Concrete Technology Notes

CONCRETE MAKING MATERIALS
 Cement
 Water
 Aggregates
CEMENT
It’s a greenish grey colored powder made of calcined mixture of clay and limestone when mixed
with water hardens to a building materials. Major Raw materials/ ingredient for manufacturing of
Portland cement are:-
It’s very fine powdery substance chiefly made up of limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon), bauxite
(aluminum) and iron ore
 Calcareous materials: - Are compounds of calcium and magnesium Limestone being

common material used in manufacturing cement.
 Argillaceous materials: - are Materials of silica, alumina, and oxides of iron. Clay and
shale being common materials used in manufacturing cement.
Table shows the raw materials for Portland cement manufacture
Manufacture of cement is done in 2 main methods:-
 Dry process.
 Wet process.
PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

KENYA INSTITUTE OF HIGHWAY AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
Manufacturing process of cement of cement involves:
 Mixing
 Burning
 Grinding
 Storage and packaging
Dry process
1. Grinding and mixing
Calcareous (lime stone) and argillaceous (clay) materials are first crushed in the gyratory or
jaw crasher separately to reduce their size.
Crushed materials are grounded further to fine particles in the tube mill or ball mill, screened
using sieves then store in their respective bins.
Powdered minerals are mixed in their required proportion, water can be either be added to the
mixture depending on the moisture content which should be less than 1%. Phenomenon which
result to the mixture to behave like liquid hence being ready to be discharged in the kiln rotary.
2. Heating /burning
As the mixture enters the kiln rotary it is first heated by a current of hot wind circulating about
its center, produced from the kiln.it enables to reduce energy consumption inside the kiln
rotary.
Inside the kiln rotary, powdered mixture its heated and decomposed at abount 1400 oc - 1500oc,
which is principle stage of cement production.
During decomposition process clinkers are formed after a series of chemical reaction between
calcium and silicon dioxide compounds.
Si2 Al2(OH)2 - 2SiO2 + Al2O3 + 2H2O
3. Cooling and grinding
Clinkers are rapidly cooled down through pass in air from 2000oc to about 100oc- 200oc.
Additives added at this stage where there combine with clinkers to be ground in order to
ground in order to produce the desired cement. E.g gypsum regulates the setting time, gives
concrete improved compressive strength e.t.c

4. packing
Cement is conveyed from grinding mill to silos where it’s packed in 50-20kg bags.
Flow chart
Calcareous materials Argillaceous materials
(Lime stone) (Clay)
JAW CRASHER JAW CRASHER
Mixing pulverizing
CLINKER AIR
COOLER
GYPSUM CLINCKER
PORTLAND CEMENT
Wet process
1. grinding and mixing of raw materials
Raw materials are first ground by jaw crasher or gyratory crusher in the tube mill to powder
form and then stored in silos.
The powdered mineral its then washed / mixed with water to remove adhering organic maters
presence in clay.
The mixture it’s then grounded further in the grinding mill/ tube mill/ ball mill for complete mixing
which leads to formation of slurry
Proper composition of slurry raw materials can be controlled effectively in wet process than in
dry process as it’s corrected periodically from the tube mill.
The mixture contains about 3-5% water content, which is then pumped to slurry tank where it is
kept in agitated condition by means of rotary arm or compressed air before being feed to the
rotary kiln.
2. Burning / heating
The slurry is feed into the upper end of the rotary kiln while the lower end its intensively heated
by means of fine grounded coal.
It slowly moves down kiln as it losses moisture content at a constant temperatures of about
1500oc hence formation of clinkers
During the process of decomposition the raw mineral materials reacts and re-combine to a
fused mass which reacts with water to form a cementation blinder.
Clinkers drops on to the rotary clinker for cooling under constant temperatures to about 100 oc –
200oc weighing 11000 – 13000 per liter.
3. grinding
Clinkers are finely ground with addition of about 3-5% gypsum into another tube mill producing
required cement.
Gypsum is added to regulate the early setting characteristics of cement.
4. packing
The fined cement it’s stored in silos then conveyed to packing plant.

Calcareous materials Argillaceous materials
(Lime stone) (Clay)
WATER Wet grinding or cleaning

& proportioning
BIN
ROTARY KILN
AIR
CLINKER
COOLER
GYPSUM CLINCKER GRING MILL
PORTLAND CEMENT

Hydration of cement
It is the reaction of various component of cement with water to form a blinding materials.
Full hydration should be allowed to take place to ensure every compound reacts.
There are two ways in which compounds present in cement reacts with water
 Direct addition of water commonly known as true hydration reaction of hydration.

 Hydrolysis reaction.
Most of the cement used are hydraulic and non-hydraulic cement hence deriver their strength
from chemical reaction between the cement and water in a process referred to as hydration
process.
In presence of water silicates (C3 S and C2S) and aluminates (C3A and C4AF) forms products
of hydration which reacts to form a firm and hard mass (hydrated mass).
Major compounds in cement

Tricalcium silicate C3S Ca2SiO4
Diacalcium silicate C2S Ca2SiO5
Tricalcium aluminate C3S Ca2Al2 O6
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite C3AF Ca2 Al2Fe2 O6
gypsum CSF2 CaSO4. 2H2O
Major functions and roles of compounds of cement
Tricalcium Silicate
1. Hardens rapidly and largely responsible for initial set & early strength
2. The increase in percentage cause higher early strength but needs addition of fly ash.
3. Produces higher heat of hydration leading for faster gain in strength.
Dicalcium Silicate
1. Hydrates and Hardens slowly.

2. Responsible for slow strength gain one week.
3. Responsible for long term strength
Tricalcium Aluminate
1. It is the first compound to hydrate, resulting to strength development within the first few days.
2. It turns out higher heat of hydration and contributes to faster gain in strength.
3. But it results in poor sulfate resitance and increases the volumetric shrinkage upon drying.
4. Low percentage Tricalcium Aluminate contents usually generate less heat, develop higher strengths and
show greater resistance to sulfate attacks.
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite
1. Assist in the manufacture of Portland cement by allowing lower clinkering temperature.

2. Also act as a filler contributes very little strength of concrete even though it hydrates very
rapidly.
3. Also responsible for grey colour of Ordinary Portland Cement
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
Concrete can classified into two
1. Fresh concrete
2. Hardened concrete
FRESH CONCRETE
Properties of fresh concrete:-
 Workability.
 Setting.
 Segregation.
 Plastic Shrinkage.
 Thermal Shrinkage.
 Thermal Expansion.
 Water Cement Ratio.
1 WORKABILITY
It is the ease with which freshly prepared concrete can be transported and placed for
the job and compacted to a dense mass.
Fresh concrete should be capable of spreading uniformly without inducing any

segregation of the aggregates.
A workable concrete should have a right balance between the plasticity and mobility for
a particular job in particular place. This is ensured by selecting the right type of
aggregates, proper proportioning of cement, sand, coarse aggregates, and water, and
thorough mixing of the constituents.

Workability Tests:
To maintain the quality concrete produced, the following three tests are required to be carried out.
 Slump test.
 Compacting factor test.
 V-B Consistometer test.
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Concrete is a building material, obtained by mixing together definite proportion of fine aggregate, course
aggregate, water, cement and additives
Additives, admixture may be added to the concrete in very small quantities to alter properties of the concrete
mix.
Types of concrete
1. Plain/ mass concrete – not reinforced
2. Reinforced concrete – reinforced.
3. Pre-stressed concrete- pre-cast with reinforcement.
Advantages of concrete as a construction material.

1. It is used for a variety of purpose in construction e.g foundation, wall, roads, airfield, bridges, and water
retaining structures. E.t.c ( its versatile )
2. It possess a high compressive strength and therefore allows construction of high rise building.
3. Is not affected to corrosive and weather affects.
4. It can be easily handled and moulded into shapes when it is still fresh /plastic.
5. It can be sprayed and filled into cracks for repair purposes.
6. It is economical in the long run as compared to other engineering materials
7. Form work can be re-used for a number of times for similar jobs which results to being economical.
8. In reinforced concrete, the concrete and steel have a very good combination because the coefficient of
expansion of concrete and steel are nearly equal.
9. Frequent repairs are not needed for concrete structures
10. Concrete is fire resistance/proof material and continuous to become stronger with time and age.

Disadvantages of concrete
1. It has a low tensile strength and therefore cracks easily hence requires to be reinforced.
2. It expands and contract with change in temperature therefore by creating internal stresses which may
lead to cracking.
3. It is usually heavy in weight and hence may require special lifting equipment.
4. Concrete as a material develops creep under sustained load
5. Concrete is subjected to thermal movement during setting and hardening caused by heat of hydration of
cement.
Properties of good concrete

1. It should be workable and especially in its plastic state. (wet state)
2. It should be strong enough to carry the load for which it is designed for.
3. It should be impermeable as well as durable.
4. It should be produced at a low cost
The above can be achieved by the following:

a) Better selection of materials
b) Proper proportioning of the material
c) Careful undertaking of the concrete making process e.g batching, mixing, transporting placing, curing,
finishing
Batching Mixing Transporting Placing Curing Curing Finishing
in concrete mixture, the cement and water forms a paste described as water cement paste which upon
hardening acts as a binder connecting the particles of aggregate together in a permanent mass.
The amount water mixed with cement usually determine the strength of the paste, however a balance
between enough water for workability and water for connecting must be stuck.

Aggregates in concrete mix usually acts as a filler material but there are certain qualities that it must possess
in order to produce good quality concrete of all the requirements, aggregate should be inert.
For a good concrete, aggregate should have the proper size, shape and grading
It is desirable that concrete in its state should be workable, free from segregation and bleeding and should
hence leading to poor quality.
In its hardened state, concrete should be strong, durable and impermeable.
Aggregates
About 75% - 80% of concrete is made up of aggregate which are the principle filler materials
The quality of aggregates used affect the quality, durability and permeability of the final concrete product.
Classification of aggregates
They can be classified in the following ways:-
1) Based on size i.e fine aggregates are those whose particles size ranges from 5mm to 0.6mm. This
includes natural sand, river sand, fine particles and crushed stones.
2) Based on source:- natural/artificial aggregates.
Natural aggregates include: course sand, granite chips e.t.c
Artificial aggregates include; blast, furnace slag, broken stones/bricks e.t.c
3) Based on mineralogical composition; examples include: silicon dioxide, calceous ( caco3)
4) Based on mode of preparation; e.g crashed aggregates, natural aggregates e.t.c
5) Based on weight; e.g normal weight with example of granite, chips, natural sand, gravel e.t.c. normal
weight aggregate produces concrete 2400kg/m2
Light weight aggregates- gives a concrete of( 350 – 1600kg/m3) and example of material making up this
aggregates include wood waste, clinkers, blast furnace slag and expanded clay
Heavy weight aggregate are used to obtain concrete of 3500kg/m3and example of such include sted
core/chippings, barron
6) An all in aggregate – this are aggregate which are made up of fine particles and course particles of
almost equal measure.
Qualities of a good aggregates for concrete
D. FUNGICIDAL AND INSECTICIDAL

Admixtures
Material may either be grounded into cement or added as admixture to impact the fungicidal germicidal as
insecticidal properties to harden cement paste mortar or cement.
E. COLOURING AGENT.
Pigments are often added to produce colour in the finished concrete requirement of suitable admixtures which
include colour fastening when exposed to sunlight, chemical stability, in presence of alkalinity produced in the
cement and no adverse effect or setting time as strength development of pigment should be preferable mixed on the
ground with dry cement
Factors affecting workability of cement
1. Water content
2. Mixing proportion
3. Size of the aggregate
4. Shape of aggregate
5. Surface texture of the aggregate – rough texture shows workability while smooth texture shows good
workability.
6. Grading of aggregates – well graded aggregates have good workability.
7. Use of admixture increase workability.
Measure of workability
1. Slump test – can be employed in laboratory or site of work. Not suitable for very wet concrete or very dry
concrete.
2. Surface hardness- there is greater wear resistance, corrosion resistance.
Fresh concrete
Freshly mixed concrete material which can be moulded into any shape to enable concrete to be fully compacted; a
higher / water/ cement ratio must be calculated by theoretical consideration.
Workability – types of work, thickness of section extent and reinforcement and mode of compaction used.
Fresh concrete is consistent which is the firmness of substance is sometime taken as the degree of wetness, wet
concrete are more workable than dry concrete.
Factors affecting workability
It depends on a number of interacting factors.
1. Water content
2. Aggregate type.
3. Cement ratio
4. Presence of admixtures
5. Finess of the cement.
BLEEDING
It’s a form of segregation in which some water in the mixer tends to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete.
It is caused by inability of soil constituent to hold all of the mixing water when they settle downwards
When cement paste has hardened, sufficiently bleeding ceases/stops. If evaporation of water from the surface of
concrete is faster than bleeding rate, plastic shrinkage and cracking may occur.
Bleeding is not harmful if it is undisturbed. (water evaporates) the effective water/cement ration maybe lowered
with a resulting increase in strength.
Factors affecting bleeding
1. Water content in the mix

2. Property of cement – bleeding is lower in finer cement
3. Chemical factor in cement – there is less bleeding when cement has higher alkaline content.
4. Temperature – higher temperature within normal increases rate of bleeding.
5. Rich mixes – are less prone to bleeding than lean mixes and reduction in bleeding is obtained by addition of
admixtures such as pozzolana or alluminium powder.
6. Air and trainment or entrance – affectively reduce bleeding so that finishing can follow casting without delay.
WORKABILITY TEST /METHOD
The method has been universally accepted due to their merit.
A) Slump test
125mm
True
shape
If the slump is evenly all around, it is referred to as the true shape.
If it happens that one and half of the cone slides down in an included flame a shear slap is said to have taken place
and the test should be repeated. If the shear persists as may be the case in the harsh mixes this is an indication of
lack of cohesion of the mix.
Mixes of stiff consistence have zero slump so that if the rather dry range no variation can be detected between the
mixes of different workability.
Mixing/ handing and compaction concrete.
Mixing
The mixing operation consists essentially of rotation. Stirring the objective of being to coat the surface of all
aggregate particles with cement paste and to blend all ingredient of concrete into a uniform mass.
Usual type of mixture is known as batch mixer that means one bag of concrete is mixed or discharged before any
more materials are put into the mixer.
There are four types of batch mixer.
1) Tilting drum mixer

One whose drum in which mixing take place is tilted for discharging. The drum is conical or bow shaped with
internal veins and discharge is rapid and unsegregated so that this mixer are suitable. Mixes are of low
workability.
2) Non – tilting drum mixers
One which the axis of the mixer is always horizontal and discharge takes place and inserting a chute into the
drum or buy reversing the direction of the drum. Because of slow rate of discharge, some aggregates may
harden.
3) A pan type mixer
A forced action mixer. Distinct veins from a drum and which rely on free flow of concrete inside the drum
A pan mixer, consist essentially of a circular pan tilting about the vertical axis
4) Duo drum mixer
Sometime used in a highway construction. In this case there are two drum in series. The concrete being
mixed in the first drum is then transferred to the other for the remaining mixing time before discharging. The
drum is recharged so that initial mixing takes place without intermixing of batches
Mixing time
It is the time required to produce uniform concrete. The mixing time is recovered from the time all the solid
materials have been put in the mixer.
The time varies with the types of mixer and depends on its size. Number of revolution of the mixer and time of
mixing are independent of each other.
In high speed mixers the mixing time cab be as short as 35 seconds.
When light weight aggregate is used, the mixing time should not be less than 5 min. sometimes divided two minutes
of mixing the aggregate followed by water after three minutes than you add the cement.
For mixtures of large capacity, the mixing time should be increased at rate of 20sec
The recommended minimum mixing time is show in the table below

Capacity of mixer (m3) Mixing time in minutes
0.8 1.00
1.5 1.25
2.3 1.5
3.1 1.75
3.8 2.00
4.6 2.25
7.6 3.25
Order of feeding the ingredient into the mixture depends on the properties of the mix and those of the mixer.
Generally a small amount of water should be fed first followed by all solid material, preferably fed simultaneously
into the mixture.
The choice of the mixer, depends upon the size, extend and nature of work.
Hand mixing
It’s where concrete is mixed by hands. In this case, the uniformity is hard to achieve
The aggregates should be spread in uniform layer on hard, clean non-porous base.
Cement is then spread on the aggregate and the dry material is mixed by turning it from one end of the
heap to other and cutting with a shovel until the mix appears uniform. Turning three times is usually
required.
Transportation of concrete.
Concrete from the mixer should be transported to the point where it has to be placed as rapidly as
possible. By a method which prevents segregation or loss of ingredients.
Precaution should be taken while transporting concrete to ensure the homogeneity is obtained at time of
mixing ought to be maintained.
Prevention of segregation is the most important consideration in handling and transportation of concrete.
Principles methods of transporting concrete from the mixers

1. Use of handcart/ wheelbarrow – used when transporting concrete to ground level.
2. Use of buckets and cranes
3. Use of belt conveyors – used in transporting fairy stiff concrete. When using conveying belt, it is
necessary that the flow of concrete be continuous to minimize effect of segregation.
4. Use of a chute – used when concrete is to be used in a surface below the ground level i.e
basements and foundations
5. Truck mixer.
6. Use of hoist and skip – lifts concrete to higher heights.
7. Use of pumps and pumpline.
Pumped concrete
Pumping of concrete through steel pipeline is one of the successful methods of transporting concrete.
Pumped concrete has largely been used in construction of multistoried buildings, tunnels and bridges.
Problems arising in pumped concrete

Although the method of transporting and placing of concrete by pumping is fast and efficient, a small
part of un-pumpable mix in hopper can block the pump leading to blockage.
High temperature may cause blockage.
A pipeline not well cleaned after previous operation may cause blockage.
Terms used in pumped concrete

1. Ready mixed concrete:- a concrete whose component are weight – batched at central batching
plant mixed either at its plant itself and then transported to the building site and delivered in a
condition ready to use.
2. Proportioning of ready mixed concrete;- it aims at obtaining an economical and combination of
materials to produce concrete with properties desired for the intended use such as workability,
strength, durability and appearance.
3. Production of ready mixed concrete.
There are three categories of ready mixed concrete:-
a) Transit mix
Materials are batched at central plant and are mixed during the period of transit from the site.
It’s also referred to as track mixed or dry batch concrete.
b) Shrink mixed concrete.
Concrete that is partially mixed in stationary plant, mounted mixer and then discharge into the
drum/truck for completion of mixing.
c) Central mixed concrete:
Includes a stationary plant mounted mixer that mixes concrete before it is discharged into a
truck mixture.
Advantages of central mixed concrete.
1. Faster production capacity than transits mixed concrete.

2. Improved concrete quality.
3. Reduced wear on the truck mixer drum.

4. Delivery of ready mixed concrete. It is brought to the construction site in a truck mounted rotating
mixture.
5. Ready mixed concrete specification for discharge on the construction site is 90 minutes and before
300 revolutions and before water is added to cement.
Inspection and testing

Since the ready mixed concrete (rmc) is a manufactured product, specification test and evaluation are
required during the manufacturing process to produce high quality concrete. Some important properties of
concrete that are measured by basic quality control test are
1. Strength
2. Temperature
3. Slump test
4. Air content
5. Unit weight.
MIXING OF CONCRETE
Drum Mixer
The first type is the drum mixer, which can be classified as non-tilting, split drum, or titling drum mixers, as
well as truck mixers or reversing drum mixers.
Type of Mixer Characteristics

Tilting drum mixer They are most suitable in most project for concrete with large
sized aggregate and medium since they have a rapid discharge
rate, are suitable for low workability concrete.
- Internal blades lift and tumble the ingredients onto itself. Two
primary types exist:
- It has single drum where materials are charged and discharged
through a single opening
Non-tilting mixer - It is a Single drum rotating about a horizontal axis.

- Fixed blades works on concrete towards the discharge end of the
mixer, in order to provide a rapid rate of discharge.
Reversing drum mixer Rotate in one direction for mixing and in the reverse direction for
discharge
One set of blades exists for each operation. Provide efficient
mixing with very little build up within the mixer. Are suitable
with dry concrete mixes.
Drum Truck Mixers There are of Two types: rear discharge commonly used and front
discharge. Both utilize fins to mix and discharge the concrete and
are powered by engine driven-variable speed hydraulic systems.
Pan Mixer
A forced movement pan mixer has blades that are fixed to an assembly that agitates the concrete throughout
the pan as the vertical shaft rotates. This mixer is most common where stiff or zero slump mixes are
prevalent. "They have not gained acceptance in ready mix production because of the small size and
reputation for high blade and liner wear Pan Mixers are most commonly found in precast concrete plants.
Continuous Mixer
The final type is the continuous mixer. A free-falling continuous mixer is a gravity-fed mixer, classified by
its continuous movement.
In this process the charging of materials and discharging of the mixed concrete is released in one,
uninterrupted process. Continuous mixers utilize a continuous weigh batching system as well.
Materials are typically fed into the mixer by a conveyor system. This mixer is most suitable when large
quantities of mass concrete are required (i.e. dams, foundations, retaining walls and mass concrete filling).
Factors to consider when choosing a mixing plant
1. Output capacity
2. Efficiency
3. Availability
4. Performance /Cost ratio
5. Portability of machine
6. Nature of Construction environment.

CALCULATING OUTPUT OF CONCRETE MIXERS
Calculating output of a mixer of 200 liters capacity per day
Time required for one batch of concrete
1. Raising skip, discharging into drum and lowering = ½ min

2. Adding water and mixing in the drum (During this time the skip is reloaded) = 2 min
3. Discharging content of drum and completing loading of skip = ½ min
Then total time required for one batch of concrete = ½ + 2 + ½ = 3 min
In a day of 8 hours there will be effective mixing for 7 hours. One hour being occupied in clearing drum,
chutes, etc and starting and oiling the engine.
No. of batches in one working hour = 60/3 = 20 (considering 3 minutes mixing cycle)
No. of batches in 7 hours = 20 x 7 = 140
Considering 90% efficiency, output per batch = 200 x (90/100) = 180 litres
Output per day = 180 x 140 = 25200 litres = 25.2 cu-m (say 25 m3)
CALCULATING TIME REQUIRED TO COMPLETE A JOB

Output also enables to calculate time required to complete a job. The following example illustrates this.
Find the working hour required to complete a concrete slab 30 m * 50 m & 0.20 m size using 200 T mixer.
With three minute cycle time for one complete operation,
The output per hour = 20 * 180 = 3600 litres i.e. 3.6 cubic meters
So number of working hours = (30*50*0.2)/3.6 = 83.3 hours
Compaction
It is done to remove entrapped air and set particles of fresh concrete in motion reducing friction between
them. Insufficient compaction increases the permeability of concrete resulting in easy entry for aggressive
chemicals which attack concrete and reinforcement hence reducing the durability of the concrete. In order to
achieve full compaction and maximum density with reasonable compacting effort available at site, it is
necessary to use a mix with adequate workability.
The mix should not be too wet for easy compaction which also reduces the strength of concrete. There are
two main methods of compacting concrete they include:-
1) Hand compaction.
2) Machine compaction.
Hand compaction
It is adopted in case of an important concrete work of small magnitude. Also applied where a large
quantity of reinforcement is, which cannot ne normally compacted by mechanical means.
It consist of rodding (poking the concrete to pack it between the reinforcement and sharp corners and
edges)
Tamping (adopted where thickness of concrete is comparatively less and surface to be finished is
required to be smooth and leveled). It consists of beating the top surface by wooded cross beam.
Ramming adopted where the reinforcement may be disturbed or formwork may fail.
Machine compaction
Its advantages include.
a) Permit use of less water hence concrete of high strength

b) It makes it possible to place economically concrete which is impracticable to place with hands.
c) Improves durability of structures
There are various types of vibrators
1) Internal vibrators
2) External vibrators
3) Table vibrators
4) Surface vibrators
Internal vibrators (needle vibrator)

It essentially consist of power unit that may be electrically driven or operated by petrol engine, a flexible
shaft which is attached to eccentric weight that cause vibration and a needle which can be preplaced by a
blade to facilitate vibration of members.
It has the following advantages:-
1) Can be shifted from one place to another

2) Can be used in difficult position and situations
3) Speed is relatively constant.
External vibrator/ from work vibrators

The machine is damped on the external surface of formwork. Vibrator is attached to the formwork so that
concrete near the shutters gets vibrated.
Adopted where reinforcement and spacers interfere much with the internal vibrators and it provides a good
finished to the concrete surface. Though its efficiency is lower than that of internal vibrator.
Table vibrator.
The table is clamped to the table or table mounted on springs which are vibrated transforming the vibration
to the table.
It is commonly used for vibrating concrete cubes.
Surface vibrator
It’s a vibrator placed on a screed board and mostly used in floor and slabs whose thickness is small.
Platform vibrator
It is just like the table vibrator but larger in size.
Compaction by pressure
Mostly used for compacting hollow blocks or cavity blocks where stiff concrete is used by employing great
pressure, where the ratio of water to cement is low.
Safety precautions dealing with concrete and concreting plants
Cement Dust
Hazard: Exposure to cement dust can irritate eyes, nose, throat and the upper respiratory system. Skin
contact may result in moderate irritation to thickening/cracking of skin to severe skin damage from chemical
burns. Silica exposure can lead to lung injuries including silicosis and lung cancer.
Solutions:
 Rinse eyes with water if they come into contact with cement dust and consult a physician.
 Use soap and water to wash off dust to avoid skin damage.
 Wear a P-, N- or R-95 respirator to minimize inhalation of cement dust.
 Eat and drink only in dust-free areas to avoid ingesting cement dust.
Wet Concrete
Hazard: Exposure to wet concrete can result in skin irritation or even first-, second- or third-degree
chemical burns. Compounds such as hexavalent chromium may also be harmful.
Solutions:
 Wear alkali-resistant gloves, coveralls with long sleeves and full-length pants, waterproof boots and
eye protection.
 Wash contaminated skin areas with cold, running water as soon as possible.
 Rinse eyes splashed with wet concrete with water for at least 15 minutes and then go to the hospital
for further treatment.
Machine Guarding
Hazard: Unguarded machinery used in the manufacturing process can lead to worker injuries.
Solutions:
 Maintain conveyor belt systems to avoid jamming and use care in clearing jams.
 Ensure that guards are in place to protect workers using mixers, block makers, cubers and
metalworking machinery such as rebar benders, cutters and cage rollers.
 Establish and follow effective lockout/tagout procedures when servicing equipment.
 Be sure appropriate guards are in place on power tools before using them.
Falling Objects
Hazard: Workers may be hit by falling objects from conveyor belt systems, elevators or concrete block
stacking equipment.
Solutions:
 Avoid working beneath cuber elevators, conveyor belts and stacker/destacker machinery.
 Stack and store materials properly to limit the risk of falling objects.
 Wear eye protection when chipping and cleaning forms, products or mixers.
Poor Ergonomics
Hazard: Improper lifting, awkward postures and repetitive motions can lead to sprains, strains and other
musculoskeletal disorders.
Solutions:
 Use hand trucks or forklifts when possible.

 Lift properly and get a coworker to help if a product is too heavy.
 Avoid twisting while carrying a load. Shift your feet and take small steps in the direction you want to
turn.
 Keep floors clear to avoid slipping and tripping hazards.
 Avoid working in awkward postures.
Confined Spaces
Hazard: Mixers and ready-mix trucks have confined spaces that pose safety risks for workers.
Solutions:
 Follow established procedures for confined space entry and work to assure safety.
 Guard against heat stress when cleaning truck mixer drums.
 Wear appropriate protective equipment to avoid silica exposure when removing concrete residues
from inside truck mixer drums.
Vehicles
Hazard: Poorly maintained or improperly handled vehicles can lead to crushing injuries at the plant site or
other injuries for truck drivers.
Solutions:
 Make sure back-up alarms on all vehicles are functioning.

 Avoid overloading cranes and hoists.

 Use care with the load out chute on concrete mixers to avoid injuries to hands and fingers.
 Beware of hot surfaces on equipment and truck components.
 Guard eyes against splashes of aggregate materials during loading and unloading.
 Use hearing protection if needed to guard against excessive noise exposure during cement
loading/unloading and while using pneumatic chippers inside truck mixer drums.
General Precautions
 Be sure you understand how to perform all your tasks and how to use tools and equipment safely.
 Follow confined space procedures when cleaning and working in mixer drums, hoppers, tanks and
other places with potentially serious mechanical hazards, such as blades or sloping sides which may
entrap employees, or atmospheric hazards, such as oxygen deficiency.
 Wear appropriate personal protective equipment to avoid being injured by flying or falling objects.
Vehicle Safety
 Be sure that trucks and other vehicles are in good working order, including audible back-up warning
signals, before operating them.
 Avoid overloading hoists, cranes and forklifts.
Machine Safety
 Use lockout/tagout procedures to de-energize conveyors and other machinery before attempting to
free any jams.
 Secure chutes and hatches to reduce injuries from swinging parts.
 Make sure guards are in place to protect you from moving parts of machinery and tools before you
operate the equipment.
Overhead Hazards
 Be sure that form work, casting and stressing operations are adequately braced and chocked to avoid
sudden release of materials.
 Make certain that rigging is in place to protect against falling objects and materials during hoisting
and stacking procedures.
 Do not walk or work under overhead loads.
A concrete plant can be a great asset in a construction site in ensuring that we get fresh and high quality
concrete. However, you need to make sure you follow the correct safety precautions
The following are potential hazards:-

1) Cement dust- which may cause eye, skin and respiratory tract irritation
2) Poor ergonomic – over exertion and awkward posture of lifting items may cause back pains and
bending.
3) Wet concrete may cause chemical burns and also skin irritations
4) Machines guarding – safety guards should be placed in the equipment
5) Noise exposure
6) Floor and wall opening
PRECAST CONCRETE
Precast concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a re-usable mold/ form which is
the cured in a controlled environment (pre-cast plant) transported to the construction site and lifted into
place. Building component are manufactured in a central plant and later brought to the building site for
assembling.
In-situ concrete is placed where it will harden to become an integral part of the structure. Concrete is poured
into forms works at the building site to come up with the specific component. A mold is a hollowed out
block that is filled with a liquid material such as ceramic glass/metal. The liquid hardens/ sets inside the
mold adopting its shape. The process is called molding.
PRECAST COMPONENTS
1. Beams
2. Columns
3. Floors slabs i.e hollow pots waffles
4. Wall e,g single, double, sandwich cantilevers
5. Staircase.
REASONS FOR USING PRE-CAST CONCRETE

1. Reduced time and cost
2. Repeatability – easy to make many copies of some pre-cast product by maximizing repetition
3. Quality – precast in manufactured in a controlled casting environment hence quality can be
controlled and monitored more easily.
4. Durability- the structural structure strength and density of pre-cast concrete is higher than that of in-
situ, hence more durable.
5. Aesthetic – precast concrete provide the designer with unlimited architectural expression hence an
appealing and good appearance.
6. Element resistance e.g fire
7. Can carry pre-installed utility services
ADVANTAGES OF PRECAST CONCRETE UNITS

1. No need to provide joint in the precast construction
2. The labour required can be easily be trained
3. Desired shape and finish can be given with accuracy
4. Concrete produced is of superior quality due to the better control on the concrete production in the
factory.
5. The precast structure can be dismantled when required and they can be suitably used elsewhere.
6. Reduced amount of scaffolding and formwork on site
7. Less time is required to complete the work.
DISADVANTAGES OF PRECAST CONCRETE UNITS

1. Lack of proper handling may damage the pre-cast unit during transport
2. For lifting and moving of the precast unit special equipment are required.
3. It becomes difficult to produce satisfactory connection between the pre-cast members.
PRODUCTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE UNIT

The individual component are prefabricated offsite then taken to site where they are erected. The process
involved includes;
1. Production of reinforced cages and main connection

2. Assembly of molds – moulds are prepared according to the shape of the product then reinforced
cage is positioned in the partly assembled mold
3. Concrete mixing:- concrete is mixed in the design ratio proportion and placed in the the mould.
4. Compaction of concrete- concrete is places and compacted using high frequency external vibration to
ensure optimum density is obtained.
5. Precast concrete is moves to the storage area. Once an appropriate strength has been reached the pre-
cast units are moved to the storage area.
6. Storage of the precast concrete unit. The finished components are stacked on cleaned batterns or
plastic pads. Positioned to suit the design of the component. Care is taken to keep the stacks and
ensure batterns are placed directly above one another
7. Transportation to site. The components are delivered to site in a pre-determined sequence to ensure
that hardened concrete is ready for instant erection at site.
8. Erection- at site component are erected straight from the lorry leading to factors erections reduced
site activities.

The commonly used method for precast concrete plant is pallet circulation, which involves production
done on site casting pallets that are transported in a circuit from station to station. It ranges from low
level of automation to fully automated pallet circulation system.
MATERIAL FOR FIXING PRECAST UNIT

They must be corrosion resistance, have sufficient strength and good workability. They include;
1. Fixing sockets:-
They are used for attaching and fixing objects to pre-cast concrete such as lighting fixtures and rays.
They are mainly divided into
i) Cast in tubular sockets
It provide threaded fixing in finished concrete unit
ii) Cast in solid rod sockets
Are heavy duty fixings mostly used in architectural fixing units.
2. Ties
They connect a façade and an inner panel of a wall together.
3. Connecting loop
They connect the vertical joints of pre-cast wall panel to each other they are single wire loops which
can be applied on walled column joints.

PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE
Pre- stressing is the technique of introducing stress into a structural member during construction to improve
its strength and performance.
Is a method in which compressive stress or forces are introduced to a reinforced concrete section or a plain
concrete artificially mostly used in reinforced concrete members e.g beams wall panel e.t.c. these is done by
application of predetermine forces or moment to a structural member in a such a manner that combines with
internal stresses resulting from any anticipated external loading which should be within elastic limit.
Concrete being strong in compression but very weak in tension thereby having a need to introduce stress
either by pre-tensioning or by post tensioning.

METHODS OF PRE-STRESSING
Basic Principle of Pre-stressing

Concrete is very strong in compression but weak in tension. In an ordinary concrete beam the tensile stress at
the bottom: are taken care by providing standard steel reinforcement
But we still get cracking, which is due to both bending and shear in pre-stressed concrete, because the pre-
stressing keeps the concrete in compression, thus no cracking occurs. This is often preferable where
durability is a concern.

Methods of Pre-stressing
There are two methods of pre-stressing:
 Pre-tensioning: Apply pre-stress to steel strands before casting concrete;
 Post-tensioning: Apply pre-stress to steel tendons after casting concrete
Pre-tensioning
Steel tensioned before casting the concrete. Strands are tensioned, concrete is cast around the strands, and
then the strands released when concrete attains required strength. As the bond between the tendons and
concrete are resisting the shorting of the tendons the concrete is compressed. Pre-stressing force introduced
into concrete by bond:
 Anchoring of tendons against the end abutments
 Placing of jacks
 Applying tension to the tendons
 Casting of concrete
 Cutting of the tendons

In pre-tensioned members, the strand is directly bonded to the concrete casted around it.
Therefore, at the ends of the member, there is a transmission length where the strand force is transferred to
the concrete through the bond: At the ends of pre-tensioned members it is sometimes necessary to de-bond
the strand from the concrete. This is to keep the stresses within allowable limits where there is little stress
induced by self with or other loads:

POST-TENSIONED
POST-TENSIONING SEQUENCE
 Casting of concrete.
 Placement of the tendons.
 Placement of the anchorage block and jack.
 Applying tension to the tendons.
 Seating of the wedges.
 Cutting of the tendons.
In this method, the concrete has already set but has ducts cast into it. The strands or tendons are fed through
the ducts (Stage 1) then tensioned (Stage 2) and then anchored to the concrete (Stage 3). The tendons are
stretched and anchored at the end of the concrete members after the member has been cast and attained
sufficient strength. Commonly a metal duct is placed along the member before concrete casting; the tendons
could be preplaced after hardening of concrete. After the concrete has attained the required strength. The
tendons are stressed using pre-stressing jacks at the end of the concrete member and anchored.
Another way
The ducts for the tendons (or strands) are placed along with the reinforcement before the casting of concrete.
The tendons are placed in the ducts after the casting of concrete. The duct prevents contact between concrete
and the tendons during the tensioning operation.
It is usually in-situ operation, used in large projects such as continuous long-span bridges.
• Use metal sheath to form a duct or use plastic duct instead.
• Use small number of large tendons as oppose to large number of strands in pre-tensioned:
 Pre-tensioned rely on bond between concrete and steel thus we wish to maximize bond surface,
whereas in post-tensioned we rely on mechanical anchorage at the ends.
 Fewer larger tendons results in less labor
 In post-tensioned members, tendons are usually grouted after anchorage to prevent corrosion:
 Cement or epoxy grout, called bonded members
 Grease or no g-rout, called un-bonded members
 Grout is pumped into duct under pressure to ensure it’s full. The behavior of bonded and un-bonded is the
same until before cracking, after cracking they are different.

second case:

1. Post – tensioning
The tendons are stretched and anchored at the end of the concrete members after the member has been
cast and attained sufficient strength. Commonly a metal duct is placed along the member before
concrete casting, the tendons could be preplaced loose inside the duct prior to casting or could be
placed after hardening of concrete. After the concrete has attained the required strength. The tendons
are stressed using pre-stressing jacks at the end of the concrete member and anchored.
Other methods of pre-stressing
i. Thermo pre-stressing by application of electric heat
ii. Pre-bending high strength steel beam
iii. Chemical pre-stressing by means of exposure cement with expanding chemically after setting
Basic principles of pre-stressed concrete
Pre-stressing provides initial stresses controlled in magnitude and direction for counter balancing to a
desired degree stresses resulting from external loading
Three concept are applied to explain and analyze the basic behavior of pre-stressed concrete
A. Stress concept
Pre-stressed concrete is considered as a concrete structure with the tendons supplying the pre-compression
which transforms a brittle material like concrete into elastic ones. Concrete is taken as subject to two
systems of forces i.e internal pre-stressed and external load with the tensile stress is due to external load and
compressive stress due to pre-stress. The cracking of concrete due to loading which may be prevented by
pre-compression provided by the tendons as long as there is no cracks. The stress, strain and deflection due
to the two systems of forces which can be considered separately and super imposed as necessary.
B. Strength concept
Steel and concrete act together while steel taking tension and concrete taking compression so that the
materials form a resisting couple against an external moment. High tensile steel used has to be elongated to a
great deal before its strength is fully utilized. If the high strength tensile steel is embedded in concrete, as in
the case of reinforced concrete.it will crack before full strength of steel is developed; hence it is necessary to

apply pretension on the steel with respect to concrete by pre-tensioning desirable stresses and strain in both
materials is produced hence safe and economical utilization of both materials.
C. Load balancing
Pre-stressing is required to balance the loads on members. Balancing gravity loads helps members under
bending stress such slabs and beams against flexural stresses under given loading conditions enabling
transformation of flexural members to members under direct stress thus simplifying both design and analysis
for complicated structures.
The concept shows the effect of pre-stressing with a parabolic draped tendon (concave upward) is to apply
an upward uniformly distributed loading on the concrete which of course counteracts to some degree. Any
downward externally applied loading.
This concept it is very effective for complicated structures such as continuous beams, rigid frames, flat and
waffle slabs and some thin shells. Therefore design concept tends to balance the external load so that there
will be no deflection taking place within member.
Advantages of pre-stressed concrete over reinforced concrete
1. More durable since there are no tensile cracks whereas in reinforced concrete tensile cracks hence
there is greater danger of adverse environmental effect.
2. Dead weight of pre-stressed concrete is less compared to reinforced concrete members because of
high strength concrete is used
3. In pre- stressed concrete there is improved shear and tension strength
4. It prevent deflection due to reduced cracking
5. Adds protection to the steel.

JOINTS IN CONCRETE WORK
Floors and concrete pavements are constructed generally in alternate bays to allow for the incidental early
shrinkage of concrete. Slab of large dimension and in other special cases, expansion joints are provided to
cater for the expansion and contraction. In pavements proper joints are provided to direct the possible cracks
arising out of expansion and out of thermal expansion and contraction, due to variation in temperature and
also due to long-term drying shrinkage.
Joints can be broadly classified into four categories:
 Construction joints
 Expansion joints
 Contraction joints
 Isolation joints
CONSTRUCTION JOINT
Construction joint is the interface between concrete placements intentionally created to facilitate
construction.
Construction joints are the temporary joints left between subsequent concreting Operations. The joints
should be loaded where concrete is least vulnerable to maximum bending moment. It should be determined
before and after the operation by the designer when used. Joints in beams and slabs should be formed at the
point of minimum shear. It is also not desirable to have the construction joints at the point of maximum
bending moment, therefore the joints may be made at the extreme position of the middle third. Construction
joint should be properly masked when finishing the structure. Badly made and unmasked construction joint
will give an ugly appearance to the concrete construction. The groove may be incorporated at the joint to
make a feature and to hide the joint
VERTICAL JOINTS (BEAM AND SLABS)

The bending stress should act at right angle to the section i.e they act in the direction of the span and do not
affect the bending strength of the section. vertical joint reduce the shear strength of the beam or slab and
hence should be located where the shear stress is least. In most cases, the joint is made at the extreme
position of the middle 3rd of the span to increase shear strength of joints, shear reinforcement or provision of
key should be made, it should be located where it is supported by other members. Example of concrete joint
i. Butt joint
ii. Butt joint with dowel
iii. Tongue and groove
iv. Tie bar

EXPANSION JOINT
An expansion joint: in a concrete structure is a separation provided between adjacent section to allow
movement due to dimensional increases and reductions of the adjacent sections and through which some or
all of the bonded reinforcement is interrupted.
In pavement slabs on ground it is a separation between slabs filled with a compressive filler material.

The concrete is subjected to volume changes due to many reasons so we have to cater this by weigh of joints
to relieve the stress. Expansion is a function of length, the buildings longer than 45m are generally provided
with one or more expansion joint. The joints are formed by providing a gap between the building parts

CONTRACTION JOINT (DUMMY JOINTS OR CONTROL JOINTS

Construction joint: is formed, sawed or tooled groove in concrete structure to create a weakened plane to
regulate the location of cracking resulting from the dimensional change of different parts of the structure.
It’s a sawed, formed, tooled or grooved in a concrete slab that creates a vertical plane. Concrete undergoes
plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage as a result of which concrete shrinks. When shrinkage is restrained,
stresses are developed which result in the formation of cracks. To avoid these cracks, contraction joints are
provided. Normally, the interval at which these joints are provided will vary from 5 to 10 meters. In it
regulates the location of cracking caused by dimensional changes in the slab. Unregulated cracks can grow
and result in an acceptable rough surface as well as the water infiltration into the base, sub base and sub
grade which can enable other types of pavement distress. They are the most common types of joint in
concrete to the pavement, thus the generic term “joints” generally referring to a contraction joint. They are
chiefly defined by their spacing and method of load transfer/they are generally between ¼-1/3 the depth of
the slab and typically spaced every 3.1 to 15m
Isolation joint in concrete
An isolation joint. Is a separation adjacent sections of concrete structure to allow relative movement in three
dimension and through which all of the bonded reinforcement is interrupted.
These are joint that isolate the slab from a wall column or drain pipe. They have one very special purpose i.e
to isolate the slab from something else. This can be a drain pipe. Here are a few things to consider with
isolation joint.
1. Walls and columns which are on their own footings that are deeper than the slab subgrade and not
going to move the same way a slab does as it shrinks or expands from drying or temperature changes
or as the subgrade compresses a little.
2. If slabs are connected to wall or column or pipes as they contract or settle there will be restraint
which usually cracks the slab although it could also damage pipe (stand pipes or floor drains)
3. Expansion joints in concrete pavement are also rarely needed, since the contraction joint opens
enough (from drying shrinkage) to account for temperate expansion. The exception might be where a
pavement or parking lot are next to a bridge or building than we simply use a wider isolation joint
(maybe ¾ inch) instead of a ½ inch.

4. Blows up, from expansion of concrete due to hot weather and sun are more commonly caused by
contraction joints that are not sealed and that fill up with non-compressible materials ( rocks, dirt)
they can also be due to very long un-jointed section.
5. Expansion joints are virtually never needed with interior slabs, because the concrete does not expand
that much and it never get hot.
6. Isolation joint are formed by placing preformed joint material next to column or wall/stand pipe prior
to casting the slab. Isolation joint material typically asphalts impregnant board, although plastic,
coke, rubber and neoprene can be used. Joint must go all the way through the slab, stating at the sub-
base but should not exceed above the top.
Joints in water reservoir and water wall

This joint should be made water proof by inserting a copper strip across the joint. The strip is kept losses by
providing a loop at center and thus it can provide for movement of wall. The loop is endorsed by soft mastic
around it and kept towards the water surface of the wall. The floor slab is laid separately and a proper joint is
given between it and wall base. When the concrete has hardened the joint is filled with a plastic material
which may remain at all time at all temperatures.
Joints in the road surface.
In this case, the area is divided into panel and each panel is casted separately, from the other. Some plastic
materials e.g bitumen, cork is filled in the joints between the panels. This allows free movement of each
panel and saves it from cracking. The edges of each panel are prevented from damage by filling enough
bitumen in the joints. In case of roads having heavy traffic, the edges are further reinforcement by providing
iron built in the slab during concreting.
Joints in floor and pavements

Proper joints are provided to take care of the cracks developed due to thermal expansion and contraction
they are constructed in alternate base to minimize the early shrinkage of concrete
Horizontal joints [walls and columns]

They should be horizontal and provided at the floor level of lintels or still level of window .no joints should
be made at the corner since it’s difficult to tie corners together.

FIXING OF PRECAST CONCRETE
This provides practical guidance and set minimum standards for the safe handling, transporting and erection
of precast concrete elements
Definition of terms
1. Brace- means a member placed diagonally with respect to the vertical plane of a precast component and
rigidly fixed to provide stability
2. Builder – person who is engaged to do any building works using precast concrete component
3. Competent – a person who has acquired knowledge and skill through combination of qualification,
training and experiences to perform the task required.
4. Crane – it’s a powered device that is equipped with mechanical means for raising or lowering loads
suspended by means of a hook or other load handling device.
5. Cyclic - a reversing/recurring load.
6. Dunnage – a timber (normally) material stored under or between precast concrete element to prevent
damage or instability during storage and transportation.
7. Riggers – a person who has been instructed in the proper selection of slings and the slinging of loads and
who understands the crane with which he is working
8. Element – an individual precast concrete unit e.g column, beams stairs e.t.c
9. Leveling shim – means a single or series of thin strips of suitable material that are used under elements
to assist with final positioning
10. Prop – means a member of specific design used to support a precast concrete element.
11. Strong back – means a line drawing of a precast element used in the manufacturing process to describe
details.
12. Tag line – a rope attached to the load to be used to control the load during rifting or positioning
13. Tilt slab – a concrete element normally cast in a horizontal position at or near its final location. Lifted to
the vertical position with one edge remaining on the casting floor.

Precast element design
The design and construction of all precast concrete must be in accordance with the overall building design
loads during construction of precast concrete.
Elements may include (but may not be limited):-
i. Variation in load distribution (with time) during construction e.g variation in propping loads due to
the effect of pre-stressing.
ii. Loading on the bracing inserts, lifting inserts, lifting gear and precast elements from the dead load,
the sling angle and any extra – ordinary dynamic load or impact load applied through handling
A. Lifting from casting bed

When lifting pre-cast concrete element from a casting bed, an allowance should be made from suction or de-
moulding forces. This allowance typically add 10 -50% to the weight of the element. When determining the
size and shape of pre-cast element, consideration should be given to factors affecting safety including:-
i. Size of crane available to undertake erection.

ii. Access to and around the site
iii. Propping and bracing requirements
iv. Transport restrictions
Where element are designed to be cast offsite, the designer should consider the effect of authority limit on
length, width, height and weight. Consideration also needs to be given to the availability of suitable and
adequate transport equipment. Joint widths between adjacent precast elements should be sufficient to allow
self-alignment during erection and to accommodate tolerances.
B. Reinforcement design
Addition reinforcement may be required in the following instance for safe handling and propping of
elements
a) A temporary support point

b) Where temporary support conditions results in stress greater than those on the final structure that was
designed for
c) For handling elements which do not achieve their full strength until built in e.g partial heights precast
beams

C. Thin panel
Generally designed as un reinforced element for handling and erection unless pre-stressed. The designer
should consider the consequences of inadvertent overloading and cracking of such element during handling
and should provide reinforcement where necessary to limit sudden catastrophic collapse. When panel are
being handled, flat off a casting bed or trunk. The center of the lifting inserters should coincide with the
center of gravity of the pre-cast element. When a panel is to be lifted and then tilted to a vertical position, in
one operation, the panel may only be lifted using two cranes hooks. This panel and the lifting inserters must
be designed for that purpose. To tilt up panels, the center of the lifting inserters should normally be at least
300mm closer to the top of the panel than the COG of the panel so that the suspended panel will hang near
the vertical
D. Lifting inserts
When choosing the number of lifting inserts to be used in elements consideration should be given to the
lifting inserts capacity. The total weight of the element, their length and height, the position of any cast out
and opening and rogging arrangement. Additional lifting inserts are often added for multiple lifts for de-
molding from the bed. Handling transportation and erection. Lifting inserts should be designed with a
minimum factor of safety of three unless they are to be used for multiple lift application e.g re-usable
manhole cover, concrete counter weights, in which case, they should be designed with a factor of safety of
five. All lifting inserts requires adequate embendement/ anchorage to function effectively.
Anchorage is affected by:-
1. Proximity to edges
2. Proximity to hole, recesses or edges rebates
3. Proximity to other lifting devices that are loaded concurrently
4. Concrete thickness
5. Embedded depth
6. The presence of cracks
7. Tension on stresses in the concrete around anchorage
8. The proximity of reinforcement/ pre-stressing tendons

BRACING DESIGN
They shall be designed for winds and construction load. Is a common practice to adopt design wind load of
0.5kpa per temporary condition during erection
Where the temporary bracing is expected to provide support extended periods (more than two weeks)
considerations must be given to a more accurate determination of wind load in accordance with appropriate
code.
Consideration should be given to the risk and consequence of failure. Awareness should be made for higher
loads due to local effect such as wind funneling
BRACE ACCESSORIES
1). Pin
A 16mm steel pin that slides through the inner and outer sleeve to hold the brace at the correct length. One end is
bent so that the pin cannot slide right through and the other end has a small hole drilled right through to take the
lock.
2). Lock
It passes through the drilled hole in the pin to prevent the pin from being removed. Designed to keep
concrete slurry out of the lock.
3). Lock key
A Key to unlock the brace pin lock.
4). Knee Brace bracket
Bracket to hold the smaller brace to the main brace
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF BRACING A CONCRETE ELEMENT

The designer must analyze all limit states and failure mechanisms.
Strength Considerations:
1. Brace strength:
A number of components contribute towards a Braces’ capacity.
i). Connection to the element

ii). Connection to the dead man/ slab or footing
iii).Brace pin
iv). Welds on the brace
v). Brace foot bolt
2. Concrete strength:
If the concrete ruptures it will cause the bottom or top connection to fail. The concrete strength must have
the capacity to withstand the brace load.
3). Design for brace strength:

Select the appropriate Brace to match the total load of the element.
When a Knee Brace is installed with a Brace, consideration must be given to the working load limit (WLL) of
both Brace & Knee Brace (AS3850, AS1170, AS4100 & AS3600).
4. Design for concrete strength:
Correctly installed Braces transfer the applied load to the concrete element. Should the applied load exceed the
Brace capacity and concrete strength the connection will fail and the concrete element will fall.
Extra reinforcement or increased concrete strength may be required to prevent connection failure. The design
may still be limited by serviceability.
5. Connection Limit State

The WLL of the specified connections between the concrete element and the Brace must be sufficient to
withstand the factored load. This connection could be a cast in ferrule and high tensile bolt or a mechanical
expansion anchor. When a mechanical expansion anchor is used the Ultimate Load Limit must be total by 1.5
times. Factoring is not required when the Working Load Limit of the anchor is used in calculations.
6. Brace Anchoring Limit State
The WLL of the specified base support for the Brace must be sufficient to withstand the factored load on the
Brace. This could be a dead man specifically poured for the job or existing slab or footing. A design engineer
must specify the Brace anchoring system.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONCRETE LIFTING SYSTEMS

The design engineer must take into account all limit states and failure mechanisms.
The following limit states are to be considered during the design process.
1). Anchor strength
2). Concrete strength

3). Combined anchor strength If a tension bar is to be installed with the anchor, their joint capacity must be
considered.
4). Design for concrete strength
5). Serviceability
6). Anchor robustness and flexibility
7). Fatigue due to multiple lifting and corrosion Provided the Conlift anchor is showing no signs of
corrosion or damage the are safe for multiple lifts.
8). Atmospheric Corrosion All Conlift foot and eye anchors are galvanized (hot dipped) to ensure they are
resistant to atmospheric corrosion. Stainless steel anchors are available for more aggressive
environments.
Configuration of loads/ factored load

1. Generally a minimum of two braces should be used for each panel or element. Where one brace is used
an additional element should be incorporated to safe ground against collapse wall panel or column, it is
common to use two braces at right angle.
2. The designer should note that the recommended support for a brace from a floor to the wall panel is
when the brace forms 3:4:5 triangle i.e a base 3M from panel and extending 4M up the panel in practice
500 – 600 from horizontal is acceptable.
3. In the case of a wall panel, bracing points in the wall should ideally be not less than 67% of the height of
the panel from its base. Under no circumstances should wall panel be placed below mid-panel height
unless this being carried out under strictly controlled condition with special provision having been made
to prevent the base kick-out or panel failure due to bending at the bracing point as shown below.

FW =
FW X 0.5 H
N X 0.67 H
From force = pressure x area
Then force on the wall be pressure of the wind on the wall say FØ
FØ – Must be less than capacity of the brace
FH
FØ
COSØ
H – Panel height
W – Panel width
Ø – Brace angle ( 450 – 600)
Fw – wind loads/ pressure determined by acceptable code
N – number of braces per panel

Braces
All brace:
i). Should have a known safe working load available. In the case of adjustable brace, the safe working load,
at zero extension and maximum extension should be available.
ii). Adjustable brace should have stops in the threads to prevent over extension.
iii).Should have a 0.5 to 2 against ultimate failure.
iv). Should be fixed to solid, flat concrete or other surface that are capable of resisting applied loads.
v). Expansion anchors for brace fixing shall be load controlled i.e an achor where an increase of loads will
result in an increasing wedging force. The permissible loads shall be limited to 65% of the load at which
the anchor exhibit first slip.

Construction methods
Building stability
The builder should ensure the stability of the whole of the building or part of the building being constructed
this is checked by a registered engineer to limit the possibility of collapse at any stage during erection or
construction.
Erection platform
The builder must determine that the erection platform (floor slab) suspended slab or surrounding ground)
can carry the construction and erection loads and provide verification to the crane owner or operator prior to
the commencement of the work.
Suspended slabs are not normally designed to support cranes or transporters. If a suspended slab is used to
support the crane, the slab shall be designed for the point loads applied by the crane’s outriggers wheel loads
or any other construction loads. A temporary propping system may be required for a suspended slab.
Fixing inserts
1). Where permanent fixing or connection are to be utilized, for temporary use during construction. The
builder should verify that the fixing are suitable for the temporary use and will not compromise their
long term performance.
2). To ensure correct fitting, each component of the complete lifting system, anchorage, lifting eye or clutch
and recess formed shall be compatible with each other.
3). The strength of lifting inserts is affected by:
i) Proximity to edges.
ii) Proximity to hole, recess or edge rebates
iii) Proximity to other lifting devices that are loaded co – currently.
Lifting precast elements

Procedure:-
1). Where element are being handled flat off a casting bed or truck, the center of the lifting insert should
coincide with the center of gravity of the precast element. The lifting hook should be directly above the
center of gravity of the element. Running rigging must not be used it would permit the element to tilt in
an uncontrolled manner.
2). Whenever possible, inserts for tilt panel should be designed to suit the common rigging configuration.
The builder shall check that the configuration proposed suit the panel designs.
3). Running rigging is commonly used with tilt panel. The bottom edge must remain on the ground or
platform to maintain control of the element
4). The lifting inserts and the rigging should be so arranged that when the element is lifted, it remains stable
and the bottom edge remains horizontal.
5). Hoop of reinforcement steel shall not be used for lifting, however, the length of pre-stressing strand are
used in some circumstance for handling precast element. They may need to be used with a special lifting
mandrel. To ensure that the strang is not bent around a tight radius. Lifting loop must not be used when
complex tilting maneuvers are being carried out.

6). If precast elements are large or awkwardly shaped, it may be necessary to use strong backs to limit
concrete stress to acceptable levels.
7). If the strong back itself is to be used for lifting, it must be necessary and specifically designed for this
purpose.
8). Strong back connection to the panel should be by way of cast in insert or structural expansion anchor if
structural expansion anchor are used, the working loads should be less than the clamping force provided
by the anchor.
Propping
Propping of beams
1). Propping for beams should allow for possible changes to the distribution of loads during the construction
process.
2). Where beams are post – tensioned, the stressing process can change the shape of the member thereby
reducing the loads on same props and increase the loads to others. This particularly applied where the
stressing induce a camber into the beam which can lift the beam off prop at mid-span transferring all the
loads to the props at the end.
3). Pre cast shell beams are normally pre-stressed which induce a natural camber into the units. In some
cases, propping is lowest slightly at mid-span to allow the beams to deflect to a more labeled shape
during placing of the concrete core and topping to the floor. This will result to much higher than
anticipated load being carried through the temporary props at the ends.
4). The sitting for precast beams may not be suitable to transfer high loads during construction and the
beams will normally require full propping at each end.
5). If the designer of the structure requires the beams to be supported without the use of mid-span props to
reduce the end support dead loads bending (moment) then the requirement must be clearly noted on the
contract drawing and on the precast layout drawing
6). Where beams are to have floor system placed on them prior to the beams, being fully built into the
structure, allowance should be made to the fact that the beam may not be evenly loaded by the floor units
during construction. Long span floor units placed on one side only of a beam may cause the beam to roll
on the props, for this reason each edge of the beam may require temporary propping.
7). Where beams are to support floor unit, allowance must be made for the beams to carry an appropriate
proportion of the construction load from floor. Propping for floors may in some case be intended to only
even out the level of the underside of the floor units and not to take any significant floor load during
construction. This leads to higher anticipated load being carried through the beam propping unless
specifically noted otherwise all temporary propping should be in place , adjusted to the correct levels
allowing for any requires camber and fully braced prior to commencement of erection of any precast
beams.
Propping of precast floor system

Refers to the floor system design for the number and position of temporary support point, if any required for
each unit, during erection and construction of the floor loads to the propping should be calculated by a

competent person unless specifically noted otherwise temporary propping should provide full support of all
construction load including the full self-weight of the completed floor system and possible local
concentration of load during construction. Construction loads may include a pullets of fill stacked on the
partially constructed floor, reinforced steel mech, excess concrete before being spread and leveled and other
loads
Unless specifically noted otherwise, all temporary propping should be in place, adjusted to the correct level
allowing for any required camber and fully braced prior to commencement of erection of any floor unit.
Props should be adequately seated, leveled and capable of transferring the full loads through whatever
structure they are bearing on and into the ground without an acceptable settlement.
Props if required, should be vertical, they should also be braced to prevent side way of the whole assembly
and the buckling of individual props.
Props to floor units should have a suitable top bearer which should be located in the header of the props in
such a way as to prevent rolling of the bearer and to ensure that the loads from the bearer is transferred
concentrically into the prop. The top bearer should be over the center line of the prop otherwise, it may cause
the prop to bend leading to failure.
Floor unit such as the various hollow core systems which are normally erected without temporary props,
may require some amount of temporary propping at mid-span principally to even out natural variations in
camber of the units or for other structural or concentric reasons, with the specific approval of the floor
systems suppliers in each particular instance, it may be satisfactory to erect the temporary props after the
precast floor units are in place and for the props to take only a portion of the full construction load.

Concreting in Extreme Weather Condition
Construction techniques of concreting in extreme weather conditions involve difference between the normal
concreting and extreme weather condition, extreme condition involves:-
1. Extreme Hot Weather Condition.
2. Extreme Cold Weather Condition.
In extreme hot weather concreting the problem is removal of moisture content from the concrete block due
to rise in temperature. This is the serious problem which gives rise to he reduce in strength of concrete.
Higher temperatures cause a faster rate of water evaporation and cement hydration, thereby stiffening
concrete earlier and increasing the Risk
In extreme cold weather concreting temperature drops down so that the setting time of the concrete is
reduced so it becomes very complicated to handle the concrete mix and apply the concrete in the
construction site.
Effect of Hot & Cold Weather in Concreting

Hot weather condition is condition where temperatures are above 40 0 accompanied with the dry air high winds during
concreting period.
Effects of Hot Weather in Concreting
1. Accelerated Setting:-A higher temperature of fresh concrete results in more rapid hydration of cement
and leads to reduced workability, accelerated setting. This reduces the handling time of concrete hence
placing and finishing becoming difficult.
2. Reduction In Strength :-Concrete mixed , place and cured at higher temperature normally develops
higher early strength than the concrete produced and cured at normal temperature but at 28 days or later
the strength are generally lower.
3. Increased Tendency to Crack:-Rapid evaporation may cause shrinkage and cracking and subsequent
cooling of hardened concrete would introduce tensile stresses which is as a result of thermal and plastic
cracking
4. Rapid Evaporation Of Water During Curing Period (increased water demand): - It is difficult to
retain moisture for hydration and maintain reasonably uniform temperature condition during the curing
period.

5. Difficulty in Control of Air Content in Air Entrained Concrete:-It is more difficult to control air
content in air entrained concrete. This adds to the difficulty of controlling workability. For a given
amount of air entraining agent, hot concrete will entrain less air than concrete at normal temperature.
6. Slump loss: - hot weather accelerates slump loss leading to addition of water on the job site.
7. Undesirable surface appearance:-
8. Decreased durability:-
Precautions taken while concreting in hot weather:-

 Moisten / dampen the sub-grade, sub-base, reinforcement and formwork e.t.c
 Erecting wind breakers and sun shades to protect the exposed concrete and limit wind velocity
 Cooling of concrete making ingredient and building units
 Use concrete consistency that allow rapid placement and consolidation
 Completing concreting activities as fast as possible
 Provide sufficient labour.
 Study the weather and if possible avoid concreting in extreme dry weather.
 Immediate cure within two hours after final finishing.
Detrimental condition which affects concreting in hot weather condition:-

 High ambient temperatures
 High wind velocity
 High concrete temperatures.
 Low relative humidity.
Effects of Cold Weather Concrete

The production of concrete in cold weather introduces special and peculiars problem which do not arise
while concreting at normal temperature. Quite apart from the problems associated with setting and hardening
of cement concrete, severe damage may occur if concrete, which is still in the plastic state, is exposed to low
temperature thus causing ice lenses to form and expansion to occur within the pore structure.
Precautions taken while concreting in cold weather:-
 Using high early strength cement

 Providing heaters and insulating materials
 Not placing concrete on frozen ground
 Temperatures of concrete maintained.
In the absence of special precautions, the effect of cold weather concreting may be as follows:-
1. Delayed Setting: When the temperature is falling to about 5 degrees centigrade or below, the
development of strength of concrete is retarded compared with normal concrete.
2. Freezing of Concrete at Early Stage: The permanent damage may occur when the concrete is in fresh
stage is exposed to freeze before certain pre hardening period. Concrete may suffer irreparable loss in
properties to an extent that compressive strength may get reduced to 50% of what could be accepted for
normal temperature concrete.
3. Stresses Due to Temperature Differentials: Large temperature differentials within the concrete
member may promote cracking and affect its durability adversely. The large temperature differentials
within the concrete member may promote cracking and have a harmful effect on the durability. Such
differentials are likely to occur in cold weather at the time of removal of form insulation
4. Repeated Freezing and Thawing ( not becoming frozen):-If concrete is exposed to repeated freezing
and thawing after final set and during the hardening period, the final qualities of the concrete may also be
impaired
Assignment
Concrete curing under extreme hot and cold weather conditions
Curing in Hot Weather
1. Moist curing of fresh concrete during the few hours after finishing operation has completed.
2. Plain gray concrete, use a white pigmented curing compounds that reflect sunshine.
3. Use a curing blanket especially a white one, either the single use or multiple use.
Curing in Cold Weather
1. Maintain a proper water-cement ratio. The water to cement ratio should not be more than 0.40 under
freezing conditions
2. A propane heater and polyethylene enclosure could be used in cold weather climate to maintain
temperatures hot enough, to avoid freezing point.
3. Use Portland cement Type III, cement that helps in setting without reducing concrete’s quality, because
high moisture content can induce corrosion problems in steel reinforcement

4. Avoid using fly ash or slag cement in cold weather. These materials set up more slowly and generate less
internal heat.
N.Bs
Fly ash: - fine powder that Is a by-product of burning pulverized coal in electric generation power plant
Slag cement: - is hydraulic cement formed when granulated blast furnace is ground to suitable fineness and
is used to replace a portion of Portland cement.
Admixtures
Types of chemical
admixture
Surfactants Set controller Others
Water Air Accelerating Retarding Specialty

reducer entrainers
How are the chemical admixtures added to Concrete?

 Added during mixing (usually to mix water)
 Added to concrete after mixing after transporting to site (before casting)
 Always added in small amounts, <1% by weight of cement

Why use admixtures?
Economic - optimized mix design

benefits
Placing of - appropriate workability (consistence), compact ability, cohesion, setting and
concrete strength development
Problem Solving - concrete that will meet special needs for placing or performance
Durability - Ensuring that concrete fulfills its design requirements for the intended life of
the structure
Sustainability - helping to reduce the health and safety aspects of concrete during placing and
environmental impact during its life cycle
Using Admixture in Hot Weather Condition

Higher temperatures cause a faster rate of water evaporation and cement hydration, thereby stiffening
concrete earlier and increasing the Risk.
1). Retarders
These are designed to retard setting times so that the concrete worker has enough time to finish the surface
of the concrete. Retarders temporarily stop the chemical action of hydration but after the planned delay
hardening develops at an accelerated rate.
2). Water Reducing Retarders
Water reducing admixtures improve important properties of concrete in both its plastic and hardened
condition. When wet the handling properties can be greatly improved without the addition of extra water. In
hardened concrete the properties of the concrete are improved because of the more effective dispersion and
hydration of cement.
3). Retarding Superplasticisers

Super plasticizers provide substantial improvements in workability and flow ability without increased water,
this allows for a lower need of vibration. Ideal applications include slender components, columns and beams
with congested reinforcement, situations where concrete discharge is difficult and applications requiring fast
and efficient placement of concrete. Sikament 1000R is an admixture which provides all these benefits as
well as set retardation.
Cold Weather Condition
1). Accelerator
Accelerating admixtures helps reduce the effects of low temperatures by increasing the rate of cement
hydration. This aids in the concrete setting time and the development of early strength in the concrete.
2). Air Entring Agent

Entrained air greatly improves concrete freeze/thaw resistance to damage. It causes millions of extremely
small air bubbles to be introduced into the concrete matrix. This 'entrained' air remains in the concrete where
the larger, naturally 'entrapped ' air will make its way to the concrete surface during normal placing
operations.
3). Superplaticisers
Superplasticsers are high range water reducers. These can lead to a reduction in the water content of a given
concrete mix, but with workability characteristics of a normal slump mix still retained. This is an important
factor in cold weather because if the water/cement ratio of a concrete mix is reduced the resultant concrete
will have enhanced durability and strength characteristics.

UNDERWATER CONCRETING
The underwater concreting techniques designed mostly to prevent cement washout. These methods did not
obtain the full purpose of avoiding cement wash out at early stages of using under water concreting apart
from cases where large masses of concreting were employed.
There are several methods to carry out underwater concreting such as:
1. Tremie method
2. Pumping technique
3. Hydro valve method
4. Pneumatic valve method
5. Skip method
6. Tilting pallet barge method

7. Preplaced aggregate concrete
8. Toggle bags method
9. Bagged concrete method
1). Tremie Method of Underwater Concreting

The tremie pipe is configured in three different ways such as constant length that is raised during concreting,
pipe with different sections which dismantled during concreting and telescope pipe.
Once the pipe reaches the intended position the concrete is poured and break the seal. Then concrete flow
out of the pipe and creating a seal by accumulating around the lower end of the pipe, method is convenient
for pouring large amount of high flowable concrete. The concrete is moved to the hopper by either pumping,
belt conveyer or skips.
Tremie pipe, which upper end connected to a hopper and lower end continuously submerged in fresh
concrete, is used to place concrete at the exact location from a hopper at the surface.
The reason to immerse the tremie pipe lower end is to prevent intermixing of both concrete and water.
As soon as concreting began the pipe mouth should be submerged up to 1- 1.5 m into fresh concrete to
prevent water entering the pipe. The concrete flow rate is controlled by lowering and raising the pipe and
either decrease or increase in concrete discharge indicates the loss of the seal, therefore flow of concrete
should be continuous and carefully monitored. The bulging ( discharge in round form) flow is desired
because it displaced the concrete uniformly which leads to lesser laitance deformation and flatter slopes.
Factors to be considered during Tremie pipe technique of underwater concreting:
1. An aluminum alloy pipe should be avoided as its affected by concrete chemicals and therefore should
have an adequate diameter to prevent blockage because of aggregate size.
2. To avoid intermixing water and concrete in the pipe, a wooden plug of plat is used to seal the end of the
pipe. This prevents entering water in to the pipe and keeps it dry.
Assignment
Advantages: If the work is executed properly, this method has the following advantages:

1. The concrete is not affected by the flowing water, except the top layer. The top layer may be cut off to
remove the affected concrete at the end of the whole operation.
2. Under water concrete dos not need compaction as concrete automatically gets compacted by the
hydrostatic pressure of water.
3. The concrete is of such a high consistency which normally does not require compaction.
Disadvantage:
1. Concreting by tremie method requires high water/cement ratio for obtaining high quality concrete.
2. Reduces the strength of concrete.
N.B
But now, with the use of some plasticizer a concrete with as low w/c ratio as 0.3 or even less can be placed
by tremie method

2. Underwater Concreting using Pumping Technique
Is a developed version of Tremie pipe and it is technique quicker method for concreting in areas that is
difficult to access such as under piers.
Pumping provides several advantages that Tremie pipe is lacking:-
 Pouring concrete from mixer to formworks directly

 Blockages in the pipe is minimized because concreting is through pumping instead of using
gravitational force
 risk of segregation is decreased

3. Hydro Valve Method of Underwater Concreting
A flexible hose which hydrostatically compressed is employed to pour concrete. As soon as concrete placed
in the upper of the pipe, both friction inside the pipe and hydrostatic pressure is overcame by concrete
weight. This leads to movement concrete slowly in the pipe and avoid segregation. A rigid tubular section is
used to seal the end of the hose. This method is not costly and quite simple.

4. Underwater concreting using the pneumatic valves.
Pneumatic valves are joined to the end of the pipe line of concrete. It has two valves which are alike apart
from one which has a sensor that is attached to its ends to close the valve when concrete reach determined
thickness.
The second type of valve is used to pour concrete at a depth of 52m without immersing end of the pipe. The
function of the valves is to permit, restrict, stop the discharge of concrete and this method is the useful
technique.

5. Underwater concreting using the Skips Method
A bucket like is used with double door opening at the bottom and overlapping canvas flaps
which is fitted at the top to prevent concrete washing. The skip is lowered down through water
slowly as soon as it filled with concrete and when it reaches the location the doors are opened
either automatically or manually.
The Skip technique of underwater concreting is suitable for cases where a large mass of concrete
is required for stabilizing foundations and small amount of concrete is needed for different
locations. Shows opened and closed skips.

6. Underwater Concreting using Preplaced Aggregate Concrete
Method is quite good for cases where pouring ordinary concrete is difficult or improbable. It
includes placing aggregate in the forms then injecting concrete into the bottom and filled the
forms to the top.
To prevent trapping water and air, concreting is beings from the bottom. That is why it is
necessary to position the tubes in the forms before placing the aggregate. Concrete strength of
relatively high percent 70 - 100 % can be obtained in this technique.

2. Underwater Concreting using Tilting Pallet Barge.
This technique is useful for shallow water and the concrete is poured in thin layers. Along the deck of
the barge a tilting pallet is constructed upon which concrete is spread uniformly and then fell into the
water freely.

A cofferdam is a watertight, temporary, dam-like structure that is installed to enclose an area that is
submerged under water to create dry conditions for workers to carry out their work. Cofferdams are
built to enable construction in large water bodies like bridge piers, rigs and oil platforms by diverting the
flow of water and pumping out water from the enclosed cofferdam.
A caisson is a watertight retaining structure used on the foundations of a bridge pier, for the
construction of a concrete dam or for the repair of ships.
Caissons are constructed in such a way that the water can be pumped out, keeping the work
environment dry.
The four main types of caisson:
1.box caisson
A box caisson is a prefabricated concrete box (with sides and a bottom); it is set down on prepared
bases. Once in place, it is filled with concrete to become part of the permanent works, such as the
foundation for a bridge pier. Hollow concrete structures are usually less dense than water so a box
caisson must be ballasted or anchored to keep it from floating until it can be filled with concrete.
2.open caisson
An open caisson is similar to a box caisson, except that it does not have a bottom face. It is suitable for
use in soft clays (e.g. in some river-beds), but not for where there may be large obstructions in the
ground. An open caisson that is used in soft grounds or high water tables, where open trench
excavations are impractical, can also be used to install deep manholes, pump stations.A caisson is sunk
by self-weight, concrete or water ballast placed on top, or by hydraulic jacks. The leading edge (or
cutting shoe) of the caisson is sloped out at a sharp angle to aid sinking in a vertical manner; it is usually
made of steel. The shoe is generally wider than the caisson to reduce friction.An open caisson may fill
with water during sinking. The material is excavated by clamshell excavator bucket on crane.
3.pneumatic caisson
A pneumatic (compressed-air) caisson has the advantage of providing dry working conditions, which is
better for placing concrete. It is also well suited for foundations for which other methods might cause
settlement of adjacent structures.
4.monolith caisson.
A monolithic caisson (or just simply a monolith) is larger than the other types of caisson, but similar to
open caissons. Such caissons are often found in quay walls, where resistance to impact from ships is
required.

Underwater concreting techniques are designed mostly to prevent the cement washout.There are
several methods to carry out underwater concreting such as:
1.Tremie method
2.Pumping technique
3.Hydro valve method
4.Pneumatic valve method
5.Skip method
6.Tilting pallet barge method
7.Preplaced aggregate concrete
8.Toggle bags method
9.Bagged concrete method
The underwater concreting techniques designed mostly to prevent cement washout. These methods did
not obtain the full purpose of avoiding cement wash out at early stages of using under water concreting
apart from cases where large masses of concreting were employed.


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CONCRETE MAKING MATERIALS

 Calcareous materials: - Are compounds of calcium and magnesium Limestone being

Table shows the raw materials for Portland cement manufacture

Manufacture of cement is done in 2 main methods:-

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

Si2 Al2(OH)2 - 2SiO2 + Al2O3 + 2H2O

3. Cooling and grinding

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

Calcareous materials Argillaceous materials

(Lime stone) (Clay)

JAW CRASHER JAW CRASHER

JAW CRASHER JAW CRASHER

Gypsum is added to regulate the early setting characteristics of cement.

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

(Lime stone) (Clay)

JAW CRASHER JAW CRASHER

JAW CRASHER JAW CRASHER

WATER Wet grinding or cleaning

GYPSUM CLINCKER GRING MILL

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

 Direct addition of water commonly known as true hydration reaction of hydration.

Major compounds in cement

Major functions and roles of compounds of cement

1. Hydrates and Hardens slowly.

1. Assist in the manufacture of Portland cement by allowing lower clinkering temperature.

Concrete can classified into two

Properties of fresh concrete:-

Fresh concrete should be capable of spreading uniformly without inducing any

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

Advantages of concrete as a construction material.

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

Properties of good concrete

The above can be achieved by the following:

Batching Mixing Transporting Placing Curing Curing Finishing

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

In its hardened state, concrete should be strong, durable and impermeable.

Qualities of a good aggregates for concrete

D. FUNGICIDAL AND INSECTICIDAL

Factors affecting workability of cement

Factors affecting workability

It depends on a number of interacting factors.

Factors affecting bleeding

1. Water content in the mix

If the slump is evenly all around, it is referred to as the true shape.

Mixing/ handing and compaction concrete.

There are four types of batch mixer.

1) Tilting drum mixer

In high speed mixers the mixing time cab be as short as 35 seconds.

The recommended minimum mixing time is show in the table below

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

Principles methods of transporting concrete from the mixers

Problems arising in pumped concrete

High temperature may cause blockage.

Terms used in pumped concrete

Advantages of central mixed concrete.

1. Faster production capacity than transits mixed concrete.

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

Inspection and testing

Type of Mixer Characteristics

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

Factors to consider when choosing a mixing plant

PREPARED BY: MR. ANTONY

So number of working hours = (30500.2)/3.6 = 83.3 hours