Hci - Unit Ii

CHAPTER 4
INTERACTION DESIGN BASICS

Interaction Design Basics: Introduction - What is design? - The process
of design - User focus - Scenarios - Navigation design - Screen design
and layout - Iteration and Prototyping.
}> Interaction design is not just about the artifact that is produced, whether a
physical device or a computer program, but about understanding and choosing
how that is going to affect the way people work.
}> The artifacts are not only devices and programs, but also manuals, tutorials,
online help systems.
}> It is not only designing a system,or an artifact, but to think instead about
designing interventions.
}> The product of a design exercise is that we intervene to change the situation as it
is; of course, changing it for the better.
}> A simple definition is: achieving goals within constraints.

}> . Goal describes the purpose of the design we are intending to produce, for whom
and Why do they want it?
~ Constraints describe the materials to be used, standards to be adopted, cost, time,
safety issues etc. We cannot always achieve all our goals within the constraints.
~ Trade-offs can be set to relax goals or constraints so that others can be met.
~ THE GOLDEN RULE OF DESIGN
• The golden rule of design is to understand the materials used to design.
• For Human-Computer Interaction the obvious materials are the human and
the computer.
Human Computer Interaction Interaction Design Basics
---------------.,..---------------------
To understand computers we should know the limitations, capacities, tools, ~ Requirements: .what is wanted This is the first stage which establishes what
• \
exactly is needed. The ways of attaining them are: interviewing people,
.. platforms
To understand people we should their psychological and social aspects,
human error etc,
videotaping them, looking at the documents and objects that they work with,
observing them directly.
~ TO ERR IS HUMAN ~ Analysis: The results of observation and interview need to be ordered in some
• Physical materials are treated better in most designs than people. An way to bring out key issues and communicate with later stages of design. These
'operator error' in an air crash is mentioned as 'phrase 'human error'. techniques can be used both to represent the situation as it is and also the desired
Systems should be designed to reduce the likelihood of those mistakes and situation.
to minimize the consequences when mistakes happen. ~ Design: It is a central stage when you move from what you want, to how to do it.
• It is the .iature of humans to make mistakes, and systems should be designed At this stage the input from theoretical work is most helpful, including cognitive
to reduce the likelihood of those mistakes and to minimize the consequences models, organizational issues and understanding communication.
when mistakes happen. " . Iteration and prototyping: One cannot expect to get designs right first time.
~ THE CENTRAL MESSAGE - THE USER There is a need to evaluate a design to see how well it is working and where
• It is said that the success of the various methods used in HCI lies not in how there can be improvements. It is hard to get real feedback without trying it out.
good they are, but in that they simply focus the mind of the designer on the Most user interface design therefore involves some form of prototyping,
user. producing early versions of systems to try out with real users.
• This is the core of interaction design: put the user first, keep the user in the ~ Implementation and deployment: After we are satisfied with our design, it
center and remember the user at the end. needs to be created and deployed. This will involve writing code, perhaps
making hardware, writing documentation and manuals.
~ The process of design is shown below figure 4.1.

~ The start of any interaction design exercise must be the intended user or users.
guidelines
principles This is often stated as: 'know your users'
precise
specification ~ Almost every system has an impact beyond the person immediately using it.
~ The act of looking at the stock control system of a warehouse involves the
what is there
vs. warehouse manager, the salesperson and the client.
what is wanted
evaluation prototype ~ 'Stakeholders are the people who are affected directly or indirectly by a system.
heuristics architectures
documentation ~ Identify the users as young or old, experienced computer users or novices, etc.,
help
Fig. 4.1. Interaction design processdiagram

~ Individuals differ a lot and there is a tendency for women to have better ~ Scenarios can be used as a script to act out potential patterns of use.
empathetic skills. ~ Scenarios can be used to:
~ Ask the users using forms: structured interviews about their job or life, open- • Communicate with other designers, clients or users
ended discussions, to bring the potential users fully into the design process. • Validate other models
~ A participatory design involves users throughout the design process to get a deep • Express dynamics of what a system would look like
knowledge oftheir work context and needs. ~ Scenarios are a resource that can be used and reused throughout the design
~ By being involved, users come to 'own' the design and become champions for it process helping us see what is wanted, suggesting how users will deal with the
once deployed. potential design, checking that proposed implementations will work, and
~ A system must be not only useful and usable, but also used. generating test cases for final evaluation.
~ People may also be able to tell you about how things really happen
~ What people tell you is of the utmost importance, but it is not the whole story.
~ People interact at several levels which include
~ A professional in any field is much practiced and can do things in the domain.
An academic in the same field may not be able to do things, but she knows about • Widgets - choice of widgets and wording in menus and buttons·
the things in the domain. • Screens or windows - understand the logical grouping of buttons
~ These are different kinds of knowledge and skill. Sometimes people know both, • Navigation within the application - understand what will happen when a
button is pressed,
but not necessarily so. Because of this it is important to watch what people do as
well as hear what they say. • Environment - swapping between applications, perhaps cut and paste.
~ Two main kinds of navigation design are
~ This can be done by asking them to write down what they are doing periodically
• local structure- looking from one screen or page out
or look at the artifacts they are using and creating etc., The observations tell you
what they do, they will tell you why. • global structure - structure of site, movement between screens.
~ It will not be always possible to involve many users throughout our design ~~1. LOCAL STRUCTURE
exercise. Instead we can at least try to imagine their experiences. ~ To seek the goal
~ One method that has been quite successful is the persona. A persona is a rich • Take the most efficient route
picture of an imaginary person who represents our core user group. • make some assessment at each point in the interaction of whether we are
getting closer to their goal
~ Four golden rules are
~ Scenarios are the simplest design representation. • Knowing where you are ego - in the top of the screen, the path of titles
~ Scenarios force us to think about the design in detail and notice potential showing where the page is in the site - a personal movie player says
problems in the design process before they happen 'downloading now'.
" Knowing what you can do - what can be pressed or clicked to go somewhere
}> Human-computer dialog is the pattern of the interaction between the parties.
or do something.
}> It describes the overall patterns of movement between main states of a device or
" knowing where you are going or what will happen - undo or reverse actions
windows in a PC application, but the details differ each time it is run.
of clicking the button
" knowing where you've been - or what you've done - to understand our y A network diagram showing the principal states or screens linked together with
arrows. This can:
navigation
.«1 show what leads to what
8 show what happens when
• include branches and loops
" be more task oriented than a hierarchy
}> Figure 4.3 shows a network diagram illustrating the main screens for adding or
... try to avoid these bits!

deleting a user from the messaging system
4.6.2. GLOBAL STRUCTURE - HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION "- --1-

1
-.-- - [ remove user I----......~~ confirm ....J
~ Global structure discuss about the overall structure of an application. It discusses

about the way the various screens, pages or device states link to one another:
~ The below figure 4.2, reflects the menu structure of a PC application or the site add user
structure on the web.

~ A detailed knowledge ofthe intended users is essential. Fig. 4.3. Network if screens/states
The system. Y Navigation design has several implications
e Style issues: One should normally conform to platform standards, such as
positions for menus on a PC application, to ensure consistency between
applications.
• Functional issues: On a PC application we need to be able to interact with
files, read standard formats and be able to handle cut and paste.
• Navigation issues: One may need to support linkages between applications,
for example allowing the embedding of data from one application in
Fig. 4.2. Application functional hierarchy another.
• Usually scanning for surnames

A single screen image has to present information clearly and also act as the locus
=> make it easy!
for interacting,with the system.
Alan Dix
4.7.1. TOOLS FOR LAYOUT JanetFinlay
Gregory Abowd Dix ,Alan
The tools for layout are Russell Beale Finlay, Janet
Alan Dix Abowd, Gregory
. ~ Grouping and structure Janet Finlay Beale,Russell
Gregory Abowd
Logically related things must be physically kept together: Russell Beale
• Eg
Fig. 4.4. Looking up surnames
.:. Administrative information
./ Billing details • name lists should be laid out in columns or have forename and surname
./ Delivery details reversed .

~ White space
.:. Order information
./ Order line 1 Spaces can be used
./ Order line 2 • to leave gaps between paragraphs or space between sections in a report.
• to create more complex structures.
~ Order of groups and items • to highlight a quote or graphic in magazines.
• should match screen order 4.7.2. USER ACTION AND CONTROL
• should follow the order in which the tab key moves between fields
~ Entering information
~ Decoration
• can use boxes and a separating line to make the grouping clear. • A clear logical layout is needed for presenting and entering information.
.• Other decorative features like font style, and text or background colors can • A right-justified text for the field labels, smaller fonts can be used for field
be used to emphasize groupings labels in a graphical interface and labels can placed just above and to the left
~ Alignment of the field they refer to.
• lists of text items should normally be aligned to the left Knowing what to do
• numbers should normally be aligned to the right • elements of a screen can be passive by, simply giving information; or active,
which expects an user to fill information
• The user must recognize the elements when they see them
);> Affordances );> The other main approach is to involve real users either in a controlled
• The psychological idea ofaffordance says that things may suggest by their experimental setting, or in a real-use environment.
shape and other attributes what we can do to them. );> The result will usually be a list of faults or problems which is followed by a
redesign exercise, which is then prototyped, evaluated ...
• Eg. clicking on an icon.
>
);>. Figure 4.4 shows this process.
4.7.3. APPROPRIATE APPEARANCE
);> Presenting information De';9n r---IL-..--_~<

Prototype eva''''e ok? • Done'
• The way of presenting information on screen depends on the kind of
information, on the technology available to present it and on the purpose for
which it is being used.
Re-design
• For complex numerical data, we can use scatter graphs, histograms or 3D
surfaces; for hierarchical structures, we may consider outlines or Fig. 4.5. Role of'prototyping
organization diagrams. );> Iteration and prototyping are the universally accepted 'best practice' approach
);> Aesthetics and utility for interaction design.
• good graphic design and attractive displays can increase users' satisfaction );> However, hill climbing doesn't always work.
and thus improve productivity. );> Two things to be done to make prototyping work:
);> Makinga mess of it: color and 3D • To understand what is wrong and how to improve.
• an overuse of color can be distracting • A good start point.
• color should be used sparingly
• 3D effects are good for representing physical information ***********
);> Localization/internationalization
• The process of making software suitable for different languages and cultures
is called localization or internationalization.
4.8. ITERATION AND PROTOTYPING
);> Formative evaluation is done to improve designs

);> One approach.is to get an expert to use a set of guidelines and look screen by
screen to see ifthere are any violations.
Human Computer Interaction
Interaction Design Basics
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
7:. What are the two main kinds of navigation design?
1. State down the tools for layout. .:. Two main kinds of navigation design are
• Grouping and structure • local structure - looking from one screen or page out
• Order of groups and items • global structure - structure
• Decoration 7. State the different implications ofnavigation design.
• Alignment • Style issues One should normally conform to platform standards, such as
2. What is design? positions for menus on a PC application, to ensure consistency between
• Goal describes the purpose of the design we are intending to produce, for applications.
whom and Why do they want it? • Functional issues On a PC application we need to be able to interact with files,
• Constraints describe the materials to be used, standards to be adopted, cost, read standard formats and be able to handle cut and paste.
time, safety issues etc. We cannot always achieve all our goals within the • Navigation issues One may need to support linkages between applications, for
constraints. example allowing the embedding of data from one application in another
• Trade-offs can be set to relax goals or constraints so that others can be met 8. What are different tools oflayout?
3. List the golden rules ofdesign.. The tools for layout are
The golden rule of design is to understand the materials used todesign. • Grouping and structure
4. . Enlist the design process. • . Order of groups and items
• Requirements - what is wanted • Decoration
• Analysis • Alignment
• Design • White space
• Iteration and prototyping 9. What is Localization
• Implementation and deployment The process of making software suitable for different languages and cultures is
5. What are Scenarios? called localization or internationalization.
.:. Scenarios force us to think about the design in detail and notice potential 10. Draw the prototyping cycle
problems in the design process before they happen
.:. Scenarios can be used as a script to act out potential patterns of use.
D"'9 0 t--I'--pr-ot-ot-yp-e--K ''''",to ~DO",!
•:. Scenarios can be used to:
• Communicate with other designers, clients or users
• Validate other models
Re-design
• Express dynamics of what a system would look like ***********
IEWci~ESTI .
1. Explain in detail about design process.

CHAPTER 5
2. Discuss about user focus in detail. HCI IN SOFTWARE PROCESS
3. Explain different types of navigation design in detail.
Introduction -The Software Life Cycle - Usability Engineering - Iterative
4. Explain in detail about different tools of layout.
design .and prototyping - Design Rationale
5. Explain the role of prototyping in design process.
***********
>- Software engineering is a large sub-discipline that addresses the management
and technical issues of the development of software systems.
>- Software life cycle, describes the activities that take place from the initial
concept formation for a software system up until its eventual phasing out and
replacement.
5.2. THE SOFTWARE LIFE Cye
>- The software life cycle identifies the activities that occur in software
development.
>- In the development of a software product, the two parties under consideration are
the customer, who requires the use of the product and the designer, who must
provide the product.
>- The customer can be either the client of the designing cpmpany or the eventual
user of the system
>- The term 'customer' used to refer to the group of people who interact with the
design team and the user or end-user will be refers to those who will interact
with the designed system.
5.2.1. ACTIVITIES IN THE LIFE CYCLE

>- A detailed description of the life cycle activities is depicted in Figure 5.1
>- Requirements specification
~ Human Computer Interaction gel in Software Process
• the designer and customer try to capture a description of what the eventual -- I Requirements
~pecification
system will be expected to provide
• Requirements are usually initially expressed in the native language of the
Architectural
customer design
>- Architectural design

Detailed
• Specifies how the system provides the services expected from it. design
• It decomposes the system into components that can either be brought in
from existing software products or be. developed from scratch Coding and
unit testing
independently.
• It also determines the interdependencies between separate components and
Integration
the sharing of resources between components and testing
>- Detailed design

Operation and
• The detailed design is a refinement of the component description provided maintenance
by the architectural design.
. Fig. 5.1. The activities in the waterfall model ofthe software life cycle
>- Coding and unit testing
• The detailed design for a component of the system should then be 5.2.2. VALIDATION AND VERIFICATION
implemented in some executable programming language. >-. As Boehm told validation is as designing 'the right thing' and verification is
• After coding, the component can be tested. designing 'the thing right' .
>- Integration and testing >- Verification of a design will most often occur within a single life-cycle activity
• Individual components that have been tested must be integrated. . or between two adjacent activities.
• Testing is then done to ensure the correct behavior of the system >- Validation of a design demonstrates that within the various activities the
• Acceptance testing is then done with the customers to ensure that the system customer's requirements are satisfied.
meets their requirements. 5.2.3. MANAGEMENT AND CONTRACTUAL ISSUES
>- Maintenance
>- The life cycle model describes only about technical features of software
Maintenance involves the correction of errors in the system which is development.
discovered after release and the revision of the system services to satisfy >- In a technical discussion, managerial issues of design, such as time constraints
requirements that were not realized during previous development and economic forces, are not as important.
>- In management perspective marketability of a system, its training needs, the
availability of skilled personnel or possible subcontractors is taken into account.
Human Computer Interaction flCl in Software Process
~ The technical perspective of the life cycle is described in stages of activity, ~ The discovery in later activities can be reflected in iterations back to earlier
whereas the managerial perspective is described in temporally bound phases. stages.
~ A phase is usually defined in terms of the documentation taken as input to the
phase and the documentation delivered as output from the phase.
~ In the design of an interactive system it's very difficult to determine a priori ~ The ultimate test of usability is based on measurement of user experience
what requirements to impose on the system to maximize its usability. ~ Usability engineering demands that specific usability measures be made explicit
~ So contractual obligation which is a necessary consequence of managing as requirements
"
software development, has negative implications on the design process as well ~ Usability specification
• usability attribute/principle - particular usability attribute of interest
5.2.4. INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS AND THE SOFTWARE LIFE CYCLE
• measuring concept - abstract attribute is made concrete by describing it in terms
~ The actual design process is iterative, work in one design activity affecting work
of the actual product.
in any other activity.
• measuring method - states how the attribute will be measured,
~ This iterative relationship can be represented as in Figure 5.2.
• now level/ worst case/ planned levell best case
cannot assume a linear
sequence of activities ./ The now level indicates the value for the measurement with the existing
Requirements as in the waterfall model
specification
system,
./ The worst case value is the lowest acceptable measurement for the task,
Architectural providing a clear distinction between what will be acceptable and what will
design
be unacceptable in the final product.
./ The planned level is the target for the design and
Detailed
design ./ The best case is the level which is agreed to be the best possible
measurement.
Coding and
unit testing 5.3.1. PROBLEMS WITH USABILITY ENGINEERING
~ Usability metrics is that they rely on measurements of very specific user actions
Integration
and testing in very specific situations
Lots of feedback!
>- It provides a means of satisfying usability specifications and not necessarily
Operation and usability.
maintenance
Fig. 5.2. Representing iteration in the waterfall model

Human Computer Interaction gCI in Software Process
Designing
component/prototype
);> An iterative design process tries to overcome the inherent problems of

incomplete requirements specification by cycling through several designs,
incrementally improving upon the final product with each pass.
);> An iterative design is described by the use of prototypes.
);> There are three main approaches to prototyping:
);> Throw-away prototyping
• The prototype is built and tested.
• The design knowledge gained from this exercise is used to build the final·
no yes
product, butthe actual prototype is discarded. deliver deliver
increment system
);> Figure 5.3 depicts the procedure in using throw-away prototypes.
Fig. 5.4. Incremental prototyping within the life cycle
Preliminary Build Evaluate
requirements prototype prototype );> Evolutionary prototyping
• The prototype is not discarded and serves as the basis for the next iteration
of design,
no Final • In this case, the actual system is seen as evolving from a very limited initial
requirements
version to its final release, as depicted in Figure 5.5.
Fig. 5.3. Throw-away prototyping within requirements specification Build

prototype
);> Incremental prototyping
• The final product is built as separate components, one at a time.
• There is one overall design for the final system, but it is partitioned into Evaluate
prototype
independent and smaller components.
• The final product is then released as a series of products,each subsequent
release including one more component.
• This is depicted in Figure 5.4 '----~--+l Operation and t-----~
maintenance
Fig. 5.5. Evolutionary prototyping throughout the life cycle

He! in Software Process
>- The potential problems of prototyping are,

------ • With this technique, the designers can develop a limited functionality
prototype and enhance its functionality in evaluation by providing the
• Time - Building prototypes takes time.
missing functionality through human intervention.
• Planning most project managers do not have the experience necessary for
~. High-level programming support
adequately planning and costing a design process which involves
• HyperTalk was an example of a special-purpose high-level programming
prototyping.
language which makes it easy for the designer to program certain features of
• Non-functional features - safety, reliability and response time.
an interactive system at the expense ofother system features like speed of
• Contracts - The design process is often governed by contractual agreements
response or space efficiency
between customer and designer which are affected by many of these
managerial and technical issues. 5.4.2. WARNING ABOUT ITERATIVE DESIGN
~ The design decisions made at the very beginning of the prototyping process are
5.4.1. TECHNIQUES FOR PROTOTYPING
wrong and, in practice, design inertia can be so great as never to overcome an
The techniques that are available for producing rapid prototypes are
initial bad decision.
>- Storyboards
>- If a potential usability problem is diagnosed in the process of evaluation, it is
• This is the simplest notion of a prototype
important to understand the reason for the problem and not just detect the
• This is a graphical depiction of the outward appearance of the intended
symptom.
system, without any accompanying system functionality.
• Modern graphical drawing packages can be used to create storyboards
• Effective animatio~ can be done by automated sequencing through a series
>- Design rationale is the information that explains why a computer system is the
of snapshots. Animation illustrates the dynamic aspects of the intended
way it is, including its structural or architectural description and its functional or
user-system interaction
behavioral description.
>- Limited functionality simulations
>- Design rationale has several advantages:
• Some portion ofthe functionality must be simulated by the design team
• communication among the members of a design team throughout life cycle
• There are plenty of prototyping tools available which allow the rapid
• reuse of design knowledge across products
development of such simulation prototypes.
• enforces design discipline
• One among them is HyperCard, a simulation environment for the Macintosh
• presents arguments for design trade-offs
line of Apple computers.
• organizes potentially .large design space
• Another technique for simulation, which does not require very much
• captures contextual information
computer supported functionality, is the Wizard of Oz technique.
> The two types of design rationale are:
• Process-oriented - preserves order of deliberation and decision-making
Human Computer Interaction HCI in Software Process
• Structure-oriented - emphasizes post hoc structuring of considered design 5.5.2. DESIGN SPACE ANALYSIS
alternatives ~ It is structure-oriented
5.5~ 1. PROCESS-ORIENTED·DESIGN RATIONALE ~ The questions represent an agreed characterization of the issues raised based on
~ Issue-based information system(IBIS),is the basis for much of design rationale reflection and understanding of the actual design activities.
~ This approach is based on Questions, Options and Criteria (QOC) notation which
research
~ It isa process-oriented design rationale is a hierarchical structure
~ The main elements of IBIS are ~ Questions (and sub-questions) represent major issues of a design
• issues - hierarchical structure with one 'root' issue ~ Options provide alternative solutions to the question
~ Criteria specifies the means to assess the options in order to make a choice
• positions - potential resolutions of an issue
~ The QOC notation is shown in the below figure 5.7
• arguments - modify the relationship between positions and issues
Criterion
~ elBIS is a graphical version of IBIS
~ The structure of the design rationale is in the form of a directed graph which can
be directly edited by the creator of the design rationale.
Question ? - - - I ~---;,,:----;:;. Criterion
~ Figure 5.6 gives the representation of the glBIS vocabulary.
~ Issues, positions and arguments are nodes in the graph and the connections
,
between them are labeled to clarify the relationship between adjacent nodes
",, \ Criterion
supports .
"",,
\00',"0001 question ~ ...
____ Position .. Argument
_____ responds to
..»
"'''7 »>
Issue
~to·"
Positlon
objects to
.. .
A
rgumen
t
Sub-issue -::::::- Fig. 5.7. The QOC notation
~ Decision Representation Language (DRL) similar to QOC with a larger language
»> ----
Sub-issue - - -
~
and more formal semantics.
Sub-issue - - -
5.5.3. PSYCHOLOGICAL DESIGN RATIONALE
~ \
~ To support task-artefact cycle in which user tasks are affected by the systems
they use
Fig. 5.6. The structure ofa gIBIS design rationale
~ Aims to make explicit consequences of design for users
Human Computer Interaction gel in Software Process
);> Designers identify the tasks the system will support

);> Scenarios are suggested to test task 1. What is Software engineering?
);> Users are observed on the system Software engineering is a large sub-discipline that addresses the management and
);> Psychological claims of system is made explicit technical issues of the development of software systems.
);> Negative aspects of design can be used to improve next iteration of design . 2. What is Software life cycle?
Software life cycle, describes the activities that take place from the initial concept
*********** formation for a software system up until its eventual phasing out and replacement.
3. List down the activities done in the water fall model ofa design process
~ Requirements specification
~ Architectural design
~ Detailed design
~ Coding and unit testing
~ Integration and testing
~ Maintenance
4. Differentiate Verification from Validation
Verification ofa design will most often.occur within a single life-cycle activity or
between two adjacent activities.
Validation of a design demonstrates that within the various activities the
customer's requirements are satisfied :
5. List down the specifications of Usability Engineering
~ usability attribute/principle - particular usability attribute of interest
~ measuring concept - abstract attribute is made concrete by describing it in
terms of the actual product.
~ measuring method - states how the attribute will be measured,
~ now level! worst case/ planned level/ best case
6. List down the problems in usability engineering
~ usability metrics is that they rely on measurements of very specific user
actions in very specific situations
Human Computer Interaction gCI in Software Process
);> it provides a means of satisfying usability specifications and not necessarily );> Non-functional features - safety, reliability and response time.
usability > Contracts
7. What is Prototyping? 13. List down the techniques for producing prototypes
);> An iterative design is described by the use of prototypes The techniques that are available for producing rapid prototypes are Storyboards;
);> An iterative design process tries to overcome the inherent problems of Limited functionality simulations, High-level programming support
incomplete requirements specification by cycling through several designs, 14. What are the different types of design rationale
incrementally improving upon the final product with each pass. The two types of design rationale are process-oriented and structure-oriented.
8. What are the three main approaches to prototyping?
The three main approaches to prototyping are ***********
);> Throw-away prototyping
> Incremental prototyping
> Evolutionary prototyping
/
9. What is Throw-away prototyping?

The design knowledge gained from this type of prototype is used to build the final
product, but the actual prototype is discarded
1. Explain the waterfall model ofthe software life cycle
10. What is Incremental prototyping?
2. Explain the variations in software life cycle of an interactive system.
> The final product is built as separate components, one at a time.
3. Explain the different types of prototyping
> There is one overall design for the final system, but it is partitioned into
4. Describe the different techniques for prototyping
independent and smaller components.
5. Explain design rationale and its types in detail.
);> The final product is then released as a series of products, each subsequent
release including one more component
11. What is Evolutionary prototyplng?
***********
);> The prototype is not discarded and serves as the basis for the next iteration of
design.
> In this case, the actual system is seen as evolving from a very limited initial
version to its final release
12.. What are the potential problems ofprototyping
> Time
);> Planning
CHAPTER 6
DESIGN RULES
Introduction - Principles to support usability - Standards - Guidelines -
Golden rules and heuristics - HeI Patterns
~ Design rules are the rules a designer can follow in order to increase the usability
of the eventual software product
~ The design rules Can be classified along two dimensions, based on the rule's
authority and generality.
~ By authority, we mean an indication of whether or not the rule must be followed
in design or whether it is only suggested.
~ By generality, we mean whether the rule can be applied to many design
situations or whether it is focussed on a more limited application situation.
~ Different types of design rules are
• Principles are abstract design rules, with high generality and low authority.
• Standards are specific design rules, high in authority and limited in
application,
• Guidelines tend to be lower in authority and more general in application.
~ The general principles are the most abstract design rules.

~ These principles are divided into three main categories:
• Learnability - the ease with which new users can begin effective
interaction and achieve maximal performance.
• Flexibility - the multiplicity of ways in which the user and system exchange
information.
Human Computer interaction .
Robustness - the level of support provided to the user in determining

successful achievement and assessment of goals.
--
Design Rules
);> Predictability
~
• determining effect of future actions based on past interaction history

6.2.1. LEARNABILITY • operation visibility which refers to how the user is shown the availability of
~ Learnability concerns the features of the interactive system that allow novice operations that can be performed next
users to understand how to use it initially and then how to attain a maximal level );> Synthesizability
of performance. • Predictability focusses on the user's ability to determine the effect of future
~ Table 6.1 contains a summary of the specific principles that support learnability. interactions
Table 6.1. Summary ofprinciples affecting learnability • The principle of honesty relates to the ability of the user interface to provide
an observable and informative account of a change.
Principle Definition Related principles
• This notification can come immediately or eventually
Predictability Support for the user to determine the Operation visibility • Immediately, requires no further interaction initiated by the user.
effect of future action based on past • Eventually appear, after explicit user directives to .make the change
___ jnterll~~ion hi~!()l)'. .__. _ observable.
Synthesizability Support for the user to assess the Immediate / eventual ~ Familiarity
effect . of past operations on the honesty • the familiarity of an interactive system measures the correlation between the
current state. user's existing knowledge and the knowledge required for effective
Familiarity The extent to which a user's Guessability, interaction.
knowledge and experience in other affordance • Properties of familiarity can be guessability and affordance
real - world or computer based ~ Generalizability
domains can be applied when • Users often try to extend their knowledge of specific interaction behavior to
interacting with a new system. situations that are similar but previously unencountered.
Generalizability Support for the user to extend • The generalizability of an interactive system supports this activity, leading
knowledge of specific interaction to a more complete predictive model of the system for the user.
~ Consistency
within and across applications to
other similar situations. • Consistency is the likeness in behavior arising from similar situations or
similar task objectives
Consistency Likeness in input-output behavior
• Consistency can be expressed in terms of the form of input expressions or
arising from similar situations or
output responses with respect to the meaning of actions in some conceptual
similar task objectives
model of the system.
Human Computer Interaction Design Rules
6.2.2. FLEXIBILITY
• The system can initiate the dialog, in which case the user simply responds to
~ Flexibility refers to the multiplicity of ways in which the end-user and the requests for information. We call this type of dialog system pre-emptive.
system exchange information. • Alternatively the user may be entirely free to initiate any action towards the
~ The principles that contribute to the flexibility of interaction, are summarized in system, in which case the dialog is user pre-emptive.
Table 6.2. • Generally, the user's ability to pre-empt the system is maximized while the
Table 6.2. Summary a/principles affectingflexibility system's ability to pre-empt the user is minimized.
~ Multi-threading
• A thread of a dialog is a coherent subset ofthat dialog
Dialog initiative Allowing the user freedom from System/user pre-
• Multi-threading of the user-system dialog allows for interrction to support
artificial constraints on the input emptiveness
more than one task at a time.
_.._ - - - - ---- . adialogJ1!1po~ed ~y th~syste_~ ___ . ----------._ ..- - - - - - - -
_._~----~ . ~ -
• Concurrent multi-threading allows .simultaneous communication of

Multi-threading Ability of the system to support user Concurrent vs. information pertaining to separate tasks.
interaction pertaining to more than interleaving, multi- • Interleaved multi-threading permits a temporal overlap between separate
one task at a time. modality tasks, but stipulates that at any given instant the. dialog is restricted to a
Task migratability The ability to pass control for the - single task.
execution of a given task so that it ~ Task migratability
becomes either internalized by the • Task migratability concerns the transfer of control for execution of tasks
user or the system or shared between between system and user.
them. • It should be possible for the user or system to pass the control of a task over
Substitutivity Allowing equivalent values of input Representation to the other or promote the task from a completely internalized one to a
and output to be arbitrarily multiplicity, equal shared and cooperative venture.
substituted for each other. oppurtunity • Hence, a task that is internal to one can become internal to the other or
Customizability Modifiability of the user interface by Adaptivity, shared between the two partners.
the user or thesystem. adaptability . • Spell-checking a paper is a good example of the need for task migratability.
.~ Substitutivity
~ Dialog initiative
• Substitutivity requires that equivalent values can be substituted for each
• During an interaction between user and system as a dialog between partners
other
it is important to consider which partner has the initiative in the
• Substitutivity contributes towards flexibility by allowing the user to choose
conversation.
whichever form best suits the needs of the moment.
1
Human ComputerInteraction Design Rules
• Representation multiplicity illustrates flexibility for state rendering. Responsiveness How the user perceives the Stability
• Equal opportunity blurs the distinction between input and output at the rate of communication with
interface the system.
~ Customizability
Task conformance The degree to which the Task completeness, task
• Customizability is the modifiability of the user interface by the user or the
system services support all of adequacy
system
the tasks the user wishes to
• It can be user-initiated modification called adaptability and system-initiated
perform and in the way that
modification, referred as adaptivity.
the user understands them.
• Adaptability refers to the user's ability to adjust the form of input and
~ Observability
output.
• Observability allows the user to evaluate the internal state of the system by
• . Adaptivity is automatic customization of the user interface by the system.
means of its perceivable representation at the interface
• The distinction between adaptivity and adaptability is that the user plays an
• Observability can be discussed under five other principles: browsability,
explicit role in adaptability, whereas his role in an adaptive interface is more
defaults, reachability, persistence and operation visibility.
implicit. '
• Browsability allows the user to explore the current internal state of the
6.2.3. ROBUSTNESS
system via the limited view provided at the interface.
~ The robustness of interaction covers features that support the successful • The availability of defaults can assist the user by passive recall which
~chievement and assessment ofthe goals. reduces the number of physical actions necessary to input a value.
~ A summary of the principles of robustness is presented in Table 6.3. • Providing default values is a kind of error prevention mechanism.
Table 6.3. Summary ofprinciples affecting robustness • There are two kinds of default values: static and dynamic.
• Reachability refers to the possibility of navigation through the observable
system states.
Observabil ity Ability of the user to evaluate Browsability, static/dynamic
• Persistence deals with the duration' of the effect of a communication act and
the internal state of the defaults, reachability,
the ability of the user to make use of that effect.
system from its perceivable persistence, operation'
~ Recoverability
J~pre~en~atig_n~________ .__ ___ _vi~i~il_i~y . __ ---_ ...... _,._.-.---_.-
-~-------------_._--._- -- ~ - -
• Recoverability is the ability to reach a desired goal after recognition of some

Recoverability Ability of the user to take Reachability, error in a previous interaction
corrective action once an forward/backward recovery, • There are two directions in which recovery can occur, forward or backward.
error has been recognized. commensurate effort
Human ComputerInteraction Design Rules
• Forward error recovery involves the acceptance of the current state and
negotiation from that state towards the desired state. ~ The majority of design rules for interactive systems are suggestive and more
• Backward error recovery is an attempt to undo the effects of previous general guidelines
interaction in order to return to a prior state before proceeding. ~ Guidelines can be abstract or specific.
• Recovery can be initiated by the system or by the user. ~. The guidelines can also be automated by providing a direct means for translating
• The principle of commensurate effort states that if it is difficult to undo a detailed design specifications into actual implementation.
given effect on the state, then it should have been difficult to do in the first ~ Abstract guidelines (principles) are applicable during early life cycle activities
~ Detailed guidelines (style guides) are applicable during later life cycle activities
place.
~ Understanding justification for guidelines aids in resolving conflict.
~ Responsiveness
• Responsiveness measures the rate of communication between the system
and the.user.
~ Design rules are "Broad brush" design rules
• Response time is generally defined as the duration of time needed by the
~ They provide us useful check list for good design
system to express state changes to the user.
~ Different sets of heuristics are
~ Task conformance
• Nielsen's 10 Heuristics
• Task completeness addresses the coverage issue and task adequacy • Shneiderman's 8 Golden Rules
addresses the user's understanding ofthe tasks • Norman's 7 Principles
• Task completeness refers to the level to which the system services can be
6.5.1. SHNEIDERMAN'S EIGHT GOLDEN RULES OF INTERFACE DESIGN
mapped onto all ofthe user tasks
~ The eight golden rules are
1. Strive for consistency in action Sequences, layout, terminology, command use
and so on.
~ Standards for interactive system design are usually set by national or
2. Enable frequent users to use shortcuts, such as abbreviations, special key
international bodies to ensure compliance with a set of design rules by a large sequences and macros, to perform regular, familiar actions more quickly.
community.
3. Offer informative feedback for every user action, at a level appropriate to the
~ Standards can apply specifically to either the hardware or the software used to
magnitude of the action.
build the interactive system.
4. Design dialogs to yield closure so that the user knows when they have
• ISO 9241 defines usability as effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction with completed a task.
which users accomplish tasks
5. Offer error prevention and simple error handling so that, ideally, users are ~ Patterns do not exist in isolation but are linked to other patterns in languages
prevented from making mistakes and, if they do, they are offer~d clear and which enable complete designs to be generated
informative instructions to enable them to recover. ~ Characteristics of patterns
6. Permit easy reversal of actions in order to relieve anxiety and encourage • capture design practice not theory
exploration, since the user knows that he can always return to the previous • capture the essential common properties of good examples of design
.state. • represent design knowledge at varying levels ranging from social and
7. Support internal locus of control so that the user is in control of the system, organizational issues through conceptual design to detailed widget design
which responds to his actions. • are. intuitive and readable and can therefore be used for communication
8. Reduce short-term memory load by keeping displays simple, consolidating between all stakeholders
multiple page displays and providing time for learning action sequences. ~ A pattern language should be generative and assist in the development of
complete designs.
6.5.2. NORMAN'S SEVEN PRINCIPLES FOR TRANSFORMING DIFFICULT
TASKS INTO SIMPLE ONES
***********
~ The seven principles are
1. Use both knowledge in the world and knowledge in the head - provide the
necessary knowledge within the environment and their operation should be
transparent
2. Simplify the structure oftasks.
3. Make things visible - bridge the gulfs of execution and evaluation
4. Get the mappings right.
5. Exploit. the power of constraints, both natural and artificial. Constraints are
things in the world that make it impossible to do anything but the correct action
in the correct way.
6. Designfor error - anticipate the errors the user could make and design recovery
into the system
7. When all else fails, standardize.
CIPATTERN
~ Pattern isan approach to reuse knowledge about successful design solutions.

~ A pattern is an invariant solution to a recurrent problem within a specific context
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS,

6. Enlist principles affecting robustness.
1. What are design rules? • Observability
. Design rules are the rules a designer can follow in order to increase the usability • Recoverability
of the eventual software product • Responsiveness
2. What are the different types ofdesign rules? • Task conformance
Different types of design rules are 7. What are the principles ofobservability?
• Principles are abstract design rules, with high generality and low authority. The five principles are browsability, defaults, reachability, persistence and
• Standards are specific design rules, high in authority and limited in
operation visibility
application,
8. Summarise the Shneiderman's eight golden rules ofinterface design.
• Guidelines tend to be lower in authority and more general in application
• Strive for consistency
3. List down the principles to support usability.
• Enable frequent users to use shortcuts
• Learnability - the ease with which new users can begin effective interaction
• Offer informative feedback
and achieve maximal performance.
• Design dialogs to yield closure
• Flexibility-i the multiplicity of ways in which the user and system exchange
• Offer error prevention and simple error handling
information.
• Permit easy reversal of actions
• Robustness - the level of support provided to the user in determining
successful achievement and assessment of goals • Support internal locus of control
4. List down the principles affecting learnability. • Reduce short-term memory load
• Predictability 9. Summarise Norman's Seven Principles for Transforming Difficult Tasks into
• Synthesizability Simple Ones.
8 Familiarity The seven principles are
• Generalizability • Use both knowledge in the world and knowledge in the head
• Consistency • Simplify the structure oftasks.
5. Enlist the principles affecting flexibility. • Make things visible
• Dialog initiative • Get the mappings right.
• Multi-threading • Exploit the power of constraints,
• Task migratability • Design for error
• Substitutivity • When all else fails, standardize
• Customizability
• Secondly, PAC provides an explicit component to see that abstraction and

CHAPTER 8
presentation are kept consistent with each other, whereas MVC does not assign
to anyone component EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
• Finally, PAC is not linked to any programming environment, and is more of a
conceptual architecture than MVC because it is less implementation dependent What is Evaluation - Goals - Evaluation through expert analysis.
Evaluation through user participation - Choosinq an evaluation method
***********
~ Evaluation tests usability and functionality of system

~ It should occur throughout the design life cycle
~ It occurs in laboratory, field and/or in coIlaboration with users
~ It should be considered at all stages in the design life cycle
1. Explain in detail about different architectures of windowing systems. ~ The results of the evaluation must be fed back to the design for modifications.
2. Explain in detail the about differenttypes of programming paradigms

3. Explain in detail Model View Controller paradigm UIMS architecture
~ The design of the system should enable users to perform their intended tasks
more easily
***********
~ Evaluation has three main goals
• to assess the extent and accessibility of the system's functionality,
• to assess users' experience of the interaction, and
• to identify any specific problems with the system.
~ A number of methods have been proposed to evaluate interactive systems

through expert analysis.
);> The four approaches to expert analysis:
• cognitive walkthrough,
• heuristic evaluation,
• the use of models and
• use of previous work
Evaluation Techniques
8:3.2. HEURISTIC EVALUATION
8.3.1. COGNITIVE WALKTHROUGH
);> Proposed by Nielsen and Molich.
);> It is an attempt to introduce psychological theory into the informal and );> method for structuring the critique of a system using a set of relatively simple
subjective walkthrough technique and general heuristics
);> It evaluates design on how well it supports user in learning task );> design examined by experts to see ifthese are violated
);> It is usually performed by expert in cognitive psychology ;;.. Nielsen's ten heuristics are
);> The expert 'walks though' design to identify potential ·problems using • Visibility of system status - keep use~s informed about what is going on
psychological principles • Match between system and the real world - system should speak the user's
);> To do a walkthrough we need four things: language
• A specification or prototype ofthe system. • User control and freedom - System should support undo and redo
• . A description ofthe task the user is to perform on the system. • Consistency and standards - Follow platform conventions and accepted
• A complete, written list of the actions needed to complete the task with the standards
proposed system. • Error prevention - Make it difficult to make errors
• An indication of who the users are and what kind of experience and • Recognition rather than recall
knowledge the evaluators can assume about them • Flexibility and efficiency of use
);> The evaluators try to answer the following four questions for each step in the • Aesthetic and minimalist design - Dialogs should not contain irrelevant
action sequence. information
• Is the effect ofthe action the same as the user's goal at that point? • Help users recognize, diagnose and recover from errors
• Will users see that the action is available? • Help and documentation
• Once users have found the correct action, will they know it is the one they
8.3.3. MODEL-BASED EVALUATION
need?
);> Cognitive and design models provide a means of combining design specification
• After the action is taken, will users understand the feedback they get?
and evaluation
);> Any negative answer for any of the questions should be documented on a
);> Design methodologies also have a role to play in evaluation at the design stage
separate report sheet. );> Design rationale provides a framework in which design options can be evaluated.
);> . This problem report sheet should indicate a detailed description of the usability );> Dialog models can also be used to evaluate dialog sequences for problems, such
problem .. as unreachable states, circular dialogs and complexity.
;;.. This information will help the designers to decide priorities for correcting the );> Models such as state transition networks are useful for evaluating dialog designs
design, since it is not always possible to fix every problem prior to implementation.
Human Computer Interaction Evaluation Techniques
8.3.4. USING PREVIOUS STUDIES IN EVALUATION
./ Some people cooperating on a task in a laboratory situation, may not work
}> Results from the literature used to support or refute parts of design.
in working environment as they are dependent on the context
~ Care needed to ensure results are transferable to new design. ~ Field studies
~ Model-based evaluation
• The designer or evaluator will evaluate by observing in the user's work
~ Cognitive models are used to filter design options. environment
~ Design rationale can also provide useful evaluation information
• Advantages
./ The designer will observe interactions between systems and between
individuals that would have been missed in a laboratory study
~ A number of different approaches are there to evaluate the design through user
•. Disadvantages
participation.
./ Noise in the work environment
~ These include
~ Field observation is to be preferred to laboratory studies as it allows us to study
• empirical or experimental methods,
the interaction as it occurs in actual us.
• observational methods,
8.4.2.· EMPIRICAL METHODS: EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION
• query techniques, and
• methods that use physiological monitoring, ~ Any experiment has the same basic form.
~ User participation in evaluation tends to occur in the later stages of development ~ The evaluator chooses a hypothesis to test, which can be determined by
when there is at least a working prototype ofthe system in place.. measuring some attribute of participant behavior.
~. A number of experimental conditions are considered
8.4.1. STYLES OF EVALUATION
~ There are a number of factors that are important to the overall reliability of the
~. There are two distinct evaluation styles.
experiment.
~ Laboratory studies
~ . These include the participants chosen, the variables tested and manipulated, and
• Users have to take part in controlled tests, often in a specialist usability
the hypothesis tested.
laboratory
~ Participants
• Advantages
• Participants. should be chosen to match the expected user population as
./ If the system is to be located in a dangerous or remote location, such as a
closely as possible
space station laboratory study type of evaluation is best
• Participant set sample size must be large enough to be representative of the
./ Comparing alternative designs within a controlled context
population
• Disadvantages
);> Variables
./ A well-equipped usability laboratory may not be replicate the work
• Experiments manipulate and measure variables under controlled conditions,
environment.
in order to test the hypothesis.
Human ComputerInteraction Evaluation Techniques
e There are two main types of variable: those that are 'manipulated' (known • There are at least two conditions: the experimental condition and thecontroI.
as the independent variables) and those that are measured (the dependent • The second experimental design is within-subjects in which each user
variables) performs under each different condition.
e Independent variables are those elements of the experiment that are • The choice of experimental method will depend oil. the resources available,
manipulated to produce different conditions for comparison. how far learning transfer is likely or can be controlled, and how
e Examples of independent variables in evaluation experiments are interface representative the participant group is considered to be.
style; number of menu items and icon design. ~ Once we have determined the hypothesis we are trying to test, the variables we
• Each of these variables can be given a number of different values known as are studying, the participants at our disposal, and the design that is most
a level of the variable. appropriate, we have to decide how we are going to analyze the results we record
• More complex experiments may have more than one independent variable. using statistical tests.
• Dependent variables, are the variables that can be measured in the ~ Statistical measures
experiment • The first two rules of statistical analysis are to look at the data and to save
• Their value is 'dependent' on the changes made to the independent variable the data.
~ Hypotheses • Looking at the data carry out statistical tests blindly by having a glance at a
• A hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of an experiment. .graph, histogram or table of results.
• It is framed in terms of the independent and dependent variables, stating that • Looking at the data can expose outliers (single data items that are very
a variation in the independent variable will cause a difference in the different from the rest).
dependent variable. .• Saving the data helps to try a different analysis method in the future.
• The aim ofthe experiment is to show that the prediction is correct. ~ The choice of statistical analysis depends on the type of data and the. questions
~ Experimental design we want to answer.
• The factors that the experimenter must consider in the design are the ~ If the form of the data follows a known distribution then parametric tests are
participants, the independent and dependent variables, and the hypothesis. used for analysis.
• The first phase in experimental design is to choose the hypothesis: to decide .~ Non-parametric tests are statistical tests that make no assumptions about the
exactly what we are trying to demonstrate particular distribution and are usually based on the ranking of the data.
• The next step is to decide. on the experimental method that we are going to ~ A third sort of test is the contingency table, where we Classify data by several
use discrete attributes and then count the number of data items with each attribute
• There are two main methods: between-subjects and within-subjects. combination;
• In a between-subjects (or randomized) design, each participant is assigned to ~ For analyzing the data following questions can be asked
a different condition. • Is there a difference?
Human Computer Interaction Evaluation Techniques
• How big is the difference? ./ Video recording - accurate and realistic but needs special equipments and
• How accurate is the estimate? obtrusive.
~ An example of statistical analysis: evaluating icon designs ./ Computer logging - automatic and unobtrusive but large amounts of data
• Design a new interface to a document-processing package, which uses icons so difficult to analyze
for presentation ./ User notebooks - coarse and subjective, useful insights, good for
• The icons can be a naturalistic image which is based -on the hypothesis longitudinal studies
'Users will remember the natural icons more easily than the abstract ones'. • In practice, one uses a mixture of recording methods.
• We can assume that the speed at which a user can accurately select an icon .~ EVA (Experimental Video Annotator)
is an indication of how easily it is remembered. • It is an automatic protocol analysis tool
• Our dependent variables are therefore the number of mistakes in selection • It runs on a multimedia workstation with a direct link to a video recorder
and the time taken to select an icon. • The evaluator can devise a set of buttons indicating different events.
• The next stage is to decide upon an experimental method, a within-subjects • During the session the user works at a workstation and is recorded using
design is preferred. video and audio system.
• For each user, measure the time taken to complete the task and the number • The evaluator can use the buttons to tag interesting events as they occur and
of errors made. can record additional notes using a text editor.
• Then we can either use non-parametric tests, or binomial distribution. • After the session, the evaluator can ask to reviev the tagged segments and
8.4.3. OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES can then use these and standard video controls to search the information.
~ The techniques used to evaluate systems by observing user behaviors are think • An example of EVA is shown in figure 8.1
aloud and cooperative evaluation.
~ Think aloud
• The user is asked to describe what he is doing as he is being observed.
• This method is simple which requires less expertise, provide useful insight
and show how system is actually used
• But this method is more subjective, selective and it may alter task
performance
~ Protocol analysis
• The different methods for recording user actions are
Fig. 8.1; EVA: an automatic protocol analysis tool
./ Paper and pencil - cheap but limited writing speed
./ Audio recording -good but difficult to match with other protocols
Evaluation Techniques
------------~------------------------
• Workplace project at Xerox PARe is another tool which analyze
);> Questionnaires
synchronized information from different data streams, such as video, audio,
• The questions are fixed in advance and the questions are put to a wider
notes and diagrams.
participant group.
• Another example is DRUM, which also provides video annotation and • It can be analyzed more rigorously
tagging facilities. • But its less flexible and less probing
~ Post-task walkthroughs • The questions should be well designed.
• The transcript is played back to participant for getting comments • The evaluator must clearly establish the purpose of the questionnaire and
•. This may be immediately asked when the participant may actually how the questionnaire responses are to be analyzed.
remember why certain actions were performed, or after an interval, when the • Different styles of the questions are
answers are more likely to be the participant's post hoc interpretation. -/ General - questions that help to establish the background of the user
• Walkthroughs are useful to identify reasons for actions and alternatives -/ Open-ended - asking the user to provide his own unprompted opinion
considered -/ Scalar - asking the user to judge a specific statement on a numeric scale
• Walkthroughs are necessary in cases where think aloud is not possible -/ Multi-choice - the respondent is offered a choice of explicit responses
-/ Ranked asking the user to indicate his preferences
8.4.4. QUERY TECHNIQUES
• Questionnaires should ideally be distributed to a random subset of the user
~ Another set of evaluation techniques relies on asking the user directly.
population
~ There are two main types of query technique: interviews and questionnaires.
8.4.5. EVALUAnON THROUGH MONITORING PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES
~ Interviews
~ The two areas receiving the most attention to date are eye tracking and
Analyst interviews the user on one-to -one basis usually based on prepared
physiological measurement.
questions
~ Eye movements are believed to reflect the amount of cognitive processing a
The interview should be informal and subjective.
display requires.
• This method is relatively cheap
~ There are many possible measurements related to usability evaluation including
Advantages
number of fixations, fixation duration and scan path.
-/ The set of questions can be varied to suit context
~ Physiological measurement involves attaching various probes and sensors to the
-/ All the issues can be explored fully
user.
-/ This method can elicit user views and identify unanticipated problems
~ The physiological factors include heart activity, activity of the sweat glands,
Disadvantages
electrical activity in muscle and electrical activity in the brain.
V This method is very subjective and time consuming
Human ComputerInteraction Evaluation Techniques
>- The factors distinguishing evaluation techniques are 1. What is evaluation?

• the stage in the cycle at which the evaluation is carried out Evaluation tests usability and functionality of system.
• the style of evaluation 2. What are the goals ofevaluation?
• the level of subjectivity or objectivity of the technique Evaluation has three main goals
• the type of measures provided • to as. ess the extent and accessibility of the system's functionality,
• the information provided • to assess users' experience of the interaction, and
• the immediacy of the response. • to identify any specific problems with the system
• the level of interference implied 3. What is Heuristic evaluation
• the resources required Heuristic evaluation is proposed by Nielsen and Molich. It is a method for
structuring the critique of a system using a set of relatively simple and general
*********** heuristics.
4. Mention Nielsen's ten heuristics.
Nielsen's ten heuristics are
• Visibility of system status - keep users informed about what is going on
• Match between system and the real world - system should speak the user's
language
• User control and freedorri - System should support undo and redo
• Consistency and standards - Follow platform conventions and accepted
standards
• Error prevention - Make it difficult to make errors
• Recognition rather than recall
• Flexibility and efficiency of use
• Aesthetic and minimalist design' - Dialogs should not contain irrelevant
information
• Help users recognize, diagnose and recover from errors
• Help and documentation
5. What are different styles ofevaluation?
The different styles of evaluation are laboratory studies and field studies.
6. List down the factors that are important to the overall reliability of the CHAPTER 9
experiment.
The factors are the participants chosen, the variables tested and manipulated, and
.UNIVERSAL DESIGN
the hypothesis tested.
-
Introduction - Universal Design Principles - Multi-Modal Interaction .,
7. Define a hypothesis. Desiqninq for Diversity
A hypothesis is a pred iction of the outcome of an experiment. It is framed in terms
of the independent and dependent variables, stating that a variation in the
independent variable will cause a difference in the dependent variable ~ Universal design is the process of designing interactive systems that are usable
8. What is EVA? by anyone, with any range of abilities, using any technology platform.
EVA (Experimental Video Annotator) is an automatic protocol analysis tool. It ~ This can be achieved by designing systems either to have built in redundancy or
runs on a multimedia workstation with a direct link to a video recorder. The to be compatible with assistive technologies.
evaluator can devise a set of buttons indicating different events.
RSALDESI··
9. What are Query techniques? Mention its types.
Query technique is a design evaluation technique relies on asking the user directly. ~ The principles that act as a framework to develop universal designs are
There are two main types of query technique: interviews and questionnaires • Equitable use - the design is useful to people with a range of abilities and
10. List down the factors Ithat decide the evaluation technique. appealing to all
The factors distinguishing evaluation techniques are • Flexibility in use - the design allows for a range of ability and preference,
• the stage in the cycle at which the evaluation is carried out • Simple and intuitive to use - The design needs to support the user's
• the style of evaluation expectations and accommodate different language and literacy skills.
• the level of subjectivity or objectivity of the technique • Perceptible information the design should provide effective
*********** communication of information regardless of the environmental conditions or
the user's abilities.
• Tolerance for error - minimizing the impact and damage caused by mistakes
1.· Explain in detail about the four approaches to expert analysis. or unintended behavior.
2. Explain in detail about different approaches to evaluate the design through user • Low physical effort - systems should be designed to be comfortable to use,
participation.. minimizing physical effort and fatigue
3.. Discuss in detail about query technique. • Size and space for approach and use - the system should be such that it can
be reached and used by any user regardless of body size, posture or
*******,'.*** mobility.
Human Computer Interaction Universal Design
~ Speech synthesis
~ The 5 senses (sight, sound, touch, taste and smell) are used by every human • The generation of speech is called speech synthesis.
every day • Speech synthesis is a useful communication tool to assist people with
~ Every sense has its own importance. physical disabilities that affect their speech
~ Together, they provide a fuller interaction with the natural world • But it is intrusive which needs headphones, or creates noise in the workplace
~ Multi-sensory systems are used in a range of applications. and is transient
~ These systems are particularly good for users with special needs, arid virtual • Speech synthesis is successful in certain constrained applications.
reality. • Examples:
~ We can use sight, sound and touch but taste and smell are not yet used. ./ screen readers - which read the textual display to the user which is utilised
~ Multi-modal systems use more than one sense (or mode) for interaction speech. by visually impaired people
~ The English language is made up of 40 phonemes, which are the atomic ./ warning signals - spoken information sometimes presented to pilots whose
elements of speech. visual and haptic skills are already fully occupied
~ Non-speech sound
~ Each phoneme represents a distinct sound, there being 24 consonants and 16
vowel sounds. • It is often used to provide transitory information, such as indications of
~ Emphasis, stress, pauses and pitch can all be used to alter the meaning and nature network or system changes, or of errors
of an utterance. • It can also be used to provide status information on background processes
~ This alteration in tone and quality of the phonemes is termed prosody. • Non-speech sound can also be used to provide a representation of actions
.~ Phonemes sound differently wheit preceded by different phonemes. and objects in the interface to support the visual .mode and provide
~ This is termed co-articulation, and the resulting differences in sound can be used confirmation for the user..
to construct a set of allophones, which represent all the different sounds within • There are two kinds of non-speech sounds
the language. ./ using sounds that occur naturally in the world and
./ using more abstract generated sounds
~ Allopohones combined to form Morphemes are the basic building blocks of
~ Auditory icons
language ratherthan of speech.
Morphemes can be either parts of words and they are built into sentences using • These icons use natural sounds to represent different types of object or
the rules of grammar of the language action
Speech Recognition • Natural sounds have associated semantics which can be mapped onto similar
meanings in the interaction
• Automatic recognition of speech is affected by background noise.
• Different people speak in a different manner • e.g. throwing something away - the sound of smashing glass
• But all things doesn't have associated meanings
• The syntax of semantically similar sentences may vary
~ Sonic Finder » There are no systems In use today that are good at general cursive script
• The items and actions on the desktop have associated sounds recognition. However, when letters are individually written, with a small
• For ex. folders have a papery noise, moving files have a dragging sound separation, the success of systems is comparatively more.
andbig files have louder sound than smaller ones
9.3.3. GESTURE RECOGNITION
~ Earcons
~ Gesture is user dependent, subjectto variation and co-articulation.
• These are Synthetic sounds used to convey information
~ The technology for capturing gestures is expensive, using either computer vision
• Earcons use structured combinations of notes, called motives, to represent
or a special dataglove.
actions and objects
>. The dataglove provides easier access to highly accurate information, but is a
• Compound earcons combine different motives to build up a specific action.
relatively intrusive technology, which requires the user to wear the special Lycra
9.3.1. TOUCH IN THE INTERFACE glove.
~ Touch is the only sense that can be used to both send and receive information. ~ Gestures are incorporated by using a position-sensing cube attached to a
~ The use of touch in the interface is known as haptic interaction wristband worn by the user ego Media Room at MIT.
~ it can be roughly divided into two areas:
9.4.. ,bESIGNING FOR DIVERSITY .. ..'
• cutaneous perception - which is concerned with tactile sensations through
the skin; and . 9.4.1. DESIGNING FOR USERS WITH DISABILITIES
• kinesthetics - which is the perception of movement and position ~ The design of software and hardware should not unnecessarily restrict the job
~ They facilitate perception of properties such as shape, texture, resistance and prospects of people with disabilities.
__ temperature as well as comparative spatial properties such as size, height and ~ Visual impairment
1"'"" ••
position. • There are two key approaches to extending access for visually impaired
~.. example technologies are users.
,
• electronic braille displays • They are the use of sound and the use of touch.
I
• force feedback devices e.g. Phantom • Soundtrack was an example of the use of non-speech sound to provide an
9.3.2. HANDWRITING RECOGNITION auditory interface to a word processor.
);- Handwriting consists of complex strokes and spaces • Outspoken is a Macintosh application that uses synthetic speech to make
~ It is captured by digitising tablet which transforms strokes to sequence of dots other Macintosh applications available to visually impaired users.
~ The variation between the handwriting of individuals is large moreover; the • Tactile interaction is widely used in electronic braille displays, which
handwriting of a single person varies from day to day. represent what is on the screen through a dynamic braille output.
--
• Force feedback devices also have the potential to improve accessibility to • The triad of impairments are: problems in relating to others in a meaningful
users with visual impairment, since elements in the interface can be touched, way, problems in understanding verbal and textual language and problems
and edges, textures and behavior used to indicate objects and actions. with rigidity of thought processes.
~ Hearing impairment • Computer-mediated communication and virtual environments have been
• Email and instant messaging can be used equally by hearing and deaf users suggested as possible ways of enabling people with autism to communicate
alike. , more easily with others.
• Gesture recognition has also been proposed to enable translation of signing • Computers may also have a role to play in education of children with
to speech or text. autism, particularly by enabling them to experience social situations and
• Captioning audio content has the advantage of making audio files easier and learn appropriate responses.
more efficient to index and search. 9.4.2. DESIGNING FOR DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS
~ Physical impairment ~ Older people and children have specific needs when it comes to interactive
• Speech input and output is an option for those without speech difficulties. technology.
• Eyegaze system tracks eye movements to control the cursor, or a keyboard >- Older People
driver that can be attached to the user's head. • The proportion of disabilities increases with age.
• Reactive keyboard which is a predictive system can help; by anticipating the • Mobile technologies can be used to provide memory aids where there is age-
commands that are being typed and offering them for execution. related memory loss.
~ Speech impairment • Some older users, may lack familiarity with it and fear learning.
• Synthetic speech and text-based communication and conferencing systems • Designs must be clear and simple and forgiving of errors.
can be used for users with speech impairment. ~ Children·
• .Predictive algorithms have been used to anticipate the words used and fill • Children have distinct needs
them in, to reduce the amount of typing required. • Children are, however, different from adults, and have their own goals and
~ Dyslexia likes and dislikes.
• Spelling correction facilities can help users when the problem is less severe. • Design approaches have therefore been developed specifically to include
• . But conventional spelling correction programs are useless for dyslexic users. children actively as members of the design team.
• Color coding information and provision of graphical information to support • Paper prototyping, using art tools familiar to children, enables children to
textual can make the meaning oftext easier to grasp. participate in building and refining prototype designs .
.~ Autism • Universal design principles guide us in designing interfaces that children can
• Autism affects a person's ability to communicate and interact with people use.
around them and to make sense of their environment.
• Interfaces that allow multiple modes of input, including touch or

handwriting, may be easier for children than keyboard and mouse. 1. List down the universal design principles
• Redundant displays, where information is presented through text,graphics • Equitable use
and sound will also enhance their experience. II Flexibility in use
9.4.3. DESIGNING FOR CULTURAL DIFFERENCES • Simple and intuitive to use
);> Cultural difference is often used synonymously with national differences, • Perceptible information
);> The key factors to be considered to practice universal design are language,
• Tolerance for error
cultural symbols, gestures and use of color.
• Low physical effort
);> Layouts and designs may reflect a language read from left to right and top to
• Size and space for approach and use
bottom, which will be unworkable with languages that do not follow this pattern.
);> Symbols have different meanings in different cultures. 2. Characterisethe English language
);> Human gesture and colors has different meaning in different countries. • The English language is made up of 40 phonemes, which are the atomic
elements of speech.
*********** • Each phoneme represents a distinct sound, there being 24 consonants and 16
vowel sounds
3. What is speech synthesis? Give examples

• The generation of speech is called speech synthesis.
• Speech synthesis is a useful communication tool to assist people with physical
disabilities that affect their speech.
• ego screen readers and warning signals
4. What are auditory icons?
• These icons use natural sounds to represent different types of object or action
• Natural sounds have associated semantics which can be mapped onto similar
meanings in the interaction
• e.g. throwing something away - the sound of smashing glass
5. What are earcons?
• These are Synthetic sounds used to convey information

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CHAPTER 4

INTERACTION DESIGN BASICS

}> A simple definition is: achieving goals within constraints.

~ The process of design is shown below figure 4.1.

Fig. 4.1. Interaction design processdiagram

... try to avoid these bits!

4.6.2. GLOBAL STRUCTURE - HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION "- --1-

~ Global structure discuss about the overall structure of an application. It discusses

structure on the web.

• Usually scanning for surnames

./ Delivery details reversed .

);> Presenting information De';9n r---IL-..--_~<

4.8. ITERATION AND PROTOTYPING

);> Formative evaluation is done to improve designs

1. Explain in detail about design process.

5.2. THE SOFTWARE LIFE Cye

5.2.1. ACTIVITIES IN THE LIFE CYCLE

>- Architectural design

>- Detailed design

Fig. 5.2. Representing iteration in the waterfall model

);> An iterative design process tries to overcome the inherent problems of

Fig. 5.3. Throw-away prototyping within requirements specification Build

Fig. 5.5. Evolutionary prototyping throughout the life cycle

>- The potential problems of prototyping are,

Sub-issue -::::::- Fig. 5.7. The QOC notation

~ Decision Representation Language (DRL) similar to QOC with a larger language

);> Designers identify the tasks the system will support

9. What is Throw-away prototyping?

~ The general principles are the most abstract design rules.

Robustness - the level of support provided to the user in determining

• determining effect of future actions based on past interaction history

• Concurrent multi-threading allows .simultaneous communication of

• Recoverability is the ability to reach a desired goal after recognition of some

~ Pattern isan approach to reuse knowledge about successful design solutions.

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS,

• Secondly, PAC provides an explicit component to see that abstraction and

~ Evaluation tests usability and functionality of system

2. Explain in detail the about differenttypes of programming paradigms

~ A number of methods have been proposed to evaluate interactive systems

>- The factors distinguishing evaluation techniques are 1. What is evaluation?

~ Multi-sensory systems are used in a range of applications. and is transient

of an utterance. • It can also be used to provide status information on background processes

the rules of grammar of the language action

~ Hearing impairment • Computer-mediated communication and virtual environments have been

alike. , more easily with others.

• Interfaces that allow multiple modes of input, including touch or

3. What is speech synthesis? Give examples

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