large that its cost may be comparable with the
refrigeration systems.
6. Under such circumstances the cheaper grade suitable cooling media
such as water, brine solution of sodiumchloride or calcium chloride etc.,
is selected to have indirect cooling.
Que 1.16. Define anti-freeze solution.
Answer
1 An anti-freeze is an additive which lowers the freezing point of water
based liquid and increases its boiling point. The most common anti
freeze used in refrigerator is ethylene glycol.
2 Anti-freeze solution is atype of aditive which is responsible for lowering
the freezing point of any type of fluid which is water-based.
3 Such solutions can be used in the engine coolant systems of different
types of vehicles or in the solar panel water heating systems too.
4 One major substance which is very commonly used as an anti-freeze
substance is the compound of ethylene glycol.
5. Itis specifically used in the coolant systems ofengines. It is also used for
several other systems like the compression of gas, air conditioning, and
ventilating systems.
1-20 A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 1.17. Explain in brief about phase
changing materials.
Answer
1. Phase changing materials (PCMs) are ideal products for thermal
management solutions. This is because they store and release thermal
energy during the process of melting and freezing (changing from one
phase to another).
2 When such a material freezes, it releases large amounts of
the form of latent heat of fusion, or energy of energy in
when the material is melted, an equal amount crystallization. Conversely,
of
from the immediate environment as it changes fromenergy is absorbed
solid to liquid.
3 This property of PCMs can be used inanumber of ways,such as
energy storage whereby heat or coolness can be stored from one thermal
or period in time, and used at a later date or process
different location.
4 PCMs are also very useful in providing thermal barriers or
for example in temperature controlled transport. insulation,
5 The simplest, cheapest, and most
effective phase change material is
water/ice. Unfortunately, the freezing temperature of water is fixed at
0°C(32°F), which makes it unsuitable for the majority of
applications.
energy storage
6 Therefore a number of different materials have been identified and
developed to offer products that freeze and melt like waterice, but at
temperatures from the cryogenic range to several hundred degrees
centigrade.
PART-5
Desired Properties of Refrigerants, Requirements for Refrigerant,
Classification based on Safety, Refrigerant Oils and Applications,
Properties and uses of Commonly used Refrigerant,
Greenhouse Effect, Global Warming, Future
Refrigerants Like Hydrofluoro-Olefines.
Questions-Answers
1-21A (ME-Sem-7)
HVACSystems
Que 1.18. What are the desirable properties of an ideal
refrigerant ?
Answer
The desirable properties of an ideal refrigerant are as follows :
1. Low boiling point,
2. Low specific heat of liquid,
3. Low specific volume of vapour,
4. Low cost,
5. High eritical temperature,
6. High latent heat of vapourisation,
7. Non-corrosive to metal,
8 Non-toxi,
9. High thermal conductivity,
10. Non-flammable, and
11. Easily available.
Que 1.19. Write designation system for refrigerant.

Answer
1 The refrigerants are internationally designated as R' followed by certain

number such as R-11, R-12, R-114 etc.
2 Arefrigerant followed by a two digit number indicates that a refrigerant
is derived from methane base while three digit number represents ethane
base. "The numbers assigned to hydrocarbon and halocarbon refrigerants
have a special meaning.
3 The first digit on the right is the number of fluorine (F) atoms in the
refrigerant.
4 The second digitfrom the right is one more than the number of hydrogen
(H) atoms present.
5. The third digit from the right is one less than the number of carbon (C)
atoms but when this digit is zero,it is omitted.
6. The general chemical formula for the refrigerant,either for methane or
ethane base, is given as C H,CI,F in which n +p +q=2 m+2
Where, m = Number of çarbon atoms,

n= Number of hydrogenatoms,
p=Number of chlorine atoms, and
q= Number of fluorine atoms.
1) (q).
7. The number of the refrigerant is given by R(m -1) (n +
refrigerant
Que 120. Classify refrigerant on basis of safety and
oils.
Answer
A On Basis of Safety Refrigerant :
1. Higher flammable,
2. Lower flammable, and
3. No flame propagation.
B. On Basis of RefrigerantsOils:
1 Immiscible,
2. Miscible, and
3 Partially miscible.
commnonly
Que 1.21. Write down the propertiesand uses of some
used refrigerants.
Answer
i. Air (R-729) :
a. Properties:
1 No cost involved, easily available.
2. Completely non-toxic.
3 Completely safe.
b. Uses : It is used in aireraft refrigeration.
ii. Ammonia (R-717):
a. Properties:
1. It is highly toxic, flammable, irritating and food destroying.
2 It has excellent thermal properties.
3. It has the highest refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant.
HVAC Systems 1-23 A (ME-Sem-7)
b. Uses:
1 It is widely used in large industrial and commercial reciprocating
compression systems where high toxicity is secondary.
2 It is widely used as the refrigerant in absorption systems.
ii. R-12 Dichlorodifluoromethane)or Freon-12 (CCI,,) :
a, Properties:
1 It is non-toxic, non-flammable, non-explosive and non-corrosive
therefore, it is most suitable refrigerant.
2 It is fully oil miscible therefore it simplifies the problem ofoil return.
3 It does not break even under the extreme operating conditions.
b. Uses:
1 It is suitable for high, medium and low temperature applications.
2 It is used for domestic applications.
iv. R-113 (Trichlorotrifluoroethane) or Freon-13 (CCI,FCCIF, or
C,Cl,F,) :
a. Properties:
1 It has a boiling point of 47.6 °C at atmospheric pressure.
2 It remains liquid at room temperatures and pressures and as such
it can be carried in sealed tins rather than cylinders.
b. Uses: It is used in commercial and industrial air-conditioning with
centrifugal compressor systems.
Que 1.22. Write short note on environment friendly refrigerants.
Answer
1. Ethane in very low temperature refrigeration and in non-mechanical
heat transfer.
2. Isobutane in retail food refrigeration (stand-alone commercial
refrigerators and freezers) and in vending machines.
3. Propane in household refrigerators, freezers, or combination
refrigerators and freezers, in vending machines and in room air
conditioning units.
4. The hydrocarbon blends R-441A in retail food refrigeration, in vending
machines and in room air conditioning units.
5. HFC-32 (difluoromethane) in room air conditioning units. HFC-32 has
one-third the global warming potential (GWP) of conventional
refrigerants currently used in room air conditioning units.
1-24 A (ME-Sem-7) Advanced Vapour Compression Cycles
Que 1.23. Discuss the effects of CFCrefrigerants on ozone layer

briefly.
Answer
1 The earth's ozone layer in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) is needed
for the absorption of harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. These rays
can cause skin cancer.
2. CFCshave been linked to the depletion of this ozone layer. They have
varying degrees of ozone depletion potential (0DP).
3. CFCs being stable have a long life in the lower atmosphere.
4 In spite of CFCs being heavier than N, and O,, they slowly migrate into
the upper atmosphere by molecular diffusion caused by partial pressure
difference.
5 It was hypothesized that the chlorine atoms from the molecule would be
split off by the action of sunlight, and the free chlorine will react with
ozone in the stratosphere, according tothe following reactions:
sunlight
CCI, F, CCIF, +CI
sunlight
0, + C1 ’ CI0 +0,
Thus, O, will be depleted to O,. The problem with CFC is that of chain
reaction.
6. Asingle atom of Cl released from CFC reacts taking out 100,000 .,

molecules. That is why even a small concentration of CFCalso becomes
important.
Que 1.24. Define future refrigerant hydrofluoro-olefins.
Answer
Hydrofluoro-ole fins (HFOs) are unsaturated organic compounds
composed of hydrogen, fluorine and carbon.
2 These organofluorine compounds are of interest as refrigerants. Unlike
traditional hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
which are saturated, HFOs are olefins, otherwise known as alkenes.
3. HFO refrigerants are categorized as having zero ozone depletion

potential (ODP) and low global warming potential (GWP) and so offer a
more environment friendlyalternative to CFCs and HFCs.
4 Many refrigerants in the HFO class are inherently stable
and inert, non toxic, and non-flammable or mildly flammable.chemically
5. Many HFOs have the proper freezing and boiling points to be useful for
refrigeration at common temperatures. They also show promise as
blowing agents, i.e., in production of insulation foams, food industry,
construction materials, and others.
2 UNIT
Review of
Psychrometry
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Review of Psychrometry : .2-2A to 2-7A
Psychrometric Properties
Part-2 : Psychrometric Chart and 2-7A to 2-14A
Psychrometric Processes
Part-3 : Psychrometric Process in Air .2-14A to 2-16A

Conditioning Equipment :
By-Pass Factor, Cooling
and Dehumidifying Coils,
Apparatus Dew Point
(ADP), Heating Coils
Part-4 : Air Washer, Use of .2-16A to 2-20A

Hygroscopic Solution in Air
Washer, Adiabatic Dehumidifier
Water Injection, Stream Injection
Part-5 : Summer Air Conditioning,.*............2-21A to 2-22A
Winter Air Conditioning
Part-6: Sensible Heat Factor (SHF), .2-22A to 2-23A

Grand Sensible Heat Factor
(GSHF)
Part-7 : Choice of Inside Design .2-23A to 2-30A

Condition : Cold Storage
Industrial Air Conditioning,
Comfort Air Conditioning,
Human Comfort, Outside
Design Condition
2-1A (ME-Sem-7)
2-2A (ME-Sem-7) Review of Psychrometry
PART-1
Review of Psychrometry :Psychrometric Properties.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. What do you mean by psychrometry ? Briefly

describe
the terms related with psychrometry.
Answer
A Psychrometry: It is that branch of engineering science which deals
with the study of moist air i.e., dry air mixed with water vapour or
humidity.
B. Psychrometric Terms:
Dry Air:The dry air is a mixture of anumber of gases such as nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, argon etc.
2. Moist Air: It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The amount of
water vapour present in the air depends upon the absolute pressure and
temperature of the mixture.
3. Saturated Air: It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour, when the
air has diffused the maximum amount of water vapour into it.
4. Degree of Saturation: It is the ratio ofactual mass of water vapour in
a unit mass of dry air to the mass of water vapour in the
same mass of
dry air when it is saturated at the same temperature.
5. Humidity or Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio: It is the mass
of water vapour present in 1 kgof dry air and is generally expressed in
terms of grams of water per kg of dry air.
6 Absolute Humidity:It is the mass of water vapour present in 1m° of
dry air and is generally expressed in terms of gram per cubic meter of
dry air.
7. Relative Humidity (RH):It is the ratio of actual mass of water
in a given volume of moist air to the mass of water vapour in thevapour
same
volume of saturated air at the same temperature and pressure.
& Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT): It is the temperature of airrecorded
by an ordinary thermometer, when it is not affected by the moisture
present in the air. It is generally denoted by T,or Ta:
9. Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) :It is the temperature of air recorded
by athermometer, when its bulb is surrounded by awet cloth exposed to
the air. It is generally denoted by T,, or T,h
10. Wet Bulb Depression : It is the difference between dry bulb and wet
bulb temperature at any point i.e., (T% -T,). It indicates relative
humidity of the air.
11. Dew Point Temperature (DPT) :Itis the temperature of airrecorded
by a thermometer, when the moisture (water vapour) present in it
begins to condense.
12. Dew Point Depression : It is the difference between the dry bulb and
dew point temperature i.e.,(T%-Ti).
13. Sensible Heat : It is the heat that changes the temperature of a
substance when added or removed from it.
Que 2.2. What do you mean by Dalton's law of partial pressures ?

Also give the psychrometric relations.
Answer
A. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures :
1. It states that the total pressure exerted by air and water vapour mixture
isequal to the barometric pressure.
2. Barometric pressure of the mixture is given as,
P,= P, tP,
Where, P, = Partial pressure of dry air, and
P,= Partial pressure of water vapour.
B. Psychrometric Relations:
i. Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio or Moisture Content :
1. It is defined as the ratio of mass of watervapour tothe mass of dry air in
a given volume of the air vapour mixture.
2 Let p,, ,, T,, m, and R, = Pressure, volume, absolute temperature,
mass and gas constant respectively for dry air, and
,T,m, and R, =Corresponding values for the water vapour.
3. Assuming that the dry air and water vapour behave as perfect gases, we
have,
P, = mR, (For dry air) ...2.2. 1)
P,,= m, K,, (For water vapour) ...(2.2.2)
4. Also,
and T, = T, = T,
Where T,= Dry bulb temperature.
5. From eg. (2.2.1) and eg. (2.2.2), we get
24A (ME-Sem-7) Review of Psychrometry
Humidity ratio, W= mRaP ...(2.2.3)

ma
6. On substituting, R, =0.287 kJ/kg-K for dry air and R,,=0.461 kJkg-K for
water vapour in eq. (2.2.3), we get
W= 0.287 x P 0.622 ×Pu
0.461 xPa Pa
= 0.622 x Pu
P-P,
("P, =P +P,)
7. For saturated air, the humidity ratio or maximum specific humidity is,
W,= Wa =0.622 x P
max
P,-P,
Where, P,= Partial pressure of air corresponding to
saturation temperature.
ii. Degree of Saturation or Percentage Humidity :
1. It is defined as the ratio of actual specific humidity to the specific humidity
of saturated air at the same dry bulb temperature and it is denoted by .
2. Degree of saturation,
0.622p,
W
P» PoPo P»-P,
W, 0.622p, P,\Pb - Pu
PPs
P, Pb
Ps 1-Po
Pb
iii. Relative Humidity :
1 It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour (m,)in a given volume of
moist air to the mass of water vapour (m,) in the same volume of
saturated air at the same temperature and pressure. It is denoted by .
Relative humidity (4) =
m,
2. Let p,, V, I, m, and R, = Pressure, volume, absolute temperature,
mass and gas constant respectively for water vapour in actual conditions,
and
P, U,, I m, and R. = Corresponding values for water vapour in

saturated air.
3. We know that for water vapour in actual conditions,
P, V, = m,R,1 ...(.2.2.4)
4. Similarly, for water vapour in sat
P,U, =mR,T, ...(2.2.5)
5. According to the definitions,
U, = V, arnd T, = T,
Also R, = R,= 0.461 kJ/kg-K
6. From eq. (2.2.4) and eq. (2.2.5),
Relative humidity, (6)= m

m. Ps
7. The relative humidity may also be obtained as,
Degree of saturation
1-Ps 1-P
P P
1 P
1-¢x P Ps
Pb Pb
=
1-(1-)P
Pb
iv. Pressure of Water Vapour : According to Carrier's equation, the
partial pressure of water vapour,
P,= Pw (p, -PT-T,)
1544-1.44T,
Where, P, = Saturation pressure corresponding to wet bulb
temperature (from steam tables),
P;= Barometric pressure,
T, = Dry bulb temperature, and
= Wet bulb temperature.
v. Vapour Density or Absolute Humidity :
1 The vapour density or absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour
present in 1m² of dry air.
2 Let, V, =Volume of water vapour in mkg of dry air at its partial
pressure,
U, = Volume of dry air in m³kg of dry air at its partial pressure,
P, = Density of water vapour in kg/m corresponding to its
partial pressure and dry bulb temperature T, and
P, = Density of dry air in kg/m of dry air.
3. We know that mass of water vapour is,
..(2.2.6)
4 Mass of dry air,
m, = U, Pa ...(2.2.7)
5. Dividing eq. (2.2.6) by eq. (2.2.7), we get
V,Pa
W= P
Pa
Or
P, = Wp, ..(2.2.8)
6. We know that, P,U,= ma ...(2.2.9)
Since Va = Vp, and m, = 1 kg, therefore substituting these values in
eq. (2.2.9), we get
1
P, X T,
Pa
Or
Pa
Pa =
R,T,
7. Substituting the value of p, in eq. (2.2.8), we get
P, = Wp,W(P,-P,) (" P, =P, +P,)
R,T,
Where, P.= Pressure of air in kN/m²,
R, = Gas constant for air = 0.287 kJ/kg-K, and
T, = Dry bulb temperature in K.
Que 2.3. 10 grams of moisture per kg of dry air is removed from
atmospheric air when it is passed through an air conditioning
system and its temperature becomes 20 °C. The atmospheric
conditions are 40 °C DBT and 60 % RH.
Find the following for the conditioned air :
i. Relative humidity,
ii. Wet bulb temperature,
ii. Dew point temperature,
iv. Enthalpy change for the air, and
Assume standard atmospheric pressure.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Given:T, =40 °C, ¢=60 %, T2 =20 °C, W, = 10 grams =0.01 kg

To Find : i. Relative humidity.
Wet bulb temperature.
üi. Dew point temperature.
iv. Enthalpy change for the air.
1. Corresponding to 40 °C, from steam table, p..=0.0737 bar
2. Relative humidity,
= P
0.60 = P,
0.0737
P, = 0.044 bar
3. Specific humidity,
W= 0.622p,
P.-P,
0.622x0.044 (: p,= 1.0132 bar)
W=
1.0132-0.044
W= 0.0282 Kg Kg of dry air
4. Specific humidity after remaining 0.010 kg of water vapour,
W, =0.0282 0.010 = 0.0182 Kg Kg of dry air
and partial pressure of water vapour, p, , at this condition,
W, = 0.622p,
P.-P,
0.0182 = 0.622p,
1.0132-p,
0.01844-0.0182 p, = 0.622p,
,0.01844 = 0.6402 p,
P, = 0.0288 bar
4. Corresponding to 20 °C from steam table, P, =0.0234 bar
0.0288
5 Relative humidity, =P =1.23 or 123 %
Pus 0.0234
6 Corresponding to 0.0288 bar, from steam table
Dew point temperature, T,, = 24 °C
7. From psychrometric chart,
Wet bulb temperatuie, Twp = 17 °C
8. Enthalpy of air, h, = 1.005 T, + W(2500 + 1.88 T)
= 1.005 x 24 + 0.0182 (2500 + 1.88 x 24)
= 70.44 kJ/kg
and enthalpy of air corresponding to 40 °C DBT and 60 %RH,
h, = 112.5 kJ/kg
9. So, enthalpy change =h, -h, = 112.5 70.44 = 42 kJ/kg
PART-2
Psychrometric Chart and Psychrometric Processes.

Questions-Answers
Que 2.4.What is the importance of psychrometric chart? What

are the different psychrometric processes ? Describe them in brief.
Answer
A Importance of Psychrometric Chart :
1 All data essential for the complete thermodynamic and psychrometric
analysis of air conditioning processes can be summarised in a
psychromnetric chart.
2. It gives various thermodynamic properties of moist air.
3. It is very useful for finding out the properties of air and eliminates lot
of calculations.
B. Psychrometric Processes : The processes which affect the
psychrometric properties of air are called psychrometric processes.
The important psychrometric processes are given below:
i Sensible Heating:
1 The heating of air without any change in its specific humidity is known
as sensible heating.
2 Thus the heating can be achieved by passing the air over heating coil
like electric resistance heating coils or steam coils.
3 The heat absorbed by the air during sensible heat is obtained from the
psychrometric chart by the enthalpy difference(h, -h)and the specifie
humidity during the sensible heating remains constant i.e.,W, =W
E n t h a l p y
Sp.
humidity
'2
W=W2
Ta2 Tas
Dry bulb temperature
Fig. 2.4.1. Sensible heating.
ii. Sensible Cooling :
1. The cooling of air without any change in its specific humidity is known
as sensible cooling.
2 Thus the sensible cooling can be achieved by passing the air over
cooling coil like evaporating coil of the refrigeration cycle or secondary
brine coil.
3. The heat rejected by air during sensible cooling is obtained from the
psychrometric chart by the enthalpy difference (h, - h,).
Enthalpy
h Sp.
humidity
W, =W2

Fig. 2.4.2. Sensible cooling.
iüi. Humidification and Dehumidification:
1 The addition of moisture to the air without change in its dry bulb
temperature is known as humidification and removal of moisture from
the air without change in its dry bulb temperature is known as
dehumidification.
2 The humidification and dehumidification processes are shown in
Fig. 2.4.3(a) and (b) respectively.
Enthalpy
Enthalpy
Sp.
humidity Sp.
humidity
W2 W
1
W 2 W
Dry bulb temperature Dry bulb temperature

(a) Humidification (6) Dehumidification
Fig. 2.4.3.
3 In humidification, the relative humidity increases from , to , and
specific humidity also increases from W, to W,. Similarly in
dehumidification, the relative humidity decreases from , to , and
specific humidity also decreases from W, to W.
2-10 A (ME-Sem-7) Review of Psychrometry
4. The change in enthalpy in humidification is shown by the intercept
(hy-h,) on the psychrometric chart bywhich dry bulb temperature of
air during the humidification remains constant, therefore its sensible
heat also remains constant.
5. So, the change in enthalpy per kg of dry air due to the increased
moisture content equal to (W,-W,) kg per kg of dry air is considered to
cause a latent heat transfer (LH).
iv. Heating and Humidification :
1. When air is passed through a humidifier having spray water
temperature higher than the dry bulb temperature of the entering air,
the unsaturated air will reach the condition of saturation and thus the
air becomes hot.
2, The heat of vaporization of water is absorbed from the spray water
itself and hence it gets cooled. In this way, the air becomes heated and
humidified.
3. In this process,the dry bulb temperature as well as specific humidity of
air increases and the final relative humidity of the air can be lower or
higher than that of the entering air.
Enthalpy
Sp.
humidity
W.

Fig. 2.4.4, Heating and humidification.
V. Cooling and Humidification :
Insulated chamber
Air in Spray Air out

nozzles
T=7u1
Make-up water +Pump

(a) Psychrometric process
humidity
Sp.
Tw13
3 2 2" W3
W
W
Ta8 =T1 T2 Ta1

(6) Psychrometric chart
Fig. 2.4.5. Cooling with adiabatic humidification.
1 When the air is passed through an insulated chamber having sprays of
water maintained at a temperature (T) higher than the dew point
temperature of entering air (Ta), but lower than its dry bulb
temperature of entering air or equal to the wet bulb temperature of the
entering air (T,,), then air is said to be cooled and humidifed as shown
in Fig. 2.4.5a) and (b).
2 Since no heat is supplied or rejected from the spray water as the same
water is recirculated again and again, therefore, a condition of adiabatic
saturation will be reached in this case.
3. The temperature of spray water will reach the thermodynamic wet bulb
temperature of the air entering the spray water.
4. In an ideal case (ie., when the humidifying efficiency of the spray
chamber is 100 %), the final condition of the air will be at point 3 but in
actual practice, perfect humidification is never achieved.
5. Therefore, the final condition of air at outlet is represented by point 2on
the line1-3.
vi. Cooling and Dehumidification :
1. Inthis process,the dry bulb temperature as well as the specific humidity
of air decreases and the final relative humidity of the air is generally
higher than that of the entering air.
2. The dehumidification of air is only possible when the effective surface
temperature of the cooling coil is less than the dew point temperatures
of the air entering the coil (i.e. Tol).
3. The effective surface temperature of the coil is known as apparatus dew
point (ADP).
4. The process of cooling and dehumidification is shown in Fig. 2.4.6.
Enth
humnidity
W
ADP Sp.
4
Ta2 Ta1
Fig. 2.4.6. Cooling and dehumidification.
5. Let, T = Dry bulb temperature of air entering the coil,
Tdol = Dew point temperature of the entering air, and
=Ta3
T = Efective surface temperature or ADP of the coil.
6. Under ideal conditions, the dry bulb temperature of the air leaving the
cooling coil (ie., T,) should be equal to the surface temperature of the
cooling coil (ie., AP), which is never possible due to inefficiency of the
cooling coil.
7. Thus, the resulting condition of air coming out of the coil is shown by a
point 2 on the line 1-4.
8. The total heat removed from the air during the cooling and
dehumidification process is,
Q= h,-h, =(h,-h) +(h, -hy)
= LH+ SH
Where, LH=h,-h, = Latent heat removed, and
SH= h,-h, =Sensible heat removed.
9. We know that sensible heat factor,
Sensible heat SH
SHF =
Total heat LH +SH h-h
vii. Heating and Dehumidification :
1 In this process, the air is passed over chemicals which have an affinity
for moisture.
2 As the air comes in contact with these chemicals, the moisture gets
condensed out of the air and gives up its latent heat.
3. Due to the condensation, the specific humidity decreases and the heat
of condensation supplies sensible heat for heating the air and thus
increasing its dry bulb temperature.
4 The effectiveness or efficiency of the dehumidifier is given as,
Actual increase in DBT T:a -T1
Ideal increase in DBT
T2-Ta
Actual
absorption Sp.
humidity
dehumidification
W,
3 W3
Adiabatic
dehumidification I2 -W

Fig. 2.4.7. Heating and dehumidification.
viii. Mixing of Air Stream:
1. When two quantities of air having
different enthalpies and different
specific humidities are mixed, the final condition of the air mixture
depends upon the masses involved and on the enthalpy and specific
humidity of each of the constituent masses which enter the mixture.
2. The two air streams 1 and 2 mixing adiabatically is shown in
Fig. 2.3.8.
E n t h a l p y .
h
My h, W1 humidity
W,
W, Sp.
i
3> mhg, Ws
W2
Fig. 2.4.8. Adiabatic mixing of two air streams.
Let m, = Mass of air entering at 1,
h, = Enthalpy of air entering at 1,
W, = Specific humidity of air entering at 1,
m,, h, and W,= Corresponding values of air entering at 2, and
m, hg and W, = Corresponding values of the mixture leaving at 3.
4 Assuming no loss of enthalpy and specific humidity during the air mixing
process, we have
i For the mass balance,
m, + m= m,
i. For the energy balance,
m,h, t m,hy= m,h,
ili. For the mass balance of water vapour,
m,W, +m,W,= m,W,
PART-3
Psychrometric Process in Air Conditioning Equipment :

By-Pass Factor, Cooling and Dehumidyfying Coils,
Apparatus Dew Point (ADP), Heating Coils.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.5. Derive an expression for by-pass factor.
Answer
1. By-pass factor is defined as the ratio of the difference between the
mean surface temperature of the coil and leaving air temperature to the
difference between the mean surface temperature and the entering air
temperature.
Let 1 kg of air at temperature T, is passed over the coil having its
temperature T, as shown in Fig. 2.5.1.
Insulated apparatus
1kg Air in x kg Ta3 444 1kg

(T¡) Air
(1-x)
kg
- Coil
out
(Ta2)
T43
Ta2
Tai
Fig. 2.5.1. By-pass factor.
3. When the air passes over a coil, some of it (say x kg) just by-passes
unaffected while the remaining (1 -x) kg comes in direct contact with
the coil. This by-pass process of air is measured in terms of a by-pass
factor.
4. The by-pass factor depends upon the following factors :
The pitch of the cooling coil fins.
The number of rows in a coil in the direction offlow.
iüi. The velocity of flow of air.
5. On balancing the enthalpies, we get
x Com Ta +(1-*) Cpm Tds = 1x Cpm Ta2
Where, pm = Specific humid heat.
Or
x(Td8-1)=13-Td2
-Ta2
Tas-Ta1
Where x is called by-pass factor of the coil and is generally written as
BPF.
7. By-pass factor for heating coil is given by
BPF = Tas -Ta2
Tas-Ta1
8. Similarly, by-pass factor for cooling coil is given by
BPF = Ta2-Ta3
T-Tas
Que 2.6. Write short note on
Cooling,
iü.. Dehumidifying coils,
iüi. Apparatus dew point,
; iv. Heating coils.
-16 A (ME-Sem-7) Review of Psychrometry
Answer
Cooling :It is a general phenomenon where a medium exchanges its
heat with another colder medium either when both are separated by a
barrier or when both mixes, resulting in lower temperature.
ii. Dehumidifying Coil :
1 Any air conditioning coil carrying either chilled water or refrigerant or
chilled brine can result in a surface temperature lower than the dew
point of surrounding air.
2 When surrounding air passes over this surface, it loses its moisture
content. Also, the air gets cooled to a favorable temperature which could
be used for air conditioning.
iüi. Apparatus Dew Point (ADP):It is the effective surface temperature
of thecooling coi. It is also the temperature at afixed flow rate at which
both sensible and latent heat gains are removed at the required rates. It
is alsooften called as the 'Coil Temperature'.
iv. Heating Coils : It may be used with hot water or steam as the heat
transfer media whilst frost pre-heaters usually have electric heating
elements.
PART-4
Air Washer, Use of Hygroscopic Solution in Air

Washer, Adiabetic Dehumidifer, Water Injection, Stream Injection.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.7. With the help of a neat sketch explain about an air
washer.
Answer
In air washer system, the outsideor entering air is cooled below its dew
point temperature so that it loses moisture by condensation.
2. The moisture removal is also accomplished when the spray water is
chilled water and its temperature is lower than the dew point temperature
of the entering air.
3. Since the air leaving the air washer has
its dry bulb temperature much
below the desired temperature in the room, therefore a heating coil is
placed after the air washer.
4 The air washer humidification may be
three ways : accomplished in the following
i By usingre-circulated spray water without prior heating of air.
iü. By pre-heating the air and then washing it with
re-circulated water.
i. By using heated spray water.
Eliminator Spray| nozzles

plated
tatttAir in |4444| Air out
Make up
water
Heating or cooling coil

Fig. 2.7.1. Air washer.
Que 2.8. Discuss use of hygroscopic solution in air washer.

Answer
1. Hygroscopic solutions, such as brines, glycols, etc. exert lower vapour
pressures as compared to pure water at the same temperature as
shown in Fig. 2.8.1.
A
B
D
Pud T
E S
Pve
T>
Fig. 2.8.1. Dehumidification of air by Hygroscopic solution.

2 The saturations curve Aon the pyschrometric chart represents the
vapour pressure of water P.c:
3 Representative vapour-pressure curves for certain hygroscopic
solutions are shown as B, C, D, E etc.
4. The vapour pressuresp,iR Puc, etc., of the solutions are lower than the
vapour pressurep,, of water at the same temperature T.
5. Now, if a hygroscopic solution such as Cat temperature t is circulated
is an air washer instead of water at the same temperature, the condition
line will be L-C° instead of L-A for the initial state 1 of air.
6. Thus a spray of the hygroscopic solution is more effective for
dehumidification.
7. The solution after absorbing moisture however, becomes dilute and
has so be regenerated again by heating and driving off the water
vapour.
Que 2.9. |Defineadiabatie humidifier with help of diagram.

Answer
1. It is based on the principle of adsorption, viz, capillary action.
2. The vapour which is condensed at the surface of the adsorbent is drawn
into capillaries, thereby reducing the vapour pressure at the surface
causing apressure gradient, and hence a mass transfer from the passing
air stream to the absorbing surface.
3 As the capillaries get filled with water, the attraction decreases and the
rate of dehumidification falls off.
4 Thermodynamically, an adsorption process is the reverse of the adiabatic
saturation process as shown in Fig. 2.9.1.
Adsorption
dehumidification
Constant 2
WBT line
Fig. 2.9.1. Adsorption dehumidification process.

2-19 A (ME-Sem-7)
HVACSystems
5. As the air passes over the adsorbing surface, water vapour flows to the
surface through the air film condenses and releases its latent beat which
raises the adsorbent and air temperatures.
6 Thus the heat of condensation supplies the sensible heat for the heating
of air.
Que 2.10. Explain water injection and steam injection process

with help of diagram.
Answer
i. Water Injection :
1. Let liquid water at temperature t, be injected and sprayed into a flowing
air stream with the help of nozzles.
2 The condition of the air will change dpending on the amount of water
that evaporates.
3. The enthalpy of vaporization will come from the enthalpy of the air.
4. Let us consider that the amount of water that has been evaporated, m,
is exactly equal to the amount injected.
5. The process line is as shown in Fig. 2.10.1. The air flow rate is m,.
6. The mass and enthalpy balances give,
...(2.10.1)
m,
h, = h +
= h, +(o, - 0, )h, ...(2.10.2)

Where k,is the enthalpy of liquid water.
7. It is evident from eg. (2.10.1)that if water is injected at the wet bulb
temperature of the air, the sigma heat function is constant and the
process follows the constant WBT line 1-2b.
8 Otherwise, the process follows line 1-2a or 1-2c, depending on
temperature of water is lower or higher than the WBT air.
Curent WBT 20
2a
T1 T
Fig. 2.10.1. Process with liquid water injection.

ii. Steam Injection :
1. Steam is normally injected into fresh outdoor air which is then supplied
for the conditioning of textile mills where high humidities have to be
maintained.
2 The process can be analysed by considering mass and energy balances.
3. Ifm, is the mass of steamsupplied with enthalpy h, and m, the mass of
dry air, then the leaving air state is given by
m,
...2.10.3)
h, = h + ...(2.10.4)
Ta
4. The process is shown in Fig. 2.10.2. The dry bulb temperature of air
changes very little during the process.
hg
2
Steam
injection
(0
T, T,
Fig. 2.10.2. Process with steam injection.
PART-5
Summer Air Conditioning,
Winter Air Conditioning.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.11.|Discuss summer air conditioning along with their

advantages.
Answer
A Summer Air Conditioning:
1. In the Summer Air Conditioning system, the air is cooled, which is
commonly joined by Dehumidification.
2. In Summer, the outside condition is hot. Therefore, there will be a
nonstop transfer of sensible heat as well as moisture from outside to the
building.
3. It is the sort of cooling, where the air is cooled and by and large
dehumidified. The air provided to the adapted space is cooled and
dehumidified. Sensible and latent heat loss from outside is an essential
aspect ofit.
B. Advantages Of Summer Air Conditioning :
1. Hot air is converted into cold air.
2. Used in places where the product has to keep at a cool temperature for
a long time.
3 Suited for places where there is summer throughout.
4. Maintain the cool temperature of the building in the summer season.
Que 2.12. Discuss winter air conditioning along with their

advantages.
Answer
A. Winter Air Conditioning :
1 In the winter air conditioning system, the air is warmed, which is
commonly joined by humidification.
2
In winter the outside condition is cold and dry. Therefore, there will be
nonstop transfer of sensible heat as well as moisture from within the
structure to the outside.
3
In this way, the air provided to the adapted space is heated and humified.
4. It is finished by the necessity of sensible and latent heat loss from inside.
Sun oriented and inward warmth picks up somewhat balance the heat
loss from the adapted space.
B. Advantages of Winter Air Conditioning:
1. Cold air is converted into hot air.
2 Used in places where the product has to kept at a warm temperature for
a long time.
3. Suited for places where there is winter throughout.
4. Maintain the warm temperature of the building in the season.
PART-6
Sensible Heat Factor (SHF), Grand Sensible Heat Factor (GSHF).
Questions-Answers
Que 2.13. Write short note on :

i. Sensible heat factor, and
ii. Grand sensible heat factor.
Answer
i Sensible Heat Factor (SHF):
1. It is defined as the ratio of the sensible heat to the total heat.
2. Mathematically, it is given as,
SH SH
SHF =
TH SH+ LH
Where, SH = Sensible heat,
LH= Latent heat,and
TH= Total heat.
ii. Grand Sensible Heat Factor (GSHF) :
1. Itis defined as the ratio of the total sensible heat to the grand total heat
which the cooling coil or the conditioning apparatus is required to handle.
2. Mathematically, it is given as,

TSH TSH
GSHF =
GTH TSH + TLH
Where, TSH= Total sensible heat,
TLH= Total latent heat, and
GTH= Grand total heat.
PART-7
Choice of lnside Design Condition :Cold Storage, Industrial

Air Conditioning, Comfort Air Conditioning,
Human Comfort, Outside Design Condition.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.14. Describe a cold storage in brief. What factors are

considered in design of acold storage?
Answer
A. Cold Storage :
1 The cold storage is serving mankind by preventing the spoilage of
perishable commodities and making them available in of-season and in
places where they are not harvested.
2 The cold storage is of two types :
Short term storage, and
Long term storage.
B. Working of Cold Storage :
1. The compressor compresses vaporized refrigerant (ammonia)
to high
pressure and high temperature to raise the boiling point of refrigerant.
2 The condenser then liquefies the vaporized refrigerant to high pressure
and high temperature state. Thus, heat rejection takes place.
The condensate from the condenser is collected in reservoir and allow
3
to pass through expansion valve where its pressure and temperature
decrease from earlier state.
4. The low pressure liquid refrigerant then allowed pass through the
refrigerated space whereby the heat of hot air of the refrigerated
space starts evaporating the liquid refrigerant hence, heat in the
atmosphere decreases and cooling is produced.
5 Blowers circulate the chilled air to stored fruits and vegetables.
Water in A Water out Refrigerated space

Condenser 4 4 4 4 4 4
Chilled Air
Reservoir Blowers
Compressor Expansion valve
Hot air
Fig. 2.14.1.
C. Factors Considered in Design of aCold Storage:

1. Storage temperature,
2. Relative humidity and air motion,
3. Mixed storage,
4. Condition of products at the time of entering storage, and
5. Product chilling.
Que 2.15. Discuss inside design condition of industrial air

conditioning.
Answer
1. There are various categories of applications requiring varying standards
of inside design conditions. One category comprises those where
constancy of temperature is the prime consideration, such as metrology
laboratories, precision-machine shops, computer centres, etc. In these a
variation of 10 to 20 %in relative humidity will not have much effect.
2. The other category may comprise paper and textile mills where the
relative humidity is to be maintained constant at a high value, e.g., of
the order of, say, 70 to 75 % in a textile mill. The temperature
requirements of such spaces are not severe.
3. There is still another category of
applications where strict control of
both temperature and relative humidity is required. These pertain to
chemical and biological process industries.
Que 2.16. Explain in brief, the
factors affecting comfort air
conditioning.
Answer
Factors affecting comfort air conditioning are as follows :
i Temperature of Air:
1 In air conditioning, the control of
temperature means the maintenance
of any desired temperature within an enclosed space
even though the
temperature of the outside air is above or below the desired room
temperature.
2. This is accomplished either by the addition or removal of heat from the
enclosed space as and when demanded.
i. Humidity of Air:
1. The control of humidity of air
means the decreasing or increasing of
moisture contents of air during summer or winter respectively in order
to produce comfortable and healthy conditions.
2. The control of humidity is not only
necessary for human comfort but it
also increases the efficiency of the workers.
iii. Purity of Air:
1. It is an important factor for the comfort of a
human body. It has been
noticed that people do not feel comfortable when breathing
contaminated air, even if it is within acceptable temperature and
humidity ranges.
2 It is thus obvious that proper filtration, cleaning and
is essential to keep it free from dust and other
purification of air
impurities.
iv. Motion of Air:
1. The motion or circulation of air is
another important factor which
should be controlled, in order to keep constant temperature throughout
the conditioned space.
It is, therefore, necessary that there should be equal distribution of air
throughout the space to be air conditioned.
Que 2.17. What is the basic difference between the comfort air
conditioning and industrial air conditioning ?
Answer
S. No. Comfort Air Conditioning Industrial Air Conditioning
1 In this, the dry bulb| In this, the dry bulb temperature
temperature of air and relative and relative humidity is kept
humidity is brought to the constant for proper functioning
required condition for human of machines and electronic
health, efficiency and comfort. items.
2 It has a sensible heat ratio of It has been designed with a

0.60 to 0.90. sensible heat ratio of 0.85 to 1.0.
3. It requires 15 watts per square It requires 75 watts per square

foot. foot.
feet
4 It supplies 350 to 400 cubic feet It supplies 500 to 900 cubic
per minute per cooling ton.
per minute per cooling ton.
It has no humidity control. The optimal relative humidity
5.
range is 45-50 %.
6. It uses residential type air It has higher quality internal

filters that are 10% efficient. filter chambers that are
20-30 % efficient.
7. It is used in homes, offices, It is used in textile mills, paper

shops, etc. mills, tool rooms, etc.
suitable sketch.
Que 2.18. Discuss in brief about comfort chart with
conditioning ?
What is the use of comfort chart for comfort air
Answer
A. Comfort Chart :
temperature is shown
1 The practical application of the concept ofeffective
by the comfort chart.
of people
2. This chart is the result of research made on different kinds
subjected to wide range of environmental temperature, relative humidity
and air movement by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration
and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).
velocity) to situations
3 It is applicable to reasonably still air (5 to 8 m/min air
where the occupants are seated at rest or doing light work and to spaces
the air
whose enclosing surfaces are at a mean temperature equal to
dry bulb temperature.
4. In the comfort chart, the dry bulb temperature is taken as abscissa and
the wet bulb temperature as ordinates.
5. The relative humidity lines are replotted from the psychrometric chart.
6. The statistically prepared graphs corresponding to summer and winter
season are also superimposed.
B. Use of Comfort Chart for Comfort Air Conditioning:The comfort
chart gives the following information :
1 0% 0
32 9 %
0
S u m m
s e
e a
rs o n
30
28 28
26 R H
i n
. e s
°C
24
temperature,
22
peol omfor a0
0
20
%
20
bulb
Wet 18 1 0
%
16
16
Comfort fe ling -26
peoplecomtortat
ZOne
14 14
F24.
12 10
12 20
A30
10
A0
50 of
60
o
A90
Ui00
6
Winte
ser ason
14
12
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
Dry bulb temperature, °C

Fig. 2.18.1. Comfort chart for still air (air
velocities from 5 to 8 m/min).
1 The most desirable relative humidity lies
between 30-70 %. Ifthe relative
humidity is below 30 %, the skin surface becomes
relative humidity is above 70 %, there is a tendencytoofordrya and if the
sticky sensation to develop. clammy or
2. During summer, the chart indicates that a maximum of98 %people felt
comfortable for an effective temperature of 21.6 °C and during winter,
the chart indicates that an efective temperature of 20°Cwas desired by
97.7 %people.
3. All the men and women above 40 years of age prefer 0.5 °C higher
effective temperature than the person below 40 years of age.
4 The comfort conditions for persons at work vary with the rate of work
and the amount of clothing worn.
Que 2.19. Explain the factors which affect human comfort.
Answer
Factors affecting human comfort are as follows:
1, Effective Temperature: The numerical value ofeffective temperature
is made equal to the temperature of still saturated air, which produces
the same sensation of warmth or coolness as produced under the given
conditions.
2 Heat Production and Regulation in Human Body :The human
body acts like a heat engine which gets its energy from the combustion
of food within the body. The process of combustion produces heat and
energy due to oxidation. The rate at which the body produces heat is
termed as metabolic rate.
3. Heat and Moisture Loss from the Human Body:The heat is given
off from the human body as either sensible or latent heat or both. In
order to design any air conditioning system for spaces which human
bodies are tooccupy, it is necessary to know the rates at which these
two forms of heat are given off under different conditions of air
temperature and body activity.
4. Moisture Content of Air : The moisture content of outside air during
winter is generally low and it is above the average during summer
because the capacity of the air to carry moisture is dependent upon its
dry bulb temperature.
5. Quality of Air : The air in an occupied space at all times should be free
from toxic, unhealthful or disagreeable fumes such as CO,. It should
always be free from dust and odour.
6 Air Motion : The air motion which includes the distribution of air is
very important to maintain uniform temperature in the conditioned
space. No air conditioning system is satisfactory unless the air handled
isproperly circulated and distributed.
7. Cold or Hot Surfaces: The cold or hot objects in a conditioned space

may cause discomfort to the occupants. A single glass of large area
when exposed to the outdoor air during winter will produce discomfort
tothe occupant of a room by absorbing heat from them by radiation.
Air Stratification :It order to achieve comfortable conditions in the
occupied space, the air conditioning system must be designed to reduce
the air stratification to a minimum.
Que 2.20. Write short note on effective temperature.

Answer
1 Effective temperature is defined as that index which correlates the
combined effects of air temperature, relative humidity and air velocity
on the human body.
2. The effective temperature corresponds to the dry bulb temperature of
the saturated air at which agiven percentage of people feel comfortable.
3. For example : At 21 °C(RH=100 %and air movement 8m/min) most
people feel comfortable.
4. The effective temperature chart is shown in Fig. 4.15.1. It shows how
the human comfort remains invariant with temperature of confinement
when the air motion and humidity are changed.
5. It also shows the variation in effective temperature with different air
velocities.
Velocity of air (m/min)

200
50 100
50 10 20 30
Constant effective
temperature line
0 10 20 30
Fig. 2.20,.1. Effective temperature chart.
Que 2.21. What are the outside design conditions for air
conditioning ?
Answer
1. For the outside design conditions in summer, it is recommended to use
the mean monthly maximum dry bulbtemperature and its corresponding
wet bulb temperature.
2. The wet bulb temperatures fall usually at the time of maximum dry bulb
temperature.
3. However, it is essential to take the value of the wet bulb temperature in
this manner, and not the value of the maximum wet bulb temperature
as that would lead to an erroneously high cooling load. This is because
the relative humidity is the lowest when the dry bulb temperature is the
highest, and vice versa
4. As for winter, the concept of degree-days is used. It is found that the fuel
consumption in winter for the heating of buildings varies almost directly
as the difference between the outside temperature and a reasonably
comfortable inside temperature of 18.5°C (65°F).
5. Thus the fuel consumption would be practically nil if the outside
temperature is 18.5°C.
6. On the other hand, the fuel consumption, would double if the outside
temperature dropped from 13.5 to 8.5°C. A degree-day is obtained for
every degree when the mean outside temperature is below 18.5°C during
the 24- hour period.
7. Accordingly, if in a given locality the outside temperature average of 30
days is 10°C, the degree days for the period would be (18.5- 10(30) =
255.
3
UNIT
Heat Pump and
Ventilation
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Heat Pump : Introduction, .3-2A to 3-8A
Package Heat Pump with
Reversible Cycle, Decentralized
Heat Pump, Heat Pump with
a Double Bundle Condenser,
Industrial Heat Pump
Part-2 : Ventilation : Introduction, 3-8A to 3-9A

Purpose of Ventilation
Part-3 : Natural Ventilation, 3-9A to 3-10A

Mechanical Ventilation
Part-4: Tunnels Ventilation,....... .3-10A to 3-12A

Mine Ventilation Natural
Ventilation, and
Mechanical Ventilation
Part-5 : Air Conditioning System .3-12A to 3-15A

Introduction
Part-6: Unitary System, Central 3-15A to 3-18A

Air Conditioning System,
Directs Expansion System
Part-7: AllWater Systemn, All Air .3-18A to 3-22A
System, Air Water System
3-1 A (ME-Sem-7)
3-2A (ME-Sem-7) Heat Pump and Ventilation
PART-1
Heat Pump : Introduction, Package Heat Pump with Reversible
Cycle, Decentralized Heat Pump, Heat Pump with a Double Bundle
Condenser, Industrial Heat Pump.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. What is heat reservoir ?Also discuss about heat pump.
Answer
A. Heat Reservoir:
1. Aheat reservoir is a body with a very large heat capacity to which, and
from which, heat can be transferred without any change in its
temperature.
2 Such a body at high temperature is referred to as a high temperature
reservoir.
If heat is transferred from it, then it is considered as a heat source.
3.
4
Abody at low temperature is referred to as a low temperature reservoir.
5.
If heat is transferred to it,then it is considered as a heat sink.
6 By definition, a heat reservoir is a closed system with no
work
interaction.
7. The environment constitutes the largest heat reservoir operating without
and
any change in temperature usually employed as a heat sink,
sometimes as a heat source.
8. The mediums in the environment which are used as such are generally
the following:
Atmosphere air,
Ocean, river or well water, and
ii. Ground.
is its
9. The characteristic which remains constant for a heat reservoir
temperature. Hence, a heat reservoir is characterised by its temperature.
B. Heat Pump:
1. A heat pump is a reversed heat engine. It receives heat from a low
temperature reservoir (source) and rejects it to a high temperature
reservoir (sink).
2 This transfer of heat from a low temperature body to a high
one is essentially a non-spontaneous process. And that callstemperature
for the help
of an external work which is supplied to the heat
pump (Fig. 3.1.1).
High temperature sink
(T) T,>T,
W +Heat pump
Low temperature source

T,
Fig. 3.1.1. A schematic diagram of a heat pump.
3. A heat pump extracts Q, amount of heat from the low
temperature
(T,) source and delivers , amount of heat to the high temperature (T,)
sink by consuming Wamount of external work.
4. Now, the first law of efficiency of a heat pump cycle is usually called the
coefficient of performance.
5. It is the desired effect upon the external work supplied for
that desired effect,
obtaining
COP = Desired effect

..3.1.1)
Work input
6. Now, the desired effect for a heat pump is to supply heat Q, tothe hot
body. Therefore, qo
COPHp =M
W ...(3.1.2)
Again, (the first law of thermodynamics)

cycle cyde
- , =W
Hence, eg. (3.1.2) becomes
COP,HP = ...(3.1.3)
Reversible heat pump work in either direction to provide heating to the

internal space.
Que 3.2.Explain working of Carnot and reversed Carnot Cycle.
34A (ME-Sem-7) Heat Pump and Ventilation
Answer
A. Carnot Cycle Operations (Processes) :
1 The system inside the cylinder has an initial volume and initial pressure
as indicated by the state point 'l' onp-V diagram.
2. Let Q, be the heat supplied to the system at T, (source temperature).
Since the heat supply (addition) takes place at constant temperature,
the system volume increases at constant temperature thus performing
an isothermal expansion.
a. Process 1-2 :(Isothermal Heat Addition Process):
1 During this process, the working substance (air) expands
isothermally from state '1' to state 2.
2 At point 2' heat supply is cut off and cylinder head is brought in
contact with an insulator or adiabatic cover.
b. Process 2-3 : (Reversible Adiabatic Expansion):
1 Adiabaticcover is brought in contact with the cylinder head and during
this process; the working substance is allowed to expand adiabatically so
that its temperature becomes T,.
C. Process 3-4 : (Reversible Isothermal Heat Rejection):
1. Adiabatic cover is removed and heat sink is brought in contact with the
cylinder head.
2 The working substance is compressed isothermally thus transferring
heat Q, to the heat sink at T,.
d. Process 4-1: (Reversible AdiabaticCompression) :
1 The adiabatic cover is again brought in contact with the cylinder
head and the system is compressed adiabatically.
Heat source T; Q, Cylinder with insulated walls
Piston
Insulator or |iair!
adiabatic cover
Heat sink T,
Fig. 3.2.1. Operation is Carnot cycle.

Isothermal heat addition
1 2
1. Isothermal heat addition
Adiabatic
Adiabatic 2
compression Adiabatic
compression Adiabatic Isothermal expansion
expansion heat rejection
3 3
Isothermal heat rejection
A B
Fig. 3.2.2. Carnot cycle on p-U and T-s diagram.

2. During this process the temperature of system is raised to T, from T,
and it is brought to its initial state.
B. Reversed Carnot Cycle:
1 Areversed Carnot cycle, using air as working medium (or
is shown on p-v and T-s diagrams in Fig. 3.2.3(a) and 3.2.3(6)refrigerant)
respectively.
3
Pa
Pressure. Temperature 3 2
|T, =T,
P2
4
4
14
P-----}1 I3' I2
Volume Entropy
(a) p-v diagram. (6) T-s diagram.
Fig. 3.2.3. Reversed Carnot cycle.
2 At point 1, letp,, V,,T, be the pressure, volume and temperature of air
respectively.
3. The four processes of the cycle are as follows :
IsentropicCompression Process :
1. The air is compressed isentropically as shown by the curve 1-2 on
and T-s iagrams. p-u
2. During this process, the pressure of air increases fromp, top, specific
volume decreases from v, to v, and temperature increases from T,to
3. We know that during isentropic compression, no heat is
rejected by the air. absorbed or
b. Isothermal Heat Rejection Process :
1 The air is now compressed isothermally (i.e., at
T, = T)as shown by the curve 2-3 on p-v and T-s constant temperature,
diagrams.
During this process, the pressure of air increases from p, top, and
specific volume decreases fromu, to Ug.
3 We know that the heat rejected by the air during
per kg of air, isothermal compression
4R=42-3= Area233-2'
= T,8,- 8j)=Ts,-8)
C
Isentropic Expansion Process :
1 The air is now expanded
3-4 on p-V and T-s diagrams. isentropically as shown by the curve
2. The pressure of air decreases from p, to p,, specific volume increases

from v, toU, and the temperature decreases from T, toT,
3. We know that during isentropic expansion, no heat is absorbed or rejected
by the air.
d. Isothermal Heat Addition Process:
1. The air is now expanded isothermally (i.e., at constant temperature,
T,=T)as shown by the curve 4-1 on p-vand T-s diagrams.
2. The pressure of air decreases fromp, to p,, and specific volume increases
from v, to Vj
3. We know that the heat absorbed by the air (or heat extracted from the
cold body) during isothermal expansion per kg of air,
A =94-1= Area 4-1-2-3'
=T,8, -s)=T{$, - 8,)=T{8, -8,)
4. We know that work done during the cycle per kg of air
Wp = Heat rejected-Heat absorbed
= 9R-9A = 92-3-94-1
- T,6,-S)-T{8, - S,) =(1,-T}s, -8,)
5. Coefficient of performance of the refrigeration system working on
reversed Carnot cycle,
Heat absorbed 4-1
(COPR Work done 9R -9A 42-3-94-1
T,(s, - 8,) T
(T, - TXS, - S,) T, -T,
6. Though the reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient between the
fixed temperature limits, yet no refrigerator has been made using this
cycle.
This is due to the reason that the isentropic processes of the cycle
require high speed while the isothermal processes require an extremely
low speed.
8 This variation in speed of air is not practicable.
Que 3.3. Amachine working on a Carnot cycle operates between

305 K and 360 K. Determine the COP when it is operated as :
A refrigerating machine;
i. A heat pump.
Answer
Given :T, = 260 K, T, = 305 K

To Find: i. COP of a refrigerating machine, and
ii. COP of a heat pump.
1. COP of a refrigerating machine,
T 260
(COP) = =5.78
T,-T 305 260
2. COP of a heat pump,
T 305
(COP), = T,-T 305 260
=6.78
Que 3.4. A Carnot refrigeration cycle absorbs heat at 270 K and

rejects it at 300K.
i. Calculate the coefficient of performance of this refrigeration
cycle.
ii. If the cycle is absorbing 1130 kJ/min at 270 K, how many kJ of
work is required per second ?
Answer
Given : T, =270 K, T, =300 K, Q,=1130 kJ/min

1 Coefficient of performance of Carnot refrigeration cycle.
270
(COP)R = =9
T, -T 300270
2. Heat absorbed at 270 K,
Q, = 1130 kJ/min 1130

= 18.83 kJ/s
60
3. We know that (C0P), =

W,
18.83
9=
WR
W, = 2.1kJ/s
Que 3.5. Write short note on following :
i. Decentralized heat pump.
ii. Double bundle condenser type heat pump.
ii. Industrial heat pump.
Answer
Decentralized Heat Pump:
1 These are stand alone automated units designed to provide heating or
cooling to a specific room or zone within a structure
2 Decentralized heating systems allow individual control of the
temperature in different areas of a building as needed.
3. This ensures that heating costs are kept to a minimum. These systems
are often very practical in the context of large commercial spaces. It also
allows for easier individual control of separate spaces.
iü. Double Bundle Condenser Type Heat Pump :
1 In order to reduce diesel oil consumption, a double bundle condenser
type heat pump, generating both heating and cooling energy, is installed
intothe thermal supply system in serviced apartments.
2 The heat pump also supplies cooling energy for air conditioning in the
hotel to reduce the electricity consumption.
3. The heat pump is capable of high temperature heating (more than
60°C), and its efficiency combining heating and cooling is expected to be
400-500 %.
iii. Industrial Heat Pumps:
1 Industrial heat pumps are a class of active heat-recovery equipment
that allows the temperature of a waste-heat stream to be increased to a
higher, more useful temperature.
2 Consequently, heat pumps can facilitate energy savings when
conventional passive-heat recovery is not possible The economics of an
installation depends on how the heat pump is applied in the process.
3. Identification of feasible installation alternatives for the heat pump is
therefore of crucial importance. Consideration of fundamental criteria
taking into account both heat pump and process characteristics, are
useful.
4. The most common application of industrial heat pump is dehumidification
drying of lumber. In this application, warm,humid exhaust air froma
lumber-drying kiln is the heat source for a closed- cycle mechanical heat
pump that delivers heat tothe incoming air.
PART-2
Ventilation : Introduction, Purposeof Ventilation.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.6. Define ventilation. What is the purpose of ventilation ?

Answer
A Ventilation : Ventilation is the replacement of indoor air with fresh
outdoor air in order to dilute and displace the air pollutants (substances
that are harmful to humans) inside a building.
B. Purpose of Ventilation :
i. To Provide Oxygen : The oxygen concentration is 21% by volume in
atmospheric air. It should not be allowed to fall below 15% under any
circumstances.
i. To Remove Carbon Dioxide :The CO, concentrationinatmospheric
air is 0.03% by volume. It should not be allowed to rise above 5% under
any circumstance. For CO, dilution, a minimum fresh air flow of
0.2 cmm per sedentary adult is recommended.
iii. To Remove Odours : 0.42 cmm of fresh air per person is required to
remove body odours. The actual air requirement depends on room size
and level of activity.
iv. To Remove Heat and Humidity : Removal of body heat and moisture
addition by ventilation is the controlling factor.
V. To Dilute Toxicity: This is required when toxic and hazardous fumes/
particles are being generated in the space.
PART-3
Natural Ventilation, Mechanical Ventilation.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.7. Discuss in brief natural ventilation.
Answer
1. Natural ventilation can generally provide a high ventilation rate more
economically, due to the use of natural forces and large openings.
2. Natural ventilation can be more energy efficient, particularly if heating
is not required.
3. Well-designed natural ventilation could be used to access higher levels
of daylight.
4. Advantage of natural ventilation is its ability to provide avery high air
change rate at low cost, with a very simple system. Although the air
change rate can vary significantly, buildings with modern natural
ventilation systems can achieve very high air-change rates by natural
forces, which can greatly exceed minimum ventlation requirements.
Que 3.8. Define mechanical ventilation. What are its types ?
Answer
A. Mechanical Ventilation :
1. Mechanical ventilation systems are considered to be reliable in delivering
the designed flow rate, regardless of the impacts of variable wind and
ambient temperature. As mechanical ventilation can be integrated easily
into air-conditioning, the indoor air temperature and humidity can also
be controlled.
2. Filtration systems can be installed in mechanical ventilation so that
harmful microorganisms, particulates, gases, odours and vapours can
be removed.
3. The airflow path in mechanical ventilation systems can be controlled,
for instance allowing the air to flow from areas where there is a source
towards the areas free of susceptible individuals.
4. Mechanical ventilation can work everywhere when electricity is available.
B. Types of Mechanical Ventilation :
1. There are three types of mechanical ventilation systems:
i Exhaust-only, supply-only, and
:ii. Balanced.
2. Each system uses a combination of fans, ducting, dampers and controls.
PART-4
Tunnels Ventilation, Mine Ventilation Natural Ventilation and

Mechanical Ventilation.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.9. Define tunnel ventilation. Explain in brief its types.
Answer
A. Tunnel Ventilation : It is system when exhaust fans are located at
one end of the house and two large openings are installed at the opposite
end.
B. Types of Tunnel
follows :
Ventilation: Types of tunnel ventilation are as
i.
Longitudinal Ventilation :
1. Longitudinal ventilation is by far very common. It introduces in' and
removes air from' tunnel at one or more points. A
shown in Fig. 3.9.1. typical layout is
2. Fig. 3.9.1(a) shows system with jet
combination.
8
Fig. 3.9.1(b)shows a module with oneinjection
of air at one point, while
jet injection and one exhaust fan
D
Fan
AJet.
Pollutants
level
(a)With one jet fan, no exhaust fan
Ethaust Supply
fan fan
Jet
Pollutants
level
(b) With one jet fan, no exhaust fan

Fig. 3.9.1. Longitudinal ventilation.
ii. Transverse :
1 In transverse ventilation, air flows in a direction transverse to the
movement of vehicles. Transverse ventilation requires supply and
exhaust air fans and ducts as shown in Fig. 3.9.2.
2 Such arrangement is used in long tunnels. This system takes care of the
emergency ventilation requirement as wel. During a fire the exhaust
fans in the system start working at their maximum capacities.
3-12 A (ME-Sem-7) Heat Pump and Ventilation
Exhaust
fan Exhaust air duct
Pollutants -Supply air duct

level
Fig. 3.9.2. Transverse ventilation.
Que 3.10. Discuss in brief mine ventilation.

Answer
1 Mine ventilation is required to supply oxygen to underground facilities,
toremove dangerous substances like hydrocarbon methane (CH,), radon,
strata gases, dust, blasting fumes, diesel emission, etc., and also to remove
heat, and help control humidity.
2 Use of ventilation is limited by the wet bulb temperature which should
not excegd the prescribed range which is considered satisfactory between
25.5 to 29°C.
3 Accordingly, ventilation can be done to a depth of 2500 m at the mnost.
Below this depth, air temperatures in the intake shaft reach very high
values, and air conditioning becomes absolutely necessary.
4 Stope in the mine is a production site where ore is actually mined.
Actual coling load is calculated at the average stope temperature, which
is lower than the acceptable temperature for ventilation.
5 Heat enters the mines from wall rocks. Other loads are from electric
motors, lights, substation losses, calorific value of diesel burnt, and
occupancy.
6 Another important source of heat entering mine is due to adiabatic
compression of air descending the shaft.
PART-5
Air Conditioning System : Introduction.
Questions-Answers

Que 3.11. Define air-conditioning system. Explain its various

elements.
Answer
A. Air-Conditioning System: It is defined as an assembly of different
parts of the system used to produce a specified condition of air within a
required space of building.
B. Various Elements ofAir-Conditioning System: The basic
of air-conditioning system are :
elements
i. Fans:For moving air.
ii. Filters :For cleaning air, either fresh, recirculated or both.
iüi. Refrigerating Plant :Connected to heat exchange surface, such as
finned coils or chilled water sprays.
iv. Means for Warming:The air, such as hot water or steam heated coils
or electrical elements.
vi. Means for Humidification or Dehumidification.
vi. Control System : Toregulate automaticallythe amount of cooling or
warming.
Que 3.12. Explain various steps of an air conditioning plant. What
is the function of each component ?
Answer
A. Air Conditioning Cycle : An air conditioning cycle comprises the
following steps :
Supply duct Supply outlet
Heating or
cooling coil (Fan)
Air-conditioned
Secondary space
filter
(Electrostatic
or fabric type)
Self cleaning
filter
Return duct return outlet
Fig. 3.12.1. Air conditioning cycle.
the openings in
1. The fan forces air into duct-work which is connected to terminals.
outlets or
the room. These openings are commonly called
2. The duct-work directs the air to the room through
the outlets.
as required. Dust
3 The air enters the room and either heats or cools
carried along with it.
particles from the room enter the air stream and are
4 Air then flows from the room through a second
outlet (sometimes called
duct-work, where dust particles
the return outlet) and enters the return
are removed by a filter.
upon the
5 After the air is cleaned, it is either heated or cooled depending
passed over the
condition in the room. If cool air is required, the air is
through
surface of a cooling coil; if warm air required, the air is passed
a combustion chamber or over the surface of a heating coil.
6. Finally the air flows back to the fan,and the cycle is completed.
Functions :
B. Main Parts of Air Conditioning Plant and their
the room.
1 Fan:The primary function of afan is to move air to and from
fan
2. Supply Duct:The function of asupply duct is to direct the air from
short as
as
to the room. In order that air may flow freely it should be
possible and have minimum number of turns.
3. Supply Outlets: The function of supply outlets is to distribute the air
evenly in a room.
4 Space: It is very important to have an enclosed space (i.e., room) since
ifit does not exist it would be impossible tocomplete the air cycle since
conditioned air from supply outlets would flow into the atmosphere.
5.
Return Outlets : These are the openings in the room surface. They
return
are employed to allow room air to enter the return duct (i.e.,
outlets allow air to pass from the room). They are actually located at
opposite extreme of a wall or room from the supply outlet.
6 Filters: Afilter is primarily used to clean the air by removing dust and
dirt particles. They are usually located at some point in the return air
duct. They are made of any materials from spun glass to composite
plastic. Other types operate on electrostatic principle.
7. Cooling Coil and Heating Coil or Combustion Chamber: The
cooling coil and heating coil or combustion chamber can be located either
ahead or after the fan, but should always be located after the filter. A
filter ahead of the coil is necessary to prevent the excessive dirt, dust
and dirt particles from covering the coil surface.
8 Summer Operation : The air-conditioning cycle cools the air during
summer operation. Return air from the room passes over the surface of
cooling coil, and the air cooled to the required temperature. If there is
too much moisture present, it is removed automatically as the air is
cooled by the coil.
9. Winter Operation:The air conditioning cycle adds heat to the air
during winter operation. This is achieved by passing the return air from
the room over the surface of a heating coil, etc.
PART-6
Unitary System, Central Air Conditioning System, Directs
Expansion System.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.13. Discuss in brief unitary systems. Mention its advantages

also.
Answer
A Unitary :
1 Unitary systems are packaged units in which all the equipments and
controls, for fulfilling the requirements of air-conditioning, are assembled
in a single casing with decorative covering. The components are factory
assembled, tested and balanced.
2 They can be directly installed in or near the vicinity to be air-conditioned.
The only utility required is a source of electricity, and for water-cooled
units,a supply of cooling water.
3 Various factory assembled units available are:
Attic Fans : An attic or exhaust fan isa cooling unit without any heat
transfer element such as a cooling coil.
ii. Remnote Units :A system in which air handling unit is separated from
the condensing unit is called a remote system.
ii. Self Contained Units: In aself contained unit the condensing unit
and other functional elements (such as coils and fans) are encased in
the same cabinet.
iv. Room Air-conditioners: Fig.3.13.1 shows a unit air-conditioner for
mounting in a window or wall bracket.
V. Unit Air-coolers: Aunit air-cooler is a special application of remote
units. It primarily reduces the temperature in insulated and sealed
storage rooms.
4444 Cooled air

discharge
Fan
Air filter
Direct
expansion Return air
intake
cooling coil
Fresh air
Drip tray
intake
if required
Condenser
Access
Cooling water panel
inlet
Compressor
Fig. 3.13.1. Unit air-conditioner.
B. Advantages of Unitary System :

1 There is saving in the installation and assembly labour charges.
2 Zoning and duct-work eliminated.
3 Only those rooms which need cooling will have their units
running,
sake of
whereas the central plant will have to run all the timne for the
only a few rooms.
room
4 The specific feature of a unitary system is that there is individual
temperature control.
Que 3.14. Explain central system along with their advantages

and disadvantages.
Answer
A. Central System :
1. This type of system is suitable for air-conditioning large space such as
theatres, cinemas, restaurants, exhibition halls, or big factory spaces
where no sub-division exists.
2. The central systems are generally employed for the loads above 25
tonnes of refrigeration and 2500m³/min of conditioning air.
3 Acentral system serves differing rooms, requires individual

control of
each room. The condenser, compressor, dampers, heating, cooling and
humidifying coils and fan are located at one place say basement.
4. The conditioned air is carried to the different rooms by means of supply
ducts and returned back to the control plant through return ducts. Part
of the supply air to the rooms may be exhausted outdoors.
5. Outdoor air enters from an intake which should be situated on that side
of the building least exposed tosolar heat. If should not be close to the
ground or todust collected roof.
6. The air after passing through damper passes through filters. The filters
may be of a mechanical cleaned type, replaceable-cell type or may be
electrostatic.
7. The cleaned air then passes to the conditioning equipment in the following
order : Temperature (or preheater) coil, cooling coil, humidifier (air
washer), heating coils and finally fan.
Temperature and From conditioned

To space to be humidity controls space
conditioned
Eliminator
To
Air
atmosphere
Reheating washer
coil |Chilled water cooling Recirculated
Fan
dehumidifying air
coil
Air damper
Www
Fresh air
Tempering coil Self cleaning

Secondary filter air filter
(electrostatic or)
fabric type
Fig. 3.14.1. Central system.
B. Advantages of Central System :

1. Low investment cost as compared to total cost of separate unit.
2. Better accessibility for maintenance.
3 The running cost is less per unit of refrigeration.
C. Disadvantages of Central System :
1 It results in large size ducts which are costly and occupy large space.
Que 3.15. Discuss in brief about direct expansion system.

Answer
1 A direct expansion system enables the most compactly designed
refrigerant system.
2 A direct expansion system eliminates the use of a secondary coolant
loop and uses the refrigerant to directly cool the desired payload via a
cold plate. The cold plate can be customized to generate a very high heat
flux, operating at temperatures well below ambient.
3 In the cold plate of a direct expansion system, the refrigerant undergoes
an isothermal phase change, which offers extremely tight temperature
control across the cold plate.
4. Adirect expansion system consists of the basic 4 components ofa vapour
compression refrigeration system: a compressor, a condenser, an
expansion valve, and an evaporator.
5. In a DX system, the evaporator absorbs heat directly from the payload.
Because no secondary coolant is required, minimal parts are needed in
the system. No fans are required to circulate the cool air and no pump is
required to circulate the coolant.
6 These additional components add complexity and inefficiency. A
secondary coolant (air or liquid) dictates additional thermal resistance
and they add heat to the system which reduces the net cooling capacity.
PART-7
AllWater System, All Air System, Air Water System.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.16. Write short note on all water systems.

Answer
1. In all water systems the fluid used in the thermal distribution system is
water, i.e., water transports energy between the conditioned space and
the air conditioning plant.
2. When cooling is required in the conditioned space then cold water is
circulated between the conditioned space and the plant, while hot water
is circulated through the distribution system when heating is required.
3 Since only water is transported to the conditioned space, provision must
be there for supplying required amount of treated, outdoor air to the
conditioned space for ventilation purposes.
4. Depending upon the number of pipes used, the all water systems can be
classified into a 2-pipe system or a 4-pipe system.
Que 3.17. Mention advantages, disadvantages and applications
of all water systems.
Answer
A Advantages of All Water Systems :
1 The thermal distribution system requires very less space compared to
all air systems. Thus there is no penalty in terms of conditioned floor
space. Also the plant size will be small due to the absence of large supply
air fans.
2 Individual room control is possible, and at the same time the system
offers all the benefits of a large central system.
3 It can be used for new as well existing buildings (retrofitting).
4 Simultaneous cooling and heating is possible with 4-pipe systems.
B. Disadvantages of All Water Systems:
1 Requires higher maintenance compared to all air systems, particularly
in the conditioned space.
2 Draining of condensate water can be messy and may also create health
problems if water stagnates in the drain tray.
3 Control ofhumidity, particularly during summer is difficult using chilled
water control valves.
C. Applications of allWater Systems: All water systems using fan coil
units are most suitable in buildings requiring individual room control,
such as hotels, apartment buildings and office buildings.
Que 3.18. What are you understand by all air system ?
Answer
1. In an all air system air is used as the media that transports energy from
the conditioned space to the A/C plant.
2. In these systems air is processed in the A/C plant and this processed air
is then conveyed to the conditioned space through insulated ducts using
blowers and fans.
3. This air extracts (or supplies in case of winter) the required amount of.
sensible and latent heat from the conditioned space.
4. The return air from the conditioned space is conveyed back to the plant,
where it again undergoes the required processing thus completing the
cycle. No additional processing of air is required in the conditioned space.
5. All air systems can be further classified into :
i. Single duct systems, or
Dual duct systems
6
The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating using the
same duct, but not both heating and cooling simultaneously.
7 The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and heating
simultaneously.
Que 3.19. Mention advantages, disadvantages and application of
all air systems.
Answer
A. Advantages of AllAir Systems:
1 All air systems offer the greatest potential for energy conservation by
utilizing the outdoor air effectively.
2. By using high-quality controls it is possible to maintain the temperature
and relative humidity of the conditioned space within +0.15°C (DBT)
and + 0.5%, respectively.
3 Building pressurization can be achieved easily.
4 The complete air conditioning plant including the supply and return air
fans can be located away from the conditioned space. Due to this it is
possible to use a wide variety of air filters and avoid noise in the conditioned
space.
B. Disadvantages of All Air Systems :
1. They occupy more space and thus reduce the available floor space in the
buildings.
2. Retrofitting may not always be possible due to the space requirement.
3. Balancing of air in large and particularly with variable air volume
systems could be difficult.
C. Applications of all air systems : All air systems can be used in both
comfort as well as industrial air conditioning applications. They are
especially suited to buildings that require individual control of multiple
zones, such as office buildings, classrooms, laboratories, hospitals, hotels,
ships etc.
Que 3.20. Describe air-water system.
Answer
1. In air-water systems both air and water are used for providing required
conditions in the conditioned space.
2 The air and water are cooled or heated in a central plant. The air supplied
to the conditioned space from the central plant is called as primary air,
while the water supplied from the plant is called as secondary water.
3. The complete system consists of a central plant for cooling or heating of
water and air, ducting system with fans for conveying air, water pipelines
and pumps for conveying water and a roomn terminal.
4 The room terminal may be in the form of a fan coil unit, an induction
unit or a radiation panel.
Que 3.21. Give advantages, disadvantages and applications of

air-water systems.
Answer
A Advantages of Air-water Systems:
1 Individual zone control is possible in an economic manner using room
thermostats, which control either the secondary water flow rate or the
secondary air (in fan coil units) or both.
2. It is possible toprovide simultaneous cooling and heating using primary
air and secondary water.
3. Space requirement is reduced, as the amount of primary supplied is less
than that of an all air systems.
4. Positive ventilation can be ensured under all conditions.
B. Disadvantages of Air-water Systems:
1. Operation and control are complicated due to the need for handling and
controlling both primary air and secondary water.
2. In general these systems are limited to perimeter zones.
3. The secondary water coils in the conditioned space can become dirty if
the quality of filters used in the room units is not good.
4. Since a constant amount of primary air is supplied to conditioned space,
and room control is only through the control of room cooling/heating
coils, shuting down the supply of primary air to unoccupied spaces is
not possible.
C. Applications of Air-water Systems :

1 These systems are mainly used in exterior buildings with large sensible
loads and where close control of humidity in the conditioned space is not
required.
2 These systems are thus suitable for office buildings, hospitals, schools,
hotels, apartments etc.
4
UNT
Load Caleulation
CONTENTS
Part-l : Load Calculation : Solar Radiation, ....4-2A to 4 4A
Heat Gain through Glass :
Calculation of Solar Heat Gain
through Ordinary Glass Tables
Part-2 Shading Devices : Effect of Shading . . 44A to 4-6A
Devices, Fabric Heat Gain
Part-3 : Over All Heat Transfer 4-6A to 4-11A
Coefficient, Periodic Heat
Transfer through Walls and Roofs,
Empirical Methods to Calculate
Heat Transfer through Walls and
Roofs using Decrement Factor
and Time Lag Method
Part-4 : Infiltration : Stack Effect, Wind .4-11Ato 4-14A
Effect, Infiltration Load
Part-5 : Internal Heat Loads, System Heat ...4-14A to 4-17A
Gains, Break up of Ventilation and
Efective Sensible Heat Factor
Part-6 : Cooling and Heating Load .4-17A to 4-19A
Estimation, Psychrometric
Calculation for Cooling, Selection
of Air Conditioning Apparatus
Part-7 : Evaporative Cooling, Building 4-19A to 4-22A
Requirements and Energy
Conservation in Air Conditioning
Buildings
4-1A (ME-Sem-7)
Load Calculation
4-2A (ME-Sem-7)
PART-1
Load Calculation : Solar Radiation, Heat Gain through Glass :
Calculation of Solar Heat Gain through Ordinary Glass Tables.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. Discuss in brief about solar radiation.
Answer
1. The solar radiation intensity normal to the sun's rays incident upon a
plane surface situated in the limits of the earth's atmosphere, varies
with the time of the year as the distance of the earth from the sun
changes. Its value when the earth is at its mean distance from the sun
is called the 'solar constant'.
The normal value of the solar constant is assumed as 5045 kJ/m²-h.
2.
Radiation received at the surface of the earth is much less because,
much of it, while passing through earth's atmosphere, is scattered and
absorbed by dust and vapour particles and the gases in the atmosphere.
3. The solar heat reaches part of the earth's surface in the form of two
radiations:
Beam or Direct Radiation : The part of the sun's radiation which
travels through the atmosphere and reaches the earth's surface directly
is called Beam or direct radiation.
ii. Diffuser Sky Radiation :A large part of thesun's radiation is scattered,
reflected back into space and absorbed by the earth's atmosphere. A
part of this radiation is re-radiated and reaches the earth's surface
uniformly from all directions. It is called diffuse or sky radiation.
4 The total solar radiation reaching a surface is equal to the sum of the
direct and diffuse radiation.
Que 4.2. Discuss heat gain through glass.
Answer
1. Glass which is major material ofmost buildings provides the most direct
route for entry of solar radiation. For these reasons, the proper estimation
of heat gain through glass is necessary.
2 Heat transmitted through a glass surface depends on the wavelength of
radiation and physical and chemical characteristics of the glass. Part of
the radiation is absorbed, part is reflected and the rest is transmitted.
3 Glass is opaque to the radiant energy emitted from sources below 200°C.
Thus glass has high transmissivity for short wavelength and low
transmissivity for long wave length radiation.
4 Direct solar heat gain can be reduced by using different type of glass,
glass construction and shades as follows:
Double pan glass reduces the solar heat by 10 %to 20%.
Special heat absorbing glass reduces the solar heat by 25 %.
iiü. Stained glass can reduce it upto 65 %depending upon its colour.
iv. Shading devices installed on the outside of windows reduce sun load
upto 15 %.
V.
Vertilation blinds and curtain shades reduce it by 30 %to 35 %.
5. Heat gain of aspace through glass then comprises:
E:
F: All the transmitted radiation.
A part of the absorbed radiation that travels to the room.
Heat transmitted due to the difference between the outside and inside
temperature.
Que 4.3. Calculate solar heat gain through ordinary glass tables.
Answer
1 The absorbed radiation raises the temperature of glass, and the glass
then transmits this heat partly to the outside and partly to the inside.
2 Thus from Fig. 4.3.1, T,
8 represents the temperature of glass, then the
heat gain of the space is given by,
Incident Glass at T,
Radiation
Absorbed Radiation
Entering Space
Outside at To Inside at T;
Reflected
Radiation Transmitted
Radiation
Inside film
Outside film.
coefficient fo coefficient f
UA(T,-T)
Fig. 4.3.1. Heat transfer through glass.

44A (ME-Sem-7) Load Caleulation
...(4.3.1)
Where f.=Inside film-coofficient of heat transfer,
subseripts Dand d denote the terms for direct and diffuse radiations
respectively,
A,=Glass area directly exposed to the sun and A
total glas8 area.
3 Writing a steady state energy balance for the gla88 sheet itself, we have
.(4.3.2)
where fo = outside film-coefficient of heat transfer.
4 In eq. (4.3.1) the left-hand side represents the heat gain of glass due to
absorption, and the right-hand side represents the heat loss by convection
and radiation from its two surfaces.
5 In this equation, the thermal resistance of glass has been neglected.
Eliminating , between eq. (4.3.1) and eq. (4.3.2), we get for the heat
gain of space
Q=A,un p+At,lj)+ np + UA(T, - T) ..4.3.3)
Where U= Overallcoefficient of heat transfer
PART-2
Shading Devices : Effect of Shading Devices, Fabric Heat Gain.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.4. Writeshort note on shading device.

Answer
1. Shading devices on the external side of the window include shutters,
awnings, canopies, blinds, and projecting horizontal and vertical fins.
2. Shading devices prevent the penetration of solar radiation into the
building in summer, while allowing the needed solar gains in winter,
which leads to a better thermalcomfort with significant energy savings.
3. Moreover, they play an important role in managing visual environment,
protecting the openings from atmospheric agent, and providing a
sculptured skin for buildings.
HVAC Systems
4-5A (ME-Sem-7)
Que 4.5. Discuss effect of shading devices.
Answer
1 The efect of the shading device is to
further curtail the heat gain of the
conditioned space.
2 The effectiveness is more if the shading
when it is inside. device is outside the space than
3 This is because the inside shading devices dissipate all
heat into the conditioned space. oftheir absorbed
4 The must also reflect the solar heat back to the glass
Some of it. which absorbs
5 On the other hand, the outside shading devices
as well as the reflected radiation into the
dissipate all their absorbed
6.
surroundings.
Fig. 4.5.1l illustrates the effect of an inside shading device such as
blinds. venetian
0.4 a, 1
Incident a, is absorptivity
radiation
Z, is transmissivity
Glass Venetian
Blinds
Fig. 4.5.1. Heat gain of space through glass with venetian blinds shading.
Que 4.6.Explain in brief about fabric heat gain.

Answer
1 Heat gain or loss considered in the air conditioning of buildings is the
heat transfer through walls, roof, ceiling, floor, etc., i.e., the building
structure. The load due to such heat transfer is often referred to as the
fabric heat gain or loss.
2. It is to be considered whether a particular wall or roof is exposed to the
sun or not. In the case of a sunlit wall or roof, the heat gain of the room
will be more in comparison to a shaded one, as the outside
surface
temperature of the wall or roof will increase above the outside air
temperature due to the incident solar radiation.
4-6A (ME-Sem-7) Load Calculation
3. The conduction heat transfer through the wallor roof
the thickness and the thermal will depend on
conductivity of the material used. In
addition, there willbe convection and radiation from both the outside
and inside surfaces.
4. Hence, the steady-state heat transfer is expressed in terms of an
overall
heat-transfer
the
coefficient and the overall temperature difference between
outside and inside.
PART-3
Over All Heat Transfer Coefficient, Periodie Heat Transfer
through Walls and Roofs, Empirical Methods to Caleulate
Heat Transfer through Walls and Roofs using Decrement Factor
and Time Lag Method.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.7. Write short note on overall heat transfer coefficient.
Answer
1. A wall may be composite, consisting of many sections of different
construction and insulating materials.
2. Also, the outside and inside wall surfaces may exchange heat by
convection and radiation with the surrounding atmosphere.
3. Thus, there will be more than one thermal resistance to heat transfer.
4. Taking into account the number of layers of different materials with
varying thickness Ax and thermal conductivity k, we have for the overall
heat transfer coefficient and overall thermal resistance R.
AT
q= UN= ...(4.7.1)
5. So that the overall heat-transfer coefficient may be caleulated from the

relation
1 1 1
= R= .(4.7.2)
U
6 In eg. (4.7.2), conductance C has been included which are equivalent to
the value of k/Ax for a material.
4-7A (ME-Sem-7)
HVAC Systems
Que 4.8.Explainheat transfer through walls and roofs.

Answer
1 Consider a building wall composed of a single homogeneous
material as shown in Fig. 4.8.1(a).
Air
T1
T T
Wall
k
Fig. 4.8.1. (a) Heat transfer through a single wall.

2 Now the heat is dispersed through the processes ofradiation, convection
and conduction.
3. Thus, the heat transferred or gained through a wall under steady
condition is,
Q=f, (T,-T)A + (T,-T) A+f(T,-T)A

= UA (T, -T)
Where, f=Outside film or surface conductance,
f= Inside film or surface conductance,
A =Outside area of wall,
T, = Outside air temperature,
T,= Inside air temperature,
x= Thickness of wall,
k=Thermal conductivity for the material of the
wall, and
U- Overall coefficient of heat transmission of the
wall.
1
U=
1
+
4. The wall is made up of layers of different materials is shown in

Fig. 4.8.1(6).
48A (ME-Sem-7) Load Calculation
Air film
(1) 2 3
-f
Fig. 4.8.1. (6) Heat transfer through a composite wall.

Air film
Air space
T 1 2 3
f
k T;
Fig. 4.8.1. (c) Heat transfer through a composite wall air space.
5 The overall coefficient of heat transmission is given by,
1
U=
1 1
f k
"6. When air space is provided between the material as shown in
Fig. 4.8.1c), then the overall coefficient of heat transmission is given by,
1
U=
1 1
+...+
f.
Where, k = Thermal conductance of air space.
7. In case of interior walls or partitions, floors and ceilings, the temperature
in the adjoining unconditioned space is usually 5° to 10° below the outdoor
design temperatures but for kitchen, boiler rooms ete, it is often higher
than the outdoor temperature.
Que 4.9. Discuss in brief periodic heat transfer through walls

and roofs.
Answer
1. Heat transmission through the walls and roofs of building structures is
not steady and is therefore, difficult to evaluate.
2. The two principal factors causing this are:
The variation of the outside air temperature-over a period of 24
hours.
The variation of the solar radiation intensity that is incident upon
the surface over a period of 24 hours.
3. The phenomenon is further complicated by the fact that a wall has a
thermal capacity due to which acertain amount of heat passing through
it is stored and is transmitted to the outside and/or inside at some later
time.
4. Figure 4.9.1 showsatypical variation of theoutside air temperature and

radiation on a hot summer day.
800
700
600 40
500
I 4
400 30 T,
300
200 20
100
10
4 12 4 12
Noon
Midnight Solar time Midnight
Fig. 4.9.1. Typical variation of solar radiation and
Outside air temperature during day.
Load Calculation
4-10 A (ME-Sem-7)
after solar
5. The maximum temperatures usually occur just 2-3 hours
noon while the minimum temperatures occur just before sunrise.
The
6. The outside air temperature t, follows nearly a harmonic variation.
mean line is shown at temperature tom':
Que 4.10. Discuss in brief empirical methods to calculate heat
transfer through walls and roofs. Explain any one.
Answer
A Empirical Methods to Calculate Heat Transfer through Walls
and Roofs :
transfer
1 There are two approaches to empirical calculations of heat
through walls and roofs. They are :
i The decrement factor and time lag method.
iü. The equivalent temperature differential method.
2 Both the methods use analytical-experimental results for their
formulations.
commonly used
3 The equivalent temperature differential method is more
by the air- conditioning engineers as it is also applicable to
sunlit walls
and roofs.
B. Decrement Factor and Time Lag:
instantaneous
1 If the thermal capacity of the wall is ignored, then the
rate of heat transfer through the wall at any time t is given by
(4.10.1)
Q= UA(T,-T)
2. On an average basis, the mean heal flow is given by,
Qm = UA(Tm-T) (4.10.2)
3. But most building materials have a finite thermal capacity which is

expressed as
mC = pCV = pC (AAr)
Where m= Mass of wall,
p, C= Density and specific heat of wall material,
A = Cross-sectional area of wall , and
Ax = Wallthickness.
4. It has been seen that there is a two-fold effect of thermal capacity on
heat transfer:
There is a time lag between the heat transfer at the outside surface 4o
and the heat transfer at the inside surface q,.
There is a decrement in the heat transfer due to the absorption of heat
by the wall and subsequent transfer of a part of this heat back to the
outside air when its temperature is lower.
5. It is observed that the specific heat of most materials is about

0.84 kJ/kg.K. The thermal capacity of most materials, therefore,
essentially depends on their density and thickness.
6 The design data book gives value of the time lag and decrement factor as
a function of the wall thickness and density of construction materials.
7, igure 4.10.1 gives values of timelag for three different densities.
20
P1
< 2k
0g0/ m
Time
log,
hours+ 2 0- 0
1 8 0 0
15 1 8 0- 0
2 4 0 0
10
0 15 30 45 60
Thickness Ax, cm
Fig. 4.10.1. Time log of walls.
8. Considering the effect of thermal capacity, the actual heat transfer at
any time t is
Q, = UA(Tem - T) + UA(T--Tim) ...(4.10.2)
Where T = Sol-air temperature at time t- ¢, i.e. 6 hours
before the heat transfer is to be calculated.
9 A comparison of Eq. (4.10.2) with Eq. (4.10.1) shows that Q. can be
greater or less than Qmean depending on whether T-is greater or
less than t,m hours before.
10. The second term in Eq. (4.10.2) therefore, represents the periodic
component.
PART-4
Infiltration :Stack Efect, Wind Effect, Infiltration Load.
Questions-Answers
4-12A (ME-Sem-7) Load Calculation
Que 4.11. What do you understand by infiltration?

Answer
1. Infiltration is the name given to the leakage of outsideair through door
openings, and through eracks and interstices around windows and doors
into conditioned space.
2 Even though the air inside is slightly pressurized, the leakage does take
place which is principally due to the following factors:
Stack effect, particularly in tall buildings,
Wind pressure,
ii. Entry and exit of occupants effecting change of air due to door
openings.
3 It must be pointed out here that corresponding to every infiltration
there is an equivalent amount of exfiltration.
4 In effect, infiltration involves an exchange between the outside and
inside air.
5 Infiltration, as a result of stack effect, wind effect, and through doors
and windows and other openings can be treated as contributing to natural
ventilation.
Que 4.12. Discuss heat gain due to infiltration.

Answer
1. The infiltration air is that air which enters a conditioned space through
window cracks and opening of doors.
2. Infiltration depends on the length and width of cracks around the
windows, doors, walls ete.
3. There are two methods of estimatingthe infiltrated air:
Air change method, and
Crack length method.
4. The crack length method is usually used where greater accuracy is
required.
5. In most cases, the air change method is used for calculating the quantity
ofinfiltrated air.
6. According to this method, the amount of infiltrated air through windows
and wall is
LWHA, m'/min
60
Where, L= Room length in metres,
W= Room width in metres,
4-13 A (ME-Sem-7)
HVAC Systems
H=Room height in metres, and
A, = Air changes per hour.
Que 4.13. Write short note on stake effect.
Answer
humidities, differences
1. Due to differences between temperatures and
buildings are
in the densities of air between the outside and inside of the
flow of air
produced. Consequently pressure differences occurs causing
known as Chimney or stack effect.
stack effect
2. When the inside temperature is lower than the outside, the
negative inside
produces positive inside pressure at lower levels and
pressure at higher levels.
and the
3. As a result, the outward flow of air takes place at lower levels
The
inward flow at higher levels, with the neutral zone in the middle.
reverse is true when inside is at a higher temperature than the outside.
4. Thus in summer infiltration is at the top and exfiltration at the bottom.
the
Similarly in winter infiltration is at the bottom and exfiltration at
top.
Que 4.14. Discuss in brief about wind effect.
Answer
1. Wind driven ventilation is one of two methods of providing natural
ventilation. When wind blows against a barrier, it is deflected around
and above the barrier (in this case, a building).
2. Wind causes a positive pressure on the windward side and a negative
pressure on the leeward side of buildings. To equalize pressure, outdoor
air will enter through available openings on the windward side and
eventually be exhausted through the leeward side.
3 Pressure is not uniformly distributed over the entire windward face, but
diminishes outwards from the pressure zone. The pressure difference
between any two points on the building envelope will determine the
potential for ventilation, if openings were provided at these two points.
The airflow is directly proportional to the effective area ofinlet openings,
wind speed, and wind direction.
4 The occurrence and change of wind pressures on building surfaces
depend on:
Wind speed and wind direction relative to the building.
The location,shape, orientation and surrounding environment of
the building.
ii. Window typologies and operation.
iv. Other aperture types (doors, chimneys).
4-14 A (ME-Sem-7) Load Calculation
Que 4.15. Write short note on infiltration load.
Answer
1. When an amount of air is enter in to the conditioned room through
doors, windows. This is due to the pressure difference on two sides of
doors, window etc. this type of passing air is known as infiltrated air, this
type of effect is caused due to the stack effect, wind pressure.
2. This type of pressure difference and passing through different types of
entries is known as air infiltration.
3. When the load developed by the infiltration phenomenon is known as
infiltration load.
PART-5
Internal Heat Loads, System Heat Gains, Break up of Ventilation
and Efective Sensible Heat Factor.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.16. Explain briefly about internal heat gains.

Answer
1. The sensible and latent heat gains due to occupants, lights, appliances,
machines, piping etc., within the conditioned space form the components
of internal heat gains.
2. These are discussed as below:
Heat Load of Occupants :
1 The occupants in aconditioned space give out heat at a metabolic
rate that more or less depends on their rate of working.
2 The relat1ve proportion of the sensible and latent heats given out
however depends on the ambient dry bulb temperature (DBT).
3. The lower the DBT, the greater the heat given out as sensible heat.
4. The usual problem in calculating the occupancy load lies in the
estimation of the exact number of people present.
ii. Electrical Load: Electrical load consists of lights, heaters, rheostats
and other heat dissipating electrical devices.
a.
Lighting Load:
1 Electrical lights generate a sensible heat equal to the amount
of the electrical power consumed.
2. Most of the energy is liberated as heat and the rest as light
which also eventually becomes heat after multiple reflections.
b. Appliances Load:
1. Both sensible and latent heats are contributed by most
appliances. The latent heat produced depends on the function
the appliances perform, such as drying, cooking etc.
2 Gas appliances produce additional moisture as a product of
combustion. Such loads can be considerably reduced by
providing properly designed loads with a positive exhaust
system of suction over the appliances.
3 Electrical motor contribute sensible heat to conditioned space.
Apart ofthe power input is directly converted into heat due to
the inefficiency of the motor and is dissipated through the
frame of the motor.
iüi. Product Load :
1 The term product as used here means anything whose temperature
is reduced by the refrigerating equipment.
2. It includes perishable commodities such as food stuff and other
items such as welding rods, plastics, medicines and liquids of all
types.
iv. Process Load:
1. For each industrial air conditioning process there is a specific

procedure for calculating the cooling and heating loads.
2. The requirements for the process may involve the control of one or
more of the following factors:
Regain of moisture content by hygroscopic materials, such as
cotton, silk, tobacco, etc., and the accompanying heat liberated.
b. Drying load.
C. Rate of chemical and biochemical reactions.
Que 4.17. Discuss in brief about system heat gains.

Answer
1 The system heat gain is the heat gain (or loss) of an-conditioning system.
2. It includes the following :
Supply air duct heat gain and leakage loss.
Heat gain from air-conditioning fan.
Load Caleulation
4-16A (ME-Sem-7)
ii. Return air duct heat and leakage gain.

iv. Heat gain from dehumidifier pump and piping.
3 The sensible heat gain should be initially estimated
and then included in
The same should be
the total heat load for the air-conditioning plant.
checked after the whole plant has been designed.
and effective
Que 4.18. Explain in brief break-up of ventilation
sensible heat factor.
Answer
application. The
1. The ventilation air requirements depends on individual
minimum requirement is taken as 0.2 cmm per person.
person and a
2 This is based on a population density of 5 to 7.5 m² per
ceiling height of 2.4 m.
3. When people are snmoking, the minimum ventilation
requirement is 0.4
to 0.7 cmm per person.
4. Bypass factor of the cooling equipment affects the position ofthe grand
sensible heat factor line.
5.
The effect of the bypass factor (BPF) is such as to add (X) (m) amount
of the outside air directly to the room, and to allow only (1-X) (m,) to
pass through the apparatus.
6.
Although the room air is also bypassed, this does not affect the break-up
of the load as the room air going to the room does not change the load
situation.
7. Thus, we can say that a part of the ventilation load forms a component
of the room load.
8 This bypassed outside air load is proportional to the bypass factor X.
9. It has both sensible and latent beat components. The other part which is
proportional to1-X, both sensible and latent which is bypassed around
the apparatus, is added so the equipment load.
10. Thus the bypassed outside air loads on the room are :
SH = (0ASH) outside air sensible heat (BPF)
LH= (0ALH) outside air latent heat (BPF)
11. These loads are imposed on the room in exactly the same manner as the
infiltration load.
12. Accordingly,the effective room loads are modified as follows :
Effective room sensible heat
ERSH = RSH + (ASH) (BPF)
Effective room latent heat
ERLH = RLH + (OALH) (BPF)
13. The effective sensible heat factor (ESHF) is the ratio of the effective
room sensible heat to the effective room total heat
4-17A (ME-Sem-7)
HVAC Systems
ERSH ERSH
ESHF = ERSH + ERLH ERTH
PART-6
Cooling and Heating Load Estimation, Psychrometric Caleulation

for Cooling, Selection of Air Conditioning Apparatus.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.19. Explain the concept of cooling and heating loads.
Answer
A Cooling Loads :
1 The total heat required to be removed from the space in order to bring
it at the desired temperature by the air conditioning and refrigeration
equipment is known as cooling load.
2 For air conditioning the cooling loads can be classified as follows :
Room Load:
1. These are the loads which fall on the room directly.
2 Room Joads are further classified into two categories as follows:
i. Room Sensible Heat (RSH) : It occurs due to:
1. Solar andtransmission heat gain through walls,roof, glass
etc.
2 Transmission gain through partition walls, ceiling, floor
etc.
3. Infiltration.
4 Internal heat gain from people and power appliances.
5. The heat gain from the fan work.
ii. Room Latent Heat (RLH):It occurs due to :
1. The heat gain due to moisture in the outside air entering
by infiltration.
2. Vapour transmission.
3. The heat gain due to condensation of moisture from
occupants.
b. Total Load :
1. Thege are the loads which fall on the air conditioning apparatus.
2. Total load are further classified into twocategories as follows:
Load Calculation
4-18A (ME-Sem-7)
i. Sensible Heat: It occurs due to :
1 Effective room sensible heat.
2 Sensible heat of the outside air that is not by-passed.
3. Return duct heat gain, return duct leakage gain,
dehumidifier pump power and dehumidifier and piping
losses.
ii. Latent Heat : It occurs due to :
1 Effective room latent heat.
2. Latent heat of outside air which is not by-passed.
3. Return duct leakage gain.
B. Heating Loads:
loss
1 Heating loads are prepared on the basis ofmaximum probable heat
of the room or space to be heated.
2. Heating loads are classified as follows :
a.
Transmission Heat Loss: The transmission heat loss from walls,
roof, etc., is calculated on the basis of just the outside and inside
temperature difference.
b Solar Radiation: Normally there is no solar radiation present
and hence no solar heat gain at the time of the peak load which
normally occurs in the early morning hours.
Internal Heat Gains: The heating requirement is reduced due to
internal heat gain from occupants, light, motors and machinery
etc.
Que 4.20. Discuss in brief psychrometric calculation for cooling.

Answer
1. Figure 4.20.1 shows the condition of the mixture of the re-circulated
room air and ventilation air entering the apparatus at 1, and leaving the
apparatUs at 2 which is the same as the supply air states, the effective
surface of the apparatus being at S.
GSHF
line
2b
|w
|2 RSHF line
21
BPF (1-BPF)
T DP
Fig. 4.20.1. Effect of bypass factor.
2. The condition line 1-2 represents the psychrometric process in the air
conditioning apparatus, and hence the GSHF (ground sensible heat
factor) line.
3. Further, the leaving air state 2is governed by the BPF of the apparatus,
although, at the same time, it must lie on the RSHF (room sensible heat
factor) line 1-2.
4. Accordingly, the dehumidified air quantity can be caleulated either from
room sensible heat balance, viz. process s - i in the room.
RSH
(Cmm)a= 0.0204 (T -T)
5. From total sensible heat balance, viz, process 1-2 in the apparatus
TSH
(Cmm), = 0.0204 (T,-T,)
Que 4.21. What are the various factors on which selection of air
conditioning apparatus depends ?

Answer
Selection of air conditioning apparatus depends on following factors:
1. Capacity, performance and spatial requirements.
2 Initial and running costs.
3 Required system reliability and flexibility.
4 Maintainability.
5. Architectural constraints.
PART-7
Evaporative Cooling, Building Requirements and Energy

Conservation in Air Conditioning Buildings.
Questions-Answers

Que 4.22. What do you understand by evaporative cooling ?

Mention limitations of evaporative cooling.
Answer
A Evaporative Cooling :
1
Evaporative cooling is obtained during the process of adiabatic saturation.
It is aprocess of the removal of sensible heat from air and an equivalent
addition of latent heat to it in the form of added water vapour.
2 Evaporative cooling is a process in which heat is neither added to nor it
is removed from the water outside the air washer. Water is simply
recirculated by a pump.
3. Evaporative cooling is commonly used when the outdoor conditions are
very dry.
4 This means that the wet-bulb depression of air is very large. In a dry
climate,evaporative cooling can give some reliefby removing the sensible
heat from the room. But the humidity cannot be controlled.
5. Another defect ofthe evaporative cooling system is the large quantity of
air that must be supplied to meet the room sensible heat load as the
temperature difference between the room and supply air is generally
small.
B. Limitations of Evaporative Cooling:

1. Evaporative cooling removes only sensible heat.
2. Supply air quantity is very large leading to conditions of draft.
3. The cooler is to be kept in good repair to obtain high efficiency; otherwise
the DBT of air off the cooler will not be sufficiently low to cool the space.
Que 4.23. Discuss Building requirements in air conditioning

buildings.
Answer
1. The total amount of energy consumption in air conditioning is quite
substantial.
2 It is known that one ton of refrigeration in central air-conditioning
plants requires 1.25 kW of power approximately.
3 This is on the basis of roof not exposed to sun, and not too much glass
areas in the walls.
4 This one TR is sufficient for office space of 18-22.5 m, or 12-14 seats in
a theatre.
4-21 A (ME-Sem-7)
HVACSystems
5.
Thus, for an office of approximately 1850 m²or a theatre of 1250 seating
capacity, the A/C load is 100 TR, requiringa power consumption of about
125 kW.
6. This shows that the power consumption is sizable and there is need to
minimize it.
7. Further, the cost of air conditioning constitutes about 60 % of the cost of
building. Hence, the need to cut cooling loads to minimize the size of the
plant.
Que 4.24. Write down various measures of energy conservation
in the air conditioning of buildings. Explain any two in detail.
Answer
A. Measures of Energy Conservation : Energy conservation in the air
conditioning of buildings can be achieved by adopting the following
measures :
1 Minimisation of solar gain.

2 Other building design features and thermal properties of construction
materials.
3 Minimizing infiltration and ventilation load.
4 Use of natural ventilation for cooling.
5 Use of thermal storage.
6 Plant selection.
7 Plant maintenance.
8 Permitting drift in room design conditions.
B. Use of Natural Ventilation for Cooling :
1 When the outside WBT is lower than room WBT of 18-20 °C
corresponding to room design conditions of 25 °C DBT and 50 +5 %RH,
the air conditioning plant can be shut down, and only natural ventilation
employed instead.
2 For the purpose, larger fresh air intakes have to be provided at plant
inlet.
3. Such acondition occurs for many days during March-April and September
October, and alsoat night.
4 If it is resorted to, it will result in considerable power saving and longer
life of plant.
C. Use of Thermal Storage :

1 The method involves the use of properly sized and heavily insulated
chilled water tanks which are charged at night storing surplus
refrigeration when cooling lo¡d demand is low, and outside WBT is also
low.
2. This chilled water can be used during the day at the peak load period.
3. The method mainly enables the plant to operate at higher COP thus
decreasing power consumption.
4. Although it alsodecreases the size of the plant, the capital cost is not
reduced as the cost of the tanks and insulation is added.
5 This sensible heat storage is not really the best as it requires very large
sized chilled water tanks.
UNIT
5 Air Distribution
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Air Distribution: Room Air .5-2A to 5-3A
Distribution, Types of Supply Air Outlets
Part-2 : Mechanism of Flow through 5-3A to 5-6A
Outlets, Selection and Location of
Outlets, Distribution Pattern of Outlets
Part-3 : Ducts : Definition and Types, **be*.**** 5-6A to 5-14A
Materials for Ducts and its
Specification, Friction Loss in
Ducts, Grills, Diffusers,
Registers, Rectangular
Equivalent of Circular Duct
Part-4 : Air Duct Designs, Duct 5-14A to 5-17A
Construction, Duct Design
Procedures : Equal Friction
Method, Static Regain Method,
Velocity Reduction Method
Part-5: Air Conditioning Apparatus ....5-17A to 5-23A
Fans and Blowers, Types of Fans,
Fan Characteristic, Centrifugal Fans,
Axial Fans, Fan Arrangements
Part-6 : Suction Line, Discharge Line..... .5-23A to 5-26A
(Hot-Gas Line), Liquid Line
Part-7: Location and Arrangement of........ 5-26A to 5-28A
Piping, Vibration and Noise in
Piping, Basic Elements of
Control System
5-1A (ME-Sem-7)
5-2A (ME-Sem-7) Air Distribution
PART- 1
Air Distribution : Room Air Distribution, Types of Supply Air
Outlets.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. What are the requirements of good room air

distribution ? Also define draft.
Answer
A Requirements of Good Room Air Distribution :
1. The primary requirement of good room air distribution is to create a
proper combination of temperature, humidity and air motion in the
occupied zone which is normally at 1.8 mabove the floor level.
2 The maximum variation in temperature in a single room should not be
more than 1°C, and within rooms, 2 °C. The desirable air velocity is 7.5
to 9 m/min.
B. Draft:
1 It is defined as any localized feeling of coolness or warmth of any portion
of the body due to both air movement and air temperature with humidity
and radiation, considered constant.
2 The warmth or coolness ofa draft is measured above or below the
controlled room condition of 24.4 °C DBT at the centre of the room and
air moving at approximately 9 m/min.
Que 5.2. What are the various types of supply air outlets ?
Answer
Various types of supplyair outlets are as follows:
i. Grille Outlets :
1 Grilles with fixed bars can give direction at the outlet and gives a constant
capacity at the outlet. This can be used where air capacity can be
determined accurately and is not likely to change.
2 Adjustable bar grilles provide for varying the air quantity if required.
ii. Slot Diffuser Outlets :
1 Slotted outlets have performance similar to bar grilles.
2. Long narrow slots give better induction of room air and mixing is perfected
in a short throw.
3. They suit mostly to window outlets and linear design of architecture.
ii. Ceiling Diffuser Outlets:
1, These outlets supply air in multiple layers and induction is rapid at a
short distance after the air leaves the outlets.
2. They may also be fitted with dampers.
iv. Perforated Ceiling Panels:
1 These are particularly suited to low ceilings.
2. It offers unobstructive appearance and acts as sound absorbing device.
PART-2
Mechanism of Flow through Outlets, Selection and Location of
Outlets, Distribution Pattern of Outlets.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.3. Explain in brief mechanism of flow through outlets.
Answer
1 The mechanism of flow of air from the duct and through the outlet to
the room is shown in Fig. 5.3.1.
2. A,is the core area or the area of grille opening in which the air flows
with a velocity C, A, is the free area of the grille through which air can
pass.
3. The ratío AJA, is R, so that C=C/Rf
A CPrimary air
Secondary air,
Vena contracts
X
Fig. 5.3.1. Mechanism of flow of air through a duct outlet.
54A (ME-Sem-7) Air Distribution
4. A, is the area at the vena contracta formed outside the grille. IfC, is the
discharge coefficient of the outlet, and C, is the velocity at the vena
contracta.
C = A, A, ...(5.3.1)
Af A,R
CA. C ...(5.3.2)
A, CRe
5 The zone of interest is at 25 to 100 times the diameter or width of the
outlet in the x direction. In this zone, the velocity at any x is given by
C, KD, KyA,
C, = KC,A, K'Q ..(5.3.3)

z4C,R.
Where Q. is the volume delivered by the outlet and K - 1.13 K.
6 The tested values of Kare used tocalculate the throw L by putting
C, = 1.5 mpm = 0.25 m/s.
K'
L=x= ...(5.3.4)
0.25 JA,C4Ea
7. As far as the entrainment ratio Ris concerned, it is given by the following
empirical relations in which Q, represents the volume of the total air at
any distance x from the outlet and , is the volume of primary air.
8. For circular jets
R= 2 x Co ...(5.3.5)
Q. KA,
9. For long slots of width H,
R= 2
...(5.3.6)
, VK VH, C,
Que 5.4. What are the various considerations of selection and
location of supply air outlets ?
Answer
The selection and location of supply air outlets is governed by the
following considerations:
1 The amount of air to be delivered by the outlet should be proportional to
the load of the part of the space for which it is installed.
2 The selection of the type of outlet is governed by the ceiling height,
nature of room occupancy, etc.
HVACSystems 55A (ME-Sem-7)
3. The location of the outlet should be governed by the condition of uniform

air distribution and rapid temperature equalization.
4. The selection of size of the outlet can be made from the manufacturer's
catalogue data according to the air delivery,core velocity, distribution
pattern, sound levels, throw, drop, spread, etc.
Que 5.5. Sketch various distribution patterns of outlets.
Answer
Various distribution patterns of outlets are as follows :
Floor Registers Discharging Air Vertically :
1. Floor registers normally discharge primary air in a straight vertical jet
as shown in Fig.5.5.1.
2. Ultimately the total air, after reaching the ceiling, fans out.
In the case of cooling, it falls out soon after travelling a short distance.
(a) Cooling (b) Heating

Fig. 5.5.1. Distribution patterns for flow registers.
4. The cooling diagram shows stagnation region above the terminal point
of the total air.
5. In a large space, this stagnation zone may extend much farther and to a
lower level.
6. In the case of heating, the total air follows the ceiling and then descends
down if flowing along the cold exterior walls.
ii. Ceiling Diffusers Discharging Air Vertically :
1. These are ceiling diffusers which do not project air horizontally, but
vertically as shown in Fig. 5.5.2.
2. During cooling, the total air drops to the floor and then fans out,finally
rising along the walls. The stagnation region is near the ceiling.

Fig. 5.5.2. Distribution patterns for ceiling diffusers
projecting air vertically.
3. During heating, the total air, after reaching the floor, returns back
towards the ceiling. There is no stagnation zone.
iüi. Low Sidewall Outlets Discharging Air Horizontally :
1 As is seen from Fig. 5.5.3, the total air during cooling remains near the
floor level resulting in low temperature in the occupied zone and alarge
stagnation zone above.
2. During heating, the warm air rises and temperature equalization takes
place except in the region of total air.
3. These outlets discharge air directly into the occupied zone with high
velocity.
4 They are not recommended for comfort air conditioning.

Fig. 5.5.2. Distribution patterns for low sidewall diffusers.
PART-3
Ducts :Definition and Types, Materials for Ducts and its
Specification, Friction Loss in Ducts, Grills, Diffusers,
Registers, Rectangular Equivalent of Circular Duct.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.6. What is the importance of ducts in transmission and

distribution of air ? Also, write classification of ducts.
Answer
A. Ducts :
1 Ducts are conduits or passage used in heating and ventilation.
2 The function of a duct is to convey the air between two points, such as
between the air handling unit or air washer and the room to be
conditioned.
3. It also carries the room air back to the air conditioning apparatus.
4 Aducting system should transport a given volume of air with a minimum

pressure drop and heat loss having less noise and vibration, ete.
B. Classification of Ducts: The ducts may be classified as follows:
1. Supply Air Duct:The duct which supplies the conditioned air from the
air conditioning equipment to the space to be conditioned is called supply
air duct.
2. Return Air Duct: The duct which carries the recirculating air from
the conditioned space back to the air conditioning equipment is called
return air duct.
3 Fresh Air Duct:The duct which carries the outside air is called fresh
air duct.
4. Low Pressure Duct:When the static pressure in the duct is less than
50 mm of water gauge, the duct is said to be a low pressure duct.
5. Medium Pressure Duct: When the static pressure in the duct is upto
150mm of water gauge, the duct is said to be a medium pressure duct.
6. High Pressure Duct:When the staticpressure in the duct is from 150
to 250 mm of water gauge, the duct is said to be a high pressure duct.
7 Low Velocity Duct:When the velocity of air in the duct is upto
600 m/min, the duct is said to be a low velocity duct.
Que 5.7. Discuss materials used for ducts and its specification.
Answer
Materials used for ducts are as follows :
1 Galvanized Steel : It is a standard, most common material used in
fabricating ductwork for most comfort air conditioning systems, The
specifications for galvanized steel sheet are ASTM A653, coating G90.
2, Aluminium : It is widely used in clean room applications. These are
also preferred systems for moisture laden air, special exhaust systems
and ornamental duct systems. The specifications for Aluminium sheet
are ASTM B209, alloy 1100, 3003 or 5052.
3. Stainless Steel:It is used in duct systems for kitchen exhaust, moisture
laden air, and fume exhaust. The specifications for stainless steel sheet
are ASTM A167, Class 302 or 304; Condition A(annealed) Finish No. 4
for exposed ducts and Finish No. 2B for concealed duct.
4 Carbon Steel (Black Iron):It is widely used in applications involving
flues, stacks, hoods, other high temperature and special coating
requirements for industrialuse.
5. Copper:It ismainly used for certain chemical exhaust and ornamental
ductwork.
Que 5.8. Define frictional and dynamic losses.

Answer
A. Frictional LOsses :
1 When air flows through a duct, there is a loss of pressure due to friction
between the moving particles of air and the interior surfaces of a duct.
When the loss of pressure occurs in a straight duct, it is usually termed
as friction loss.
B. Dynamic Losses:
1. When the pressure is lost dynamically at the changes of direction such
as in bends,elbows etc., and at the changes of eross-section of the duct,
the pressure loss is usually termed as dynamic loss.
Que 5.9. Explain with neat sketch the various losses in the duct.
Answer
Various losses in the duct are as follows :
i. Pressure Loss due to Friction in Ducts :
1 The pressure loss due to friction in ducts may be obtained by using the
D'Arcy's formula or the Fanning's equation as follows :
fLp, v² ...(5.9.1)
P= 2m
Where, p,= Pressure loss due to friction (N/m2).
f= Friction factor depending upon the surface of
the duct,
L= Length of the duct (m),
V= Mean velocity of the air flowing through the
duct (m/s), and
m = Hydraulicmean depth in (m).
=
Cross -sectional area of the duct (A)
Wetted perimeter of the duct (P)
2 In air conditioning, the pressure loss due to friction in ducts is generally
expressed in mm of water. From eq. (5.9.1), we get
L p,v?
P= m -x p, mm of water ...(5.9.2)
2 m
3 We know that
- mm of water
2 4.04 )
Thus eg. (5.9.2) may be written as
2
P= m 4.04 mm of water
IVAC Syatemn 6-9A (ME-Sem-7)
Now, theo proanure losu due to friction in the duct when the air is at
temperature T"C, in given by,
273 +20 )
m\4.04) 273 T
293
mm of wator
273 +T
ii. Pressure Loss due toEnlargoment in Aren and StatieRegain:
Wherever there in anenlargement in a duct-run, thÍ velocity of fluid
decreanen nnd there in nconversion of velocity prossure into static
proumuro.
The increuse in static presaure due to the conversion of velocity pressure

in tormed an atatie rogain (SR).
3. Irthe enlargemont is not uccompanied with pressure loss, the velocity
prossure in completely converted into static pressure.
4. In caso, the onlargoment is nccompanied with prossure loss, the inerease
in the statie prossure or statieregain is reduced by the amount of the
pressuro loss,
I B
V, A i
V,
Pa2
Eddies
Fig. 5.9.1. Sudden enlargement.

5 The pressure loss due to sudden enlargement is given as
(A,
Where, A, = CroB8-sectional area of the duct at section 1-1,
A,, = Cros8-8ectional area of the duct at section 2-2.
and
V, Velocity of air at section 2-2.
iii. Pressure Loss due to Contraction in Area :
1 Consider aduct ABC having sudden contraction at B as shown in
Fig. 5.9,2.
2. It may be noted that turbulence (formation of
eddies) occurs at two
places, viz., at the shoulders of the contraction in the large section, and
at a section shortly after the vena contracta.
A
B
Vena
contracta
Fig. 5.9.2. Sudden contraction.
3. It may be observed that the major source of pressure loss is at the neck.
Thus, the loss corresponds to that of sudden expansion from the velocity
V, at the vena contracta to the downstream velocity V,.
4 If A, and A, are the crosS-sectional areas at sections 1-1 and 2-2
respectively, then pressure loss due to sudden contraction,
4.04
iv. Pressure Loss at Suction and Discharge of a Duct:
1 The pressure loss at suction to the duct is given by,
Ky² m of air
2g
Pa Nm?
2
=K mm of water
4.04
Where, V= Velocity of air in the duct, m/s, and
K= Loss coefficient.
Duct
Air flow
A=0
(a) Abrupt suction opening. (6) Flanged entrance. (c) Formed entrance.
Fig. 5.9.3.
2. The pressure loss at the discharge or exit of a
duct is given by,
(PDis = 2g m of air
N/m'= mm of water
2Pa 4.04
Que 5.10. Define grills, diffusers and
registers.
Answer
i. Grills :
1 Grilles are defined as air devices that are
back to the fan or to exhaust air from typically used to return air
a space.
2 Grilles are generally not used in supply
tocontrol the air. distribution
due to their inability
3. Registers look like grilles but are
adjustable air stream deflectors andcomprised
dampers
of one-way or tw0-way
to restrict the amount of
air flow required to be returned, supplied or
ii. Diffusers :
exhausted.
1. Diffusers are the terminal devices that supply air in various
through the use of their deflecting vanes. directions
2. These are designed to promote the mixing of conditioned air with the
already in the space. air
Que 5.11. Derive expression for eguivalent

diameter of circular
duct for a rectangular duct when :
i. Quality of air carried in both cases is same.
ii. Velocity of air in both cases is
samne.
Answer
i When the Quantity of Air Passing through the
and Circular Ducts is Same: Rectangular
1. Let, a= Longer side of the rectangular duct.
b= Shorter side of the rectangular duct.
D = Equivalent diameter of the circular duct.
Arect ==ax
Cross-sectional area of the rectangular duct
h
= Wetted perimeter of the

rect
rectangular duct
= 2la + b)
A. = Cross-sectional area of the
duct equivalent circular
5-12 A (ME-Sem-7) Air Distribution
Pir = Wetted perimeter of the equivalent circular

duct = D,,
P, = Mass density of air, and
Q= Quantity of airpassing through the rectangular
and circular ducts.
2. Velocity of air passing through the circular duct, Cir

Air
Velocity of air passing through the rectangular duct, Cret= A,mdt
3. Pressure loss due to friction () is given as,
P=
fLp,C_fLp,
2m 2m
and, Hydraulic mean depth,

A
(Cross- sectional area of duct)
m =
P(Wetted perimeter of duct)
4. Pressure loss due to friction for circular duct,
...(5.11.1)
2 2
and, Pressure loss due to friction for thÃ rectangular duct,

2
fLp,Q P.
Prect fLp. rect ...(5.11.2)
2 \A,t 2 (A,
5.
quantity of air
As the preseure loss, friction factor, length, density and from eq. 5.11.1
for the circular rectangular ducts are same, therefore,
and 5.11.2, we have:
P)ar =Prect
fLp.QPas Lp,Q P
2 2 (A,n
Par
0r,
(A,
TD 2(a + b)
Or, (axb)'
32 a+6
or,
ea ab
32a'%3 qus
Or, Deg = n²(a + b) =1.265 a+b) ...(5.11.3)
ii. When the Velocity of Air Passing through the Rectangular and
Circular Ducts is Same:
1 Let,C=Velocity of air passing through the rectangular and circular
ducts.
2 Pressure loss due to friction for a circular duct,
Lp,C² ...(5.11.4)
2
and, Pressure loss due to friction for the rectangular duct,

fLp,C²(P.
rect
...(5.11.5)
(PPrect 2 A,et
3 As the pressure loss, velocity of air, friction factor, density and length
for the circular rectangular ducts are same, therefore, from eq. 5.11.4
and 5.11.5, we have :
fLp,C(P
cir fLp,C'(Prect
2 A 2
Aect
Or, Pet
Aar A,et
2(a + b)
0r, TDeg axb
4
2(a x b) 2a
or, ...(5.11.6)
a+b
a
Where is known as Aspect ratio".
In case of rectangular ducts the aspect ratio should to be greater than 8

in any case.
Que 5.12.Arectangularduct section of 500x350 mm² size carries

75 m/min of air having density of 1.15 kg/m°. Determine the
equivalent diameter of a circular duct if (a) the quantity of air
Air Distribution
5-14 A (ME-Sem-7)
carried in both the cases is same; (b) the velocity of the air in both
the cases is same. If f= 0.01 for sheet metal, find the pressure los8
per 100m length duct.
Answer
Given :a= 500 mm = 0.5 m, b =350 mm = 0.35 m, Q= 75 m/min,
P, = 1.l5 kg/m', f= 0.01, L = 100 m
To Find: Equivalent diameter of circular duct when:
a. The quantity of air carried in both cases is
same.
b. The velocity of air in both cases is same.
i. Pressure loss.
1. When the quantity of air carried by rectangular and circular ducts is
same, then equivalent diameter of a circular duct,
1/6
a'b (0.5)(0.35)°
D = 1.265 =1.265|
a+b) 0.5+0.35
0.2
0.00536
= 1.265 = 1.265 x 0.363 = 0.46 m
0.85
2 When the velocity of air passing through the rectangular and circular
ducts is same, then equivalent diameter of a circular duct,
2ab 2 x 0.5x 0.35
D= =0.41 m
a+b 0.5 +0.35
3. We know that velocity of air passing through the duct,
75
V= 428.6 m/min
A ab 0.5 x 0.35
= 7.143 m/s
and, mean hydraulic depth of the duct,
A ab 0.5 x 0.35
m = 0.103 nm
P 2(a+ b) 2(0.5 + 0.35)
4 Pressure loss,
fLp,V² 0.01 x 100 x 1.15(7.143)
P= 2m 2x0.103
= 284.8 N/m' = 29 mm of water
1 N/m'= mm of water
9.81
PART-4
Air Duct Design, Duct Construction, Duct Design Procedures : Equal
Friction Method, Static Regain Method, Velocity Reduction Method.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.13. What are the general rules considered in air duct design?
Answer
Afew general rules are stated as follows which should be followed in the
design of ducts :
1 Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to economise on power,
material and space.
2. Sudden changes in direction should be avojded. When bends are essential,
turning vanes should be used to minimise the pressure loss.
3. Air velocities in ducts should be within permissible limits to minimise
noise.
4 Diverging sections should be made gradual. The angle of divergence
should not exceed 20.
5. Rectangular ducts should be made as nearly square as possible. This will
ensure minimum duct surface, and hence cost, for the same air-carrying
capacity. An aspect ratio of less than 4:1should be maintained.
6 Ducts should be made of smooth materials such as galvanized iron (GI)
or aluminium sheet metals. Whenever other materials are used,
allowance should be made for the roughness of the material.
7 Dampers should be provided in each branch outlet for balancing the
system.
8 Avoid duct obstructions.
Que 5.14. Discuss duet construction with the help of diagrams.

Answer
1 The ducts made of sheet metal expand and contract when heated and
cooled; the movement is absorbed by fabric joints.
2. The fabric joints should also be used where ducts fasten to a furnace or
an air-conditioner. But in fact most duct joints are made of sheet metal.
3. Fig. 5.14.1 shows the various types of sheet metal joints used in the
construction of ducts.
4. The insulation is fastened to the duct with adhesives or metal clips.
(i) Grooved seam (ii) Drive slip joint (ii) Flat joint
(iv) Double seam corner (v) Standing

seam (riveted)
(vi) Slip joint
Fig. 5.14.1.
Que 5.15. |Describe the different method of air conditioning duct

design. Why are damper required in some system ?
Answer
A Methods of Duct Design :
i. Velocity Reduction Method :
1 In this method, the ducts are designed in such a way that the velocity
decreases as the flow proceeds.
2. The pressure drops are calculated for these velocities for respective
branches and main duct.
3. The fan is designed toovercome the pressure losses along any single
run including the losses of main duct, branch duct, elbows, valves etc.
4 It is usually adopted for very simple systems and is not recommended
for vigorous design of any less simple systems.
ii. Equal Friction (or Constant Pressure Loss) Method :
1 In this method, the frictional pressure drop per unit length of the duct is
maintained constant throughout the system.
2 This is superior to the velocity reduction method since it prevents one
section of the duct having an excessive resistance compared with another
in a system having symmetrical branch and outlets runs.
3. The velocities, in this method, are automatically reduced in the branch
ducts as the flow is decreased.
4. This method does not however balance the pressures at the outlets if
the branches are of different lengths and hence dampers are required
for balancing the pressure drops in various branches.
5. Amodification of this method is to design the main duct for equal friction
and branch ducts for consuming the pressure available at the take off
from the main duct.
5-17A (ME-Sem-7)
HVAC Systems
6. In such a design, the pressures at the outlet will be same and nodamping
is required for balancing the pressure drops in various runs. However,
dampers are provided for small adjustment.
iii. Static Regain Method :
1. In this method, the size of the duct is decided to give equal pressure at all
outlets for perfect balancing of the air duct layout system.
2. This may be done by equalizing the pressure losses in various branches
and this is possible if the friction loss in each branch is made equal to the
gain in pressure due to reduction in velocity.
3. The gain in pressure due to change in velocity is given by,
SPR = Rp, [v,-v, = R(p,, - Pr2) 2
Where, Ris the static regain factor.

B. Damper Requirement :
1 When the whole system is designed for the same pressure drop (Ap/Al),
the air in the short length ducts would be discharged with high velocity.
2 Thus a control damper has to be provided in order to regulate the flow
rate.
3. In absence of dampers the air velocity at exit may shoot up beyond
permitted limit.Hence the noise level may exceed the desired maximum
and at the same time air discharge would be more than desired value.
PART-5
Air Conditioning Apparatus : Fans and Blowers, Types of Fans, Fan
Characteristic, Centrifugal Fans, Axial Fans, Fan Arrangements.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.16. Define fan also classify it.
Answer
1 Afan is rotodynamie machine which propels air or other gas continuously.
2 Fans find extensive use in air-conditioning and refrigeration plants for
moving or circulating air over air-cooled condensers and evaporator
coils.
3. While a pump or a compressor develops higher fluid pressures, the fans
can develop comparatively low pressures. The pressure developed by
the fan being very low, is expressed in "mm of water".
4. According to the maximum total pressures they can safely develop, fans
may be classified as follows :
Maximum pressure upto 95 mm water gauge Class I.
ii. Maximum pressure upto 171 mm water gauge Class II.
ii. Maximum pressured upto 311 mm water gauge Class III.
iv. Maximum pressure over 31l mm water gauge Class IV.
Que 5.17. Write short note on blowers.
Answer
1 Blowers serve three main functions : heating, cooling and air flow.
2 Although unit designs range from simple and complex, most blowers
usually consist of some type of fan-like apparatus. Some blowers also
use pressure pumps to move air or gases.
3 Heating blowers direct warm or hot air into cooler areas.
4. The blower fan is located in the inside portion of your air conditioner it
is responsible for blowing the air to the ductwork in your system which
then allows for the distribution of the air throughout your home.
Que 5.18. Describe centrifugal fans with the help of neat sketch.
Answer
1. A centrifugal or radial flow fan is one in which air enters the impeller
axially and is discharged radially from the impeller.
2. Centrifugal fans are used for the air-conditioning and ventilation
purposes.
3. Depending upon the inclination (inclination determines the performance
characteristics of the fan) of the fan blades, the centrifugal fans are
further classified as:
i Forward-Curved Fans: Refer Fig. 5.18.1.
Tip of the blade is curved

forward with respect to the
Rotation direction of rotation
of the fan wheel
Fig. 5.18.1. Forward-curved blade fan.

5-19A (ME-Sem-7)
HVAC Systems
1 In this type of fan, the tip of the blade is curved forward, i.e., in the
impellers usually
direction of rotation of the fan. The forward-covered
have 24 to 64 blades.
deliver more air quantity
2. At any given rpm, forward-curved blade fans than the radial or back
and produce relatively lower static pressure
word-curved blade fans.
ii. Radial Blade Fans: Refer to Fig.5.18.2.
Blade bas no
curvature, fixed radially
Rotation
Fig. 5.18.2. Radial blade fan.
is fxed
1. Radial blade has no curvature and the blade is straight and
radially.
cooling.
2. These fans are generally used in electric motors for internalmotors.
The blades are built into the rotor itself in case of small-sized
motor shaft
3. For bigger-sized motors, a separate fan is fixed on the
(within the body).
iii. Backward-Curved Fans : Refer Figs. 5.18.3 and Fig. 5.18.4.
Tip of the blade is curved

backward with respect to
Rotation direction of rotation of
fan wheel
Fig. 5.18.3. Backward-curved fan.
Tip of the blade is inclined

backward with respect to
Rotation direction of rotation of
fan wheel
Fig. 5.18.4. Backward-inclined blade fan.

1. In this type of fan, the tip of the blade is curved backward or away from
the direction of rotation of the fan wheel.
2. These fans are require higher speed and therefore have to be more
sturdy in construction. However, because of their characteristic higher
eficiency over a broader range of system resistance, these types of fans
are employed for bigger installations.
Que 5.19. Discuss in brief axial-flow fans.
Answer
1. When the air flows parallel to the axis of impeller, it is called an axial
flow fan.
2. Following are the three types of axial-flow fans:
i. Propeller Fans : Refer to Fig. 5.19.1.
Fig. 5.19.1. Propeller fan.

1. These fan are low pressure high-capacity fans. The static pressure
developed by these fans in rather limited.
ii. Tube Axial Fans: Refer to Fig. 5.19.2.
Fig. 5.19.2. Tube axial fan.

1. These fans may be considered as heavy-duty propeller fans mounted in
a cylindrical housing.
2. They are duct-mounted whereas the propeller fans are wall or diaphragm
mounted.
3. Since these fans produce high noise level, therefore, their use is limited
to applications where the noise level is not of much importance.
iii. Vane Axial Fans : Refer to Fig. 5.19.3.
Impeller - -Guide vanes
Fig. 5.19.3. Vane axial fan.
1 These are tube axial fans with vanes. The vanes located at the leaving
side of the wheel help to straighten out the spiral flow of air coming out
of an axial fan. The straight line flow leaving the fan assures quiet
operation.
2 The efficiency of operation and the pressure characteristics are better
than those of tube axial fan.
Que 5.20. Discuss various types of fan arrangements.

Answer
Various types of fan arrangements are as follows :
Fans in Series:
1. Fans are said to be connected in series when the outlet of first fan is
connected to the inlet of second fan and outlet of the second fan is
connected to the inlet of the third fan and so on, as shown in Fig. 5.20.1.
2. When the fans are connected in series:
Volume flow rate (@) through each fan is same, i.e.,
Q=Q, =Q, =3
Fan-2
Fan-3
Fan-1
(Pran-3.
Fig.5.20.1. Fans in series.
i. The overall fan total pressure (pn is equal to the sum of the fan total
pressures developed by the individual fans i.e.,
(pran = (prfan- 1+(Ppan-2+Pr'an-3
ii. Fans in Parallel :
1 Fig. 5.20.2 shows fans connected in parallel.
2 In this case :
i The fan total pressure (pe of each fan is same,i.e.,
(Pp'an-1=(Pr'an-2=(Pran-3
The total volume delivered (Q) is equal to the sum of the volumes
delivered by the individual fans, i.e.,
Q=Q,+Q, +Q3
Fan-1
Fan-2
Fan-3
-(Praun
Fig. 5.20.2. Fans in Parallel.
Que 5.21. Describe fan and system characteristic with neat sketch.
Answer
1. System characteristic is the change in pressure loss or resistance with
the change in flow rate. It is independent of the fan used in that system.
2. The system resistance (R) or pressure loss (p,) of any fixed system
varies as square of the flow rate,
i.e., K or P, = KQ?
3 When Ror p, is plotted against Q, a curve (a parabola) such as OA,as
shown in Fig. 5.21.1, is obtained; the curve is usually known as a system
characteristic curve.
4 The operation of a fan in conjunction with a particular system must
fulfill the condition that the loss of total pressure in the system at a
given volume flow must be equal to the total pressure developed by the
fan (i.e., fan total pressure) at the same volume.
A
B Fan total pressure
System
resistance
(R)
D
Operating pressure
Fan performance
S y s t e
cmh a r a c t e r i s
c tui c
rsv e
curve
C
k-Volume delivered
Volume flow rate (Q)
Fig.5.21.1. Fan and system characteristic.
5 This condition is satisied by the point of intersection (point D) of system

characteristic curve OA and the fan performance curve BC. This point
of intersection is called the operating point of that particular fan in that
particular system.
PART-6
Suction Line, Discharge Line (Hot-Gas Line); Liquid Line.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.22. Discuss in brief suction line.

Answer
1. The larger line typicaly carries a cool gas and is insulated. This is
commonly referred to as the suction line.
2. Suction lines are the most critical from the viewpoints of design and
construction. The considerations involved are the following :
i Correct size for practical pressure drop.
ii. Capability to return oil to the compressor by entrainment by the
suction vapour under minimum loading conditions, especially in
the case of fluorocarbons.
ii. If there are suction risers, gas velocities to ensure oil return have
to be increased. Thus a minimum tonnage is prescribed in suction
risers.
iv. Double-suction risers may be used for full-load operation and single
risers for part-load operation as shown in Fig. 5.22.1.
To compressor
suction
Double suction
riser
Evaporator
Oil seal at
part load
U-bend
Fig, 5.22.1. Double-suction riser.
The common-suction line should either be horizontal or pitched down

towards the compressor. It is customary to design suction lines so that
the total loss in pressure is equivalent to drops of about 1.8 and
0.9°C in
saturation temperatures for fluorocarbons and ammonia respectively.
Que 5.23. Describe discharge line (Hot-gas line).
5-25 A (ME-Sem-7)
HVAC Systems
Answer
lines) allow refrigerant
Discharge gas lines (often referred to as hot-gas
1
to the inlet of the condenser.
toflow from the discharge of the compressor
the discharge lines should
2. Even though a low pressure drop is desired, velocities are reduced so
not be oversized to the extent that the gas carry along the entrained
much that the refrigerant will not be able to
oil.
prevent the refrigerant
3. They should be so designed and constructed as to to the compressor,
and oil in the line from condensing and draining backambient where long
especially during shutdown or operation at low condensers.
outdoor discharge lines are required as in evaporative
4. Whenever the condenser is located above the compressor, the discharge
line should loop to the floor before rising to the compressor.
to 1 or 2 °C in the
5. It is not desirable to exceed a pressure drop equivalent efficiency
saturation temperature because of the penalty on volumetric
and hence the capacity of the compressor.
6 Discharge lines should be selected on the basis of 0.45 to 0.67 bar per
100 m pressure drop.
Que 5.24. Discuss in brief liquid line.
Answer
1 The smaller uninsulated line typically carries a warm liquid. It is most
often called the liquid line.
2 The liquid line presents fewest problems. It is desirable to have a slightly
subcooled liquid reach the liquid-feed device to prevent the formation of
flash gas.
3 The flash gas in the liquid line causes an increase in the pressure drop
and further flashing, reduction in the capacity of the expansion device,
noise and erratic control of the liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator.
4 The pressure drop in turn is due to friction as well as decrease in the
static head due to the elevation of the evaporator above the condenser.
5. Generally, liquid always leaves the condenser in a subcooled state. An
additional refrigerant charge will increase subcooling.
6. Shell-and-tube condensers are designed to maintain a liquid level in the
shellwhich can provide for subcooling.
7. The construction of the aircooled condensers is also such that the liquid
is in contact with the cooling air surface until it gets subeooled and
leaves.
8 In the case of water-cooled condensers, even liquid lines can be provided

with insulation. Where long vertical lines are used, it is almost impossible
to prevent flashing caused by static pressure drop.
PART-7
Location and Arrangement of Piping, Vibration and Noise in Piping,
Basic Elements of Control System.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.25. What are various factors considered in location and

arrangements of piping?
Answer
Various factors considered in location and arrangements of piping are
as follows:
1 To minimize tubing and refrigerant charge requirement and pressure
drops, refrigerant lines should be as short and direct as possible.
2. Piping is to be planned for a minimum number of joints using as few
elbows and fittings as possible, although providing for sufficient flexibility
toabsorb compressor vibrations.
3 It is to be so arranged that normal inspection and servicing of the
compressor and equipment is not hindered.
4
It should be so run that it does not interfere with the removal of
compressor cylinder heads, access plates or any other internal part such
as the stator in hermetically-sealed units.
5 Sufficient clearance is to be provided between the piping and wall or
between pipes for insulation.
6. Locations where copper tubing willbe exposed to mechanical injury
should be avoided.
7. In the case of iron pipes, hangers should be provided close to vertical

risers to and from compressors to keep the piping weight off the
compressors.
8. Hangers should not be placed more than 2 to 3 m apart and should be
within 0.6 m of the change in direction of piping.
5-27 A (ME-Sem-7)
HVACSystems
Que 5.26. Discuss in brief vibration and noise in piping.

Answer
1 Vibration and noise can be eliminated by proper design and support of
the piping. The undesirable effects of vibration are:
i. Breaking of brazed or soldered joint and consequent loss of charge.
i. Transmission of noise through piping and building.
2. The vibration of piping is caused by the rigid connection ofthe
refrigerant
piping to areciprocating compressor.
3. It is impossible to eliminate it completely. But steps such as the following
can be taken to mitigate its effects :
i. Run the suction and discharge lines at least 15 pipe diameters in
each of two or three directions before securing the first hanger. In
being
this manner, piping can absorb vibrations without
overstressed.
transmitted
A flexible metal hose is often used to absorb vibration
along small rises of pipes. For great effectiveness, it should be
installed at right angle to the direction of vibration. Most compressor
vibrations have the greatest amplitude in the horizontal plane.
Therefore, the flexible hose should be installed in the vertical lines
near the compressor. Two isolators, one vertical and one horizontal.
may be required to do an efficient job.
ii. When the noise is due to turbulence, as in centrifugal systems, and
isolating the line is not effective enough, the installation of a larger
line to reduce the gas velocity is often effective
Que 5.27. What are basic elements of control systenm ?

Answer
Controller and actuating devices:
Input Controller Process Output
Sensing
element
Fig. 5.27.1.
1. Acontrol system consists of five basic elements :

i Input,
Process being controlled,
ili. Output,
iv. Sensing elements, and
V. Controller and actuating devices.
2 HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) equipment needs a
control system to regulate the operation of a heating and/or air
conditioning system.
3 Usually a sensing device is used to compare the actual state (e.g.,
temperature) with a target state. Then the control system draws a
conclusion what action has to be taken (e.g., start the blower).

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1 UNIT

Effect of Superheating, 1-10A to 1-13A

Part-4 : Refrigerants 1-17A to 1-20A

Part-5: Desired Properties of 1-20A to 1-25A

Advanced Vapour Compression Cycles :

Que 1.1. Describe vapour compression refrigeration system. Also

High pressure liquid

h, = Enthalpy of the vapour refrigerant at

b. When the Vapour is Wet after Compression :

Lemperature Pressure 3 Cond. 2

4 Evap. 1' superheating

Que 1.4. AR-12 vapour compression refrigeration system has a

4 COP= g_h, -h, 187.397-84.868 = 4.54

[Note : The last zero of temperature consider as the sign of degree]

Effect of Superheating, Subcooling, Condenser

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.6. Show the effect of superheating and subcooling with

3 It may be noted that the increase in discharge pressure:

Transeritical Cycle, Ejector Refrigeration Cycle,

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.8. Write short note on transcritical cycle.

Pump Condenser loop

Que 1.10. Explain pressure enthalpy p-hchart.

Que 1.11. Explain the working of an actual vapour compression

Fig. 1.11.1. Actual vapour compression cycle (T-s

Refrigerants :Classification of Refrigerants, CFC, HFC, HCFC,

Answer Type Questions

Que 1.15. Discuss in detail, the secondary refrigerants.

Que 1.19. Write designation system for refrigerant.

1 The refrigerants are internationally designated as R' followed by certain

Where, m = Number of çarbon atoms,

Que 1.22. Write short note on environment friendly refrigerants.

Que 1.23. Discuss the effects of CFCrefrigerants on ozone layer

6. Asingle atom of Cl released from CFC reacts taking out 100,000 .,

3. HFO refrigerants are categorized as having zero ozone depletion

Part-3 : Psychrometric Process in Air .2-14A to 2-16A

Part-4 : Air Washer, Use of .2-16A to 2-20A

Part-6: Sensible Heat Factor (SHF), .2-22A to 2-23A

Part-7 : Choice of Inside Design .2-23A to 2-30A

Que 2.1. What do you mean by psychrometry ? Briefly

Que 2.2. What do you mean by Dalton's law of partial pressures ?

Humidity ratio, W= mRaP ...(2.2.3)

P, U,, I m, and R. = Corresponding values for water vapour in

Relative humidity, (6)= m

Given:T, =40 °C, ¢=60 %, T2 =20 °C, W, = 10 grams =0.01 kg

Psychrometric Chart and Psychrometric Processes.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.4.What is the importance of psychrometric chart? What

Dry bulb temperature

Dry bulb temperature Dry bulb temperature

Dry bulb temperature

Air in Spray Air out

Make-up water +Pump

Ta8 =T1 T2 Ta1

Dry bulb temperature

Psychrometric Process in Air Conditioning Equipment :

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.5. Derive an expression for by-pass factor.