Lattice Energy

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YOUR NOTES
A Level Chemistry CIE 
5.1 Chemical Energetics (A Level Only)
CONTENTS
5.1.1 Lattice Energy & Enthalpy Change of Atomisation
5.1.2 Electron Affinity & Trends of Group 16 & 17 Elements
5.1.3 Constructing Born-Haber Cycles
5.1.4 Calculations using Born-Haber Cycles
5.1.5 Factors Affecting Lattice Energy
5.1.6 Enthalpies of Solution & Hydration
5.1.7 Constructing Energy Cycles using Enthalpy Changes & Lattice Energy
5.1.8 Energy Cycle Calculations
5.1.9 Factors Affecting Enthalpy of Hydration
Page 1 of 30
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5.1.1 Lattice Energy & Enthalpy Change of Atomisation YOUR NOTES


Lattice Energy & Enthalpy Change of Atomisation
Enthalpy change (ΔH) refers to the amount of heat energy transferred during a chemical
reaction, at a constant pressure
Enthalpy change of atomisation
The standard enthalpy change of atomisation (ΔHatꝋ) is the enthalpy change when 1 mole
of gaseous atoms is formed from its element under standard conditions
Standard conditions in this syllabus are a temperature of 298 K and a pressure of 101
kPa
The ΔHatꝋ is always endothermic as energy is always required to break any bonds between
the atoms in the element, to break the element into its gaseous atoms
Since this is always an endothermic process, the enthalpy change will always have a
positive value
Equations can be written to show the standard enthalpy change of atomisation (ΔHatꝋ) for
elements
For example, sodium in its elemental form is a solid
The standard enthalpy change of atomisation for sodium is the energy required to form 1
mole of gaseous sodium atoms:
Na(s) → Na(g) ΔHatꝋ = +107 kJ mol -1
Worked example: Writing equations for the standard enthalpy change of
atomisation
Answer
Answer 1: Potassium in its elemental form is a solid, therefore the standard enthalpy
change of atomisation is the energy required to form 1 mole of K(g) from K(s)
K(s) → K(g)
Answer 2: Mercury in its elemental form is a liquid, so the standard enthalpy change of
atomisation of mercury is the energy required to form 1 mole of Hg(g) from Hg(l)
Hg(l) → Hg(g)
Lattice energy
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The lattice energy (ΔHlattꝋ) is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of an ionic compound is YOUR NOTES
formed from its gaseous ions (under standard conditions) 
The ΔHlattꝋ is always exothermic, as when ions are combined to form an ionic solid lattice
there is an extremely large release of energy
Since this is always an exothermic process, the enthalpy change will always have a
negative value
Because of the huge release in energy when the gaseous ions combine, the value will
be a very large negative value
The large negative value of ΔHlattꝋ suggests that the ionic compound is much more stable
than its gaseous ions
This is due to the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely
charged ions in the solid lattice
Since there are no electrostatic forces of attraction between the ions in the gas phase,
the gaseous ions are less stable than the ions in the ionic lattice
The more exothermic the value is, the stronger the ionic bonds within the lattice are
The ΔHlattꝋ of an ionic compound cannot be determined directly by one single experiment
Multiple experimental values and an energy cycle are used to find the ΔHlattꝋ of ionic
compounds
The lattice energy (ΔHlattꝋ) of an ionic compound can be written as an equation
For example, magnesium chloride is an ionic compound formed from magnesium
(Mg2+) and chloride (Cl-) ions
Since the lattice energy is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of magnesium chloride is
formed from gaseous magnesium and chloride ions, the equation for this process is:
Mg2+(g) + 2Cl-(g) → MgCl2(s)
Worked Example: Writing equations for lattice energy
Answer
Answer 1: Mg2+(g) + O2-(g) → MgO(s)
Answer 2: Li+(g) + Cl-(g) → LiCl(s)
 Exam Tip
Make sure the correct state symbols are stated when writing these equations – it is
crucial that you use these correctly throughout this entire topic.
Page 3 of 30
5.1.2 Electron Affinity & Trends of Group 16 & 17 Elements YOUR NOTES

Electron Affinity
Electron affinity
The first electron affinity (EA1) is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of electrons is added to
1 mole of gaseous atoms, to form 1 mole of gaseous ions each with a single negative
charge under standard conditions
X(g) + e- → X-(g)
EA1 is usually exothermic, as energy is released
Since this is generally an exothermic process, then the value for EA1 will usually be a
negative number
An element can also accept more than one electron, in which case successive electron
affinities are used
For example, the second electron affinity (EA2) and third electron affinity (EA3) of an
element represent the formation of 1 mole of gaseous ions with 2- and 3- charges
respectively
The second and third electron affinities are endothermic, as energy is absorbed
This is because the incoming electron is added to an already negative ion
Energy is required to overcome the repulsive forces between the incoming electron
and negative ion
Since these are endothermic processes, the values will be positive
Second & third electron affinity table
Factors affecting electron affinity

The value of the electron affinity depends on how strongly the incoming electron is
attracted to the nucleus
The greater the attractive forces between the electron and nucleus, the more energy is
released and therefore the more exothermic (more negative) the EA1 value will be
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The factors affecting the electron affinity of an element are the same as those that affect YOUR NOTES
the ionisation energy (the formation of positive ions via the loss of electrons) 
These are:
Nuclear charge: the greater the nuclear charge, the stronger the attractive forces
between an incoming electron and the nucleus
Distance: the greater the distance between the nucleus and the outermost
shell/orbital where the electron is added, the weaker the force of attraction
Shielding: the greater the number of shells, the greater the shielding effect and the
weaker the force of attraction
Trends in electron affinity of Group 16 & Group 17 elements
Electron affinities of non-metals become more exothermic across a period, with a
maximum at Group 17
There is generally a downwards trend in the size of the electron affinities of the elements in
Group 16 and 17
The electron affinities generally become less exothermic for each successive element
going down both Groups, apart from the first member of each Group (oxygen and
fluorine respectively)
Electron affinity table
An atom of chlorine has a greater nuclear charge than an atom of sulfur

Chlorine will therefore have a greater attractive force between its nucleus and its outer
electrons
More energy is released upon adding an electron to chlorine, so the EA1 of Cl is more
exothermic than for S
Going down Group 16 and 17:
The outermost electrons are held less tightly to the nucleus as they are further away
Page 5 of 30
The number of electron shells increases causing an increased shielding of the YOUR NOTES
outermost electrons 
It gets more difficult to add an electron to the outer shell
Less energy is released upon adding an electron to the outer shell
So generally, the EA1 becomes less exothermic
Fluorine is an exception and has a lower EA1 than chlorine
Fluorine has a very small atomic radius
This means that the electron density of fluorine is high
There is more repulsion between the incoming electron and the electrons that are
already present in fluorine
These repulsive forces reduce the attractive forces between the incoming electron
and nucleus
As a result, the EA1 of fluorine is less exothermic than expected
Page 6 of 30
5.1.3 Constructing Born-Haber Cycles YOUR NOTES


Constructing Born-Haber Cycles
To calculate the lattice energy (ΔHlattꝋ) of an ionic compound, a Born-Haber cycle is used,
which is a special type of energy cycle
To find the ΔHlattꝋ of an ionic compound, the following values must be known:
Enthalpy change of formation (ΔHfꝋ)
The various enthalpy changes involved when going from elements in their standard
states to their gaseous ions (the sum of all of these can be referred to as ΔH1ꝋ)
The various enthalpy changes involved when going from elements in their standard states
to their gaseous ions include:
Enthalpy change of atomisation of each element
First ionisation energy of the metal
Successive ionisation energies of the metal if applicable
First electron affinity of the non-metal
Successive electron affinities of the non-metal if applicable
The order that these are written in the Born-Haber cycle is important - they must be done in
the order written above
First ionisation energy cannot take place before atomisation, because first ionisation
energy is the process of turning gaseous atoms into gaseous ions
Electron affinity cannot take place before first ionisation energy, since the electrons
must be lost from the metal first during ionisation, to be present in order for the non-
metal to gain them
Hess’s law states that ‘the enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is the same regardless
of the route taken, as long as the final and initial conditions and states of reactants and
products are the same for each route’
Although a Born-Haber cycle is usually constructed and used to calculate the lattice
energy of an ionic compound, the cycle could be used to calculate any stage in the cycle,
since an energy change is the same regardless of the route taken
For example, the energy cycle shows that there are two routes to go from the elements in
their standard states to the ionic compound:
Each route begins at the same stage of the cycle and ends at the same stage of the
cycle
According to Hess’s law, the enthalpy change for both routes is the same, so the cycle can
be used to calculate an unknown value within the cycle
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YOUR NOTES

The green arrow shows the indirect route, which is equal in energy to the direct route of the
element in the standard states changing into the ionic compound (blue arrow)
Worked example: Constructing a Born-Haber cycle for KCl
Page 8 of 30
YOUR NOTES

Worked example: Constructing a Born-Haber cycle for MgO
Page 9 of 30
YOUR NOTES

Page 10 of 30
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
When constructing Born-Haber cycles, be sure to use ionisation energies (IE) for
metals (as metals lose electrons) and electron affinities (EA) for non-metals (as
non-metals gain electrons).Remember that the order that the steps go in is
important!
Page 11 of 30
5.1.4 Calculations using Born-Haber Cycles YOUR NOTES


Calculations Using Born-Haber Cycles
Once a Born-Haber cycle has been constructed, it is possible to calculate the lattice
energy (ΔHlattꝋ) by applying Hess’s law and rearranging:
ΔHfꝋ = ΔHatꝋ + ΔHatꝋ + IE + EA + ΔHlattꝋ
If we simplify this into three terms, this makes the equation easier to see:
ΔHlattꝋ
ΔHfꝋ
ΔH1ꝋ (the sum of all of the various enthalpy changes necessary to convert the elements
in their standard states to gaseous ions)
The simplified equation becomes
ΔHfꝋ = ΔH1ꝋ + ΔHlattꝋ
So, if we rearrange to calculate the lattice energy, the equation becomes
ΔHlattꝋ = ΔHfꝋ - ΔH1ꝋ
When calculating the ΔHlattꝋ, all other necessary values will be given in the question
A Born-Haber cycle could be used to calculate any stage in the cycle
For example, you could be given the lattice energy and asked to calculate the enthalpy
change of formation of the ionic compound
The principle would be exactly the same
Work out the direct and indirect route of the cycle (the stage that you are being asked
to calculate will always be the direct route)
Write out the equation in terms of enthalpy changes and rearrange if necessary to
calculate the required value
Remember: sometimes a value may need to be doubled or halved, depending on the ionic
solid involved
For example, with MgCl2 the value for the first electron affinity of chlorine would need
to be doubled in the calculation, because there are two moles of chlorine atoms
Therefore, you are adding 2 moles of electrons to 2 moles of chlorine atoms, to form 2
moles of Cl- ions
Worked example: Calculating the lattice energy of KCl
Page 12 of 30
YOUR NOTES

Answer
Step 1: The corresponding Born-Haber cycle is:
Page 13 of 30
YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Applying Hess’ law, the lattice energy of KCl is:

ΔHlattꝋ = ΔHfꝋ - ΔH1ꝋ
ΔHlattꝋ = ΔHfꝋ - [(ΔHatꝋ K) + (ΔHatꝋ Cl) + (IE1 K) + (EA1 Cl)]
Step 3: Substitute in the numbers:
ΔHlattꝋ = (-437) - [(+90) + (+122) + (+418) + (-349)] = -718 kJ mol-1
Worked example: Calculating the lattice energy of MgO
Page 14 of 30
YOUR NOTES

Answer
Step 1: The corresponding Born-Haber cycle is:
Step 2: Applying Hess’ law, the lattice energy of MgO is:
Page 15 of 30
ΔHlattꝋ = ΔHfꝋ - ΔH1ꝋ YOUR NOTES

ΔHlattꝋ = ΔHfꝋ - [(ΔHatꝋ Mg) + (ΔHatꝋ O) + (IE1 Mg) + (IE2 Mg) + (EA1 O) + (EA2 O)] 
Step 3: Substitute in the numbers:
ΔHlattꝋ = (-602) - [(+148) + (+248) + (+736) + (+1450) + (-142) + (+770)]
= -3812 kJ mol-1
 Exam Tip
Make sure you use brackets when carrying out calculations using Born-Haber
cycles as you may forget a +/- sign which will affect your final answer!
Page 16 of 30
5.1.5 Factors Affecting Lattice Energy YOUR NOTES


Lattice Energy: Ionic Charge & Radius
The two key factors which affect lattice energy, ΔHlattꝋ, are the charge and radius of the
ions that make up the crystalline lattice
Ionic radius
The lattice energy becomes less exothermic as the ionic radius of the ions increases
This is because the charge on the ions is more spread out over the ion when the ions are
larger
The ions are also further apart from each other in the lattice
The attraction between ions is between the centres of the ions involved, so the bigger
the ions the bigger the distance between the centre of the ions
Therefore, the electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions in
the lattice are weaker
For example, the lattice energy of caesium fluoride (CsF) is less exothermic than the lattice
energy of potassium fluoride (KF)
Since both compounds contain a fluoride (F-) ion, the difference in lattice energy must
be due to the caesium (Cs+) ion in CsF and potassium (K+) ion in KF
Potassium is a Group 1 and Period 4 element
Caesium is a Group 1 and Period 6 element
This means that the Cs+ ion is larger than the K+ ion
There are weaker electrostatic forces of attraction between the Cs+ and F- ions
compared to K+ and F- ions
As a result, the lattice energy of CsF is less exothermic than that of KF
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YOUR NOTES

The lattice energies get less exothermic as the ionic radius of the ions increases
Ionic charge
The lattice energy gets more exothermic as the ionic charge of the ions increases
The greater the ionic charge, the higher the charge density
This results in stronger electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions in
the lattice
As a result, the lattice energy is more exothermic
For example, the lattice energy of calcium oxide (CaO) is more exothermic than the lattice
energy of potassium chloride (KCl)
Calcium oxide is an ionic compound which consists of calcium (Ca2+) and oxide (O2-)
ions
Potassium chloride is formed from potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-) ions
The ions in calcium oxide have a greater ionic charge than the ions in potassium
chloride
This means that the electrostatic forces of attraction are stronger between the Ca2+
and O2- compared to the forces between K+ and Cl-
Therefore, the lattice energy of calcium oxide is more exothermic, as more energy is
released upon its formation from its gaseous ions
Ca2+ and O2- are also smaller ions than K+ and Cl-, so this also adds to the value for the
lattice energy being more exothermic
Page 18 of 30
5.1.6 Enthalpies of Solution & Hydration YOUR NOTES


Enthalpy Change of Hydration & Solution
Enthalpy change of solution
The standard enthalpy change of solution (ΔHsolꝋ) is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of
an ionic substance dissolves in sufficient water to form a very dilute solution
The symbol (aq) is used to show that the solid is dissolved in sufficient water
For example, the enthalpy changes of solution for potassium chloride are described by
the following equations:
KCl(s) + aq → KCl(aq)
OR
KCl(s) + aq → K+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
ΔHsolꝋ can be exothermic (negative) or endothermic (positive)
Enthalpy change of hydration
The lattice energy (ΔHlattꝋ) of KCl is -711 kJ mol-1
This means that 711 kJ mol-1 is released when the KCl ionic lattice is formed
Therefore, to break the attractive forces between the K+ and Cl- ions, +711 kJ mol-1 is
needed
However, the ΔHsolꝋ of KCl is +26 kJ mol-1
This means that another +685 kJ mol-1 (711 - 26) is required to break the KCl lattice
This is compensated for by the standard enthalpy change of hydration (ΔHhydꝋ)
The standard enthalpy change of hydration (ΔHhydꝋ) is the enthalpy change when 1 mole
of a specified gaseous ion dissolves in sufficient water to form a very dilute solution
For example, the enthalpy change of hydration for magnesium ions is described by the
following equation:
Mg2+(g) + aq → Mg2+(aq)
Hydration enthalpies are the measure of the energy that is released when there is an
attraction formed between the ions and water molecules
Hydration enthalpies are exothermic
When an ionic solid dissolves in water, positive and negative ions are formed
Water is a polar molecule with a δ- oxygen (O) atom and δ+ hydrogen (H) atoms which will
form ion-dipole attractions with the ions present in the solution
The oxygen atom in water will be attracted to the positive ions and the hydrogen atoms will
be attracted to the negative ions
Since the ΔHhydꝋ of KCl is -685 kJ mol-1, 685 kJ mol-1 is released in forming these ion-dipole
attractions when KCl dissolves in water
This compensates for the remaining +685 kJ mol-1 which was needed to break down
the KCl lattice
Page 19 of 30
YOUR NOTES

The polar water molecules will form ion-dipole bonds with the ions in solution (a) causing the
ions to become hydrated (b)
Page 20 of 30
5.1.7 Constructing Energy Cycles using Enthalpy Changes & Lattice Energy YOUR NOTES

Energy Cycle Using Enthalpy Changes & Lattice Energy
The standard enthalpy change of hydration (ΔHhydꝋ) can be calculated by constructing
energy cycles and applying Hess’s law
Energy cycle involving enthalpy change of solution, lattice energy, and enthalpy change of
hydration
The energy cycle shows that there are two routes to go from the ionic lattice to the
hydrated ions in an aqueous solution:
Route 1: going from ionic solid → ions in aqueous solution (this is the direct route)
ΔHsolꝋ= Enthalpy of solution
Route 2: going from ionic lattice → gaseous ions → ions in aqueous solution (this is the
indirect route)
-ΔHlattꝋ + ΔHhydꝋ = reverse lattice enthalpy + hydration enthalpies
Lattice enthalpy usually means Lattice formation enthalpy, in other words bond forming. If
we are breaking the lattice then this is reversing the enthalpy change so a negative sign is
added in front of the term (alternatively it is called lattice dissociation enthalpy)
According to Hess’s law, the enthalpy change for both routes is the same, such that:
Page 21 of 30
ΔHsolꝋ = -ΔHlattꝋ + ΔHhydꝋ YOUR NOTES

ΔHhydꝋ = ΔHsolꝋ + ΔHlattꝋ 
Each ion will have its own enthalpy change of hydration, ΔHhydꝋ, which will need to be taken
into account during calculations
The total ΔHhydꝋ is found by adding the ΔHhydꝋ values of both anions and cations
together
Worked example: Constructing an energy cycle and energy level diagram
of KCl
Answer
Energy cycle:
Energy level diagram:
Page 22 of 30
YOUR NOTES

Worked example: Constructing an energy cycle and energy level diagram

of MgCl2
Page 23 of 30
YOUR NOTES

Answer
Energy cycle:
Energy level diagram:
Page 24 of 30
YOUR NOTES

Page 25 of 30
5.1.8 Energy Cycle Calculations YOUR NOTES


Energy Cycle Calculations
The energy cycle involving the enthalpy change of solution (ΔHsolꝋ ), lattice energy (ΔHlattꝋ),
and enthalpy change of hydration (ΔHhydꝋ) can be used to calculate the different enthalpy
values
According to Hess’s law, the enthalpy change of the direct and of the indirect route will be
the same, such that:
ΔHhydꝋ = ΔHlattꝋ + ΔHsolꝋ
This equation can be rearranged depending on which enthalpy value needs to be
calculated
For example, ΔHlattꝋ can be calculated using:
ΔHlattꝋ = ΔHhydꝋ - ΔHsolꝋ
Remember: the total ΔHhydꝋ is found by adding the ΔHhydꝋ values of both anions and
cations together
Remember: take into account the number of each ion when completing calculations
For example, MgCl2 has two chloride ions, so when completing calculations this will
need to be accounted for
In this case, you would need to double the value of the hydration enthalpy, since you
are hydrating 2 moles of chloride ions instead of 1
Worked example: Calculating the enthalpy change of hydration of chloride
Answer
Step 1: Draw the energy cycle of KCl
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YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Apply Hess’s law to find ΔHhydꝋ [Cl-]

ΔHhydꝋ = (ΔHlattꝋ[KCl]) + (ΔHsolꝋ[KCl])
(ΔHhydꝋ[K+]) + (ΔHhydꝋ[Cl-]) = (ΔHlattꝋ[KCl]) + (ΔHsolꝋ[KCl])
(ΔHhydꝋ[Cl-]) = (ΔHlattꝋ[KCl]) + (ΔHsolꝋ[KCl]) - (ΔHhydꝋ[K+])
Step 3: Substitute the values to find ΔHhydꝋ [Cl-]
ΔHhydꝋ [Cl-] = (-711) + (+26) - (-322) = -363 kJ mol-1
Worked example: Calculating the enthalpy change of hydration of
magnesium
Answer
Page 27 of 30
Step 1: Draw the energy cycle of MgCl2 YOUR NOTES


Step 2: Apply Hess’s law to find ΔHhydꝋ [Mg2+]

ΔHhydꝋ = (ΔHlattꝋ[MgCl2]) + (ΔHsolꝋ [MgCl2])
(ΔHhydꝋ[Mg2+]) + (2ΔHhydꝋ [Cl-]) = (ΔHlattꝋ [MgCl2]) + (ΔHsolꝋ [MgCl2])
(ΔHhydꝋ[Mg2+]) = (ΔHlattꝋ[MgCl2]) + (ΔHsolꝋ[MgCl2]) - (2ΔHhydꝋ[Cl-])
Step 3: Substitute the values to find ΔHhydꝋ [Mg2+]
ΔHhydꝋ[Mg2+] = (-2592) + (-55) - (2 x -363) = -1921 kJ mol-1
Page 28 of 30
5.1.9 Factors Affecting Enthalpy of Hydration YOUR NOTES


Enthalpy of Hydration: Ionic Charge & Radius
The standard enthalpy change of hydration (ΔHhydꝋ) is affected by the amount that the ions
are attracted to the water molecules
The factors which affect this attraction are the ionic charge and radius
Ionic radius
ΔHhydꝋ becomes more exothermic with decreasing ionic radii
Smaller ions have a greater charge density resulting in stronger ion-dipole attractions
between the water molecules and the ions in the solution
Therefore, more energy is released when they become hydrated and ΔHhydꝋ becomes
more exothermic
For example, the ΔHhydꝋ of magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) is more exothermic than the
ΔHhydꝋ of barium sulfate (BaSO4)
Since both compounds contain a sulfate (SO42-) ion, the difference in ΔHhydꝋ must be
due to the magnesium (Mg2+) ion in MgSO4 and barium (Ba2+) ion in BaSO4
Magnesium is a Group 2 and Period 3 element
Barium is a Group 2 and Period 6 element
This means that the Mg2+ ion is smaller than the Ba2+ ion
The attraction is therefore much stronger for the Mg2+ ion
As a result, the standard enthalpy of hydration of MgSO4 is more exothermic than that
of BaSO4
Ionic charge
ΔHhydꝋ is more exothermic for ions with larger ionic charges
Ions with large ionic charges have a greater charge density resulting in stronger ion-
dipole attractions between the water molecules and the ions in the solution
Therefore, more energy is released when they become hydrated and ΔHhydꝋ becomes
more exothermic
For example, the ΔHhydꝋ of calcium oxide (CaO) is more exothermic than the ΔHhydꝋ of
potassium chloride (KCl)
Calcium oxide is an ionic compound that consists of calcium (Ca2+) and oxide (O2-)
ions
Potassium chloride is formed from potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-) ions
Both of the ions in calcium oxide have a greater ionic charge than the ions in
potassium chloride
This means that the attractions are stronger between the water molecules and Ca2+
and O2- ions upon hydration of CaO
The attractions are weaker between the water molecules and K+ and Cl- ions upon
hydration of KCl
Therefore, the ΔHhydꝋ of calcium oxide is more exothermic as more energy is released
upon its hydration
Page 29 of 30
YOUR NOTES

The enthalpy of hydration is more exothermic for smaller ions and for ions with a greater
ionic charge
Page 30 of 30

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5.1 Chemical Energetics (A Level Only)

5.1.1 Lattice Energy & Enthalpy Change of Atomisation YOUR NOTES

Factors affecting electron affinity

An atom of chlorine has a greater nuclear charge than an atom of sulfur

5.1.3 Constructing Born-Haber Cycles YOUR NOTES

Worked example: Constructing a Born-Haber cycle for MgO

5.1.4 Calculations using Born-Haber Cycles YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Applying Hess’ law, the lattice energy of KCl is:

Step 2: Applying Hess’ law, the lattice energy of MgO is:

ΔHlattꝋ = ΔHfꝋ - ΔH1ꝋ YOUR NOTES

5.1.5 Factors Affecting Lattice Energy YOUR NOTES

5.1.6 Enthalpies of Solution & Hydration YOUR NOTES

ΔHsolꝋ = -ΔHlattꝋ + ΔHhydꝋ YOUR NOTES

Energy level diagram:

Worked example: Constructing an energy cycle and energy level diagram

Energy level diagram:

5.1.8 Energy Cycle Calculations YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Apply Hess’s law to find ΔHhydꝋ [Cl-]

Step 1: Draw the energy cycle of MgCl2 YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Apply Hess’s law to find ΔHhydꝋ [Mg2+]

5.1.9 Factors Affecting Enthalpy of Hydration YOUR NOTES

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